Moderation effect of bad mood on relationship between
extraversion and dealing with display rules
Matthijs Amir van Westrop 10698698
Economics & Business University of Amsterdam Daphne Dekker
Statement of Originality
This document is written by Matthijs Amir van Westrop who declares to take full responsibility for the contents of this document.
I declare that the text and the work presented in this document are original and that no sources other than those mentioned in the text and its references have been used in creating it.
The Faculty of Economics and Business is responsible solely for the supervision of completion of the work, not for the contents
Table of content
Abstract 4
Introduction 5
Job satisfaction, job performance and guest satisfaction 7
The influencers of job satisfaction 9
Dealing with display rules 10
Personality and surface/deep acting 11
Mood 13
Methodology 15
Results 17
Discussion 21
Practical implications 24
Limitations and recommendations for further research 25
Conclusion 27
Abstract
The goal of this research was to find if bad mood could impact the relation between personality and emotion regulation within the hospitality industry. Working in the hospitality industry requires employees to follow certain guidelines on how to interact with guests, called display rules. Since the felt emotions of employees don’t always align with the emotions they are required to show, tactics are used to still comply with the set display rules. This is done through surface acting, faking emotions by changing facial expression, or deep acting, where the employee tries to modify their felt emotions to match with the emotions they need to show. Surface acting has been proven to cost more emotional labor making it a less favorable option. Extraverted personalities have been proven to use deep acting more often, so businesses test for personality to find out whether a new employee fits well within the organization. This research adds to these finding by testing a moderation effect of bad mood. It was found that bad mood has a significant effect on the relation between extraversion and deep acting, causing deep acting to go down as extraversion goes up when a high bad mood is experienced. This implies that when employers look for these personalities during the hiring process, possible ways for taking away a bad mood should be thought of in order to keep the benefits of hiring extraverted people in the hospitality industry.
1. Introduction
In a research conducted in the UK by Perkbox (Morningadvertiser, 2018) it came out that businesses in the hospitality sector didn’t help their staff with stress related issues, stating that 64% of hospitality companies did nothing about stress, despite alarming numbers like 39% of hospitality employees suffering from anxiety, 27% having difficulties with their productivity and 21% looking for a new job (Morningadvertiser, 2018). This is worrying because stress leads to a lower job satisfaction which ultimately leads to lower guest satisfaction (Homburg & Stock, 2004; Sullivan & Bhagat, 1992). Although more companies should offer their staff help with dealing with stress, it could be more interesting to prevent it in advance, taking away the roots of the problem before it can develop into serious issues like employee sick leave and turnover.
To do this, first it has to be determined what causes stress for these hospitality employees. Although stress can be caused by many things, stress felt on the work floor should be the first thing managers are able to exercise control over. While examining existing literature a term that keeps on being linked to causing stress in hospitality employees is emotional labor, explained as the act of employees to manage their own emotions to achieve desired customer response (Ashford & Humphrey, 1993). These desired emotions are the rules set by a company for its employees on how to deal with the guests, formerly called “feeling rules” (Hochschild, 1983) and renamed by Ashford & Humphrey (1993) to display rules. An example of common display rule in the hospitality industry is displaying cheerful and friendly emotions while helping a guest, with the purpose of the guests taking over these positive emotions (Chen, Sun, Lam, Hu, Huo & Zhong, 2012). Service with a smile, as Barger and Grandey (2006) call it had previously been linked to higher customer satisfaction (Shaw Brown & Sulzer-Azaroff, 1994).
Because a service employee’s own emotions don’t always match with the required display rules, they sometimes fall back on a type of acting to comply with those display rules (Grandey, 2003). According to Grandey (2003) this can be done in two possible ways, surface acting and deep acting. Surface acting can be explained as faking your facial
expressions, whereas employees who use deep acting try to match their own feelings with the required emotions. An extensive amount of research on these two types of acting has been done and numerous researchers have come to the conclusion that surface acting requires more emotional labor than deep acting, causing more stress among the people who engage in this surface act (Allen, Pugh, Grandey & Groth, 2010; Chen et al, 2012; Grandey, 2003; Kim, 2008; Lee & Ok, 2012; Pienaar & Willemse, 2008). Lee and Ok (2012) also provide a
possible explanation for why surface acting causes more stress by showing a positive association between emotional dissonance (suppressing or faking your true emotions to comply with display rules) and emotional exhaustion.
To avoid this problem a company could look for employees who are more likely to use deep acting as a way of dealing with a guest. This is possible because both deep and surface acting have been linked to different factors of the Big five personality traits. In a research done by Austin, Dore and Donovan (2008) a positive relation between extraversion and deep acting was found, as well as a positive relation between neuroticism and surface acting. A possible reason for people scoring high on neuroticism to engage in surface acting is that their inability to regulate their own emotions well causes them to only manipulate their facial expressions instead of trying to match their own emotions with the required ones (Austin, Dore and Donovan, 2008). In a prior research, conducted by Diefendorff and Richard (2003) a positive relation between extraversion and perceived demands to express positive emotions was found, being contributed to the fact that extraverted people in general experience more positive emotions, which align well with the display rules set in most service companies. This is supported by a chapter from the book “The Routledge Handbook of Hospitality Management” written by Dekker (2014). In this chapter she divides hospitable behavior into two components: hospitable service skills and genuine hospitableness, where hospitable service skills can be acquired through training and experience, but genuine hospitableness is related to a person’s personality (Dekker, 2014). She also states that being friendly and talkative are examples of behavior that have been linked to both extraversion and performing well in the hospitality business. So, one can conclude that because of the relatively positive offset that people who score high on extraversion poses due to the positive emotions they generally experience, it makes it easier for these personalities to engage in deep acting instead of surface acting, because their inner feelings align better with the display rules set by a company, ultimately leading to less emotional labor and stress.
One thing that could possibly disturb this process and that hasn’t really been
researched thoroughly are the effects of having a bad mood. If an extraverted person is for a part more likely to engage in deep acting because of their generally positive offset, what happens on a day that this offset isn’t that good because of a bad mood. This research will look into the influence that a bad mood has on extraverted people and the likeliness of them to use surface or deep acting while interacting with guests. The relevancy of this research lies in the fact that some companies use a personality test to determine whether or not to hire someone. If it can be proven that a bad mood can take away the benefits of hiring based on
personality, companies should take this into consideration and try and think of possible ways to stimulate positive affect when an employee arrives at work. This way the benefits of hiring an extraverted person will remain, leading to less experienced emotional labor and less turnover (Allen, Pugh, Grandey & Groth, 2010).
This is a cross-sectional quantitative research, the data will be gathered through survey’s, consisting of three separate tests. The first test is to determine personality, specifically extraversion and neuroticism, part two of the survey is finding out the current mood of the participant with the help of the positive and negative affect schedule (PANAS) developed by Watson, Clark & Tellegan (1988) and the third part is to find out the scores of people on surface and deep acting. Through multiple tests it will be determined if a
moderation effect between extraverted personalities and surface or deep acting is present, to see if reported scores on surface and deep will go up or down, which can cause higher levels of emotional labor.
1.1 Job satisfaction, job performance and guest satisfaction
To be able to understand how mood could be an important factor in the happiness of employees who work in hospitality, you first have to go back to the base of job satisfaction itself, and the role this plays in job performance. Job performance is defined as a customer’s overall evaluation of the performance provided by an organization (Johnson and Fornell, 1991). The influence of job satisfaction on job performance has been researched for over decades, even being labeled as the “Holy grail” of industrial psychologists (Landy, 1989). This extensive amount of research provides a great variety of both qualitative and
quantitative information, differing in how strong the relationship between job satisfaction and performance is. Brayfield and Crockett (1955) for instance concluded that the relationship was not very strong, stating for example that satisfaction of an employee in their organization doesn’t necessarily mean that they have a higher motivation to perform well. So, they could be related, but there was a lack of theoretical explanation on why job satisfaction would influence job performance, but this theoretical gap was later on filled by Judge, Thoresen and Bono (2001), who provided proof of a correlation between these two factors. They concluded that attitudes towards the organization should be related to the employees’ behavior on the job, with job performance as the main focus. These findings were supported by Wright, Cropanzano and Bronett (2007), who stated that job satisfaction is a predicter of job
performance, but only as long as the employee has a high level of psychological well-being. In the hospitality industry job satisfaction has been proven to directly affect customer
satisfaction (Testa, Skaruppa and Pietrzak, 1998) showing the relevancy of job satisfaction in this specific industry. In their research, Testa, Skaruppa and Pietrzak (1998) provide three key areas where hospitality businesses should focus on to increase job satisfaction. These areas are 1) satisfaction with the company; whether the company is concerned with their employees’ well-being and professional development. 2) satisfaction with supervisor; how well the supervisor supports and motivates the employees and the way this is done. 3)
satisfaction with work environment; food quality, time off and quality of work-equipment are examples of factors that have an influence on this. In a research conducted by Tepeci and Bartlett (2002) the term “ideal work setting”, consisting of employee development, fair compensation, honesty and ethics and people orientation was provided as creator of job satisfaction. In a research conducted by Sasser, Schlesinger & Heskett (1997) the service-profit chain model was developed, proving a relationship between service-profit, growth, customer loyalty, customer satisfaction value of goods and services delivered on one side and
employee capability, satisfaction, loyalty and productivity on the other side. Amongst their findings Sasser, Schlesinger and Heskett found a positive relationship between employee satisfaction and customer satisfaction, which according to them were self-reinforcing. One of the explanations offered for this relationship is that employees derive a part of their job satisfaction from meeting a guests’ expectations. In the same research they also show two studies about companies that collected measurements on customer and employee satisfaction, both companies found that divisions or locations scoring relatively high on customer
satisfaction reported higher scores on employee satisfaction as well (Sasser, Schlesinger and Heskett, 1997). So, one can state that job satisfaction and customer satisfaction are related to some extent, and this is important for numerous reasons.
Besides the obvious reason that it is the main goal of for example a restaurant or hotel to please the customers, it also has some organizational benefits. According to Boulding, Kalra, Staelin and Zeithaml (1993) a customer’s overall quality perception predicts this person’s intended behavior, possibly leading to positive word of mouth and higher likeliness of coming back. So, it enhances the customer loyalty, which means that a customer feels that a company meets their wants and needs so well they almost won’t take your competitors into consideration anymore (Rob Smith, 1998). So, all with all it can be concluded that job satisfaction is very important in the hospitality industry, being related to job performance, which ultimately can lead to customer satisfaction and through this to customer loyalty.
1.2 The influencers of job satisfaction
To get a better understanding of job satisfaction, a deeper look into the positive and negative factors influencing job satisfaction is needed, since this can have a big impact on the
performance of the employee itself and with this the company’s overall performance. As mentioned before, Tepeci and Bartlett (2002) describe an “ideal work setting”, where the person-organization fit is the main factor for creating happiness in the workplace. Person-organization fit is explained as being the match between the culture within an Person-organization and the values of an individual (Tepeci & Bartlett, 2002). They concluded that in the preferred culture people listed personal interests high, with factors such as personal
development, fair compensation and honesty playing an important role in what the employees would like the organization to provide.
So, the way the employer threats the employees plays a big role in the level of job satisfaction. Another important factor is the nature of the job itself; how challenging the job is, how much autonomy an employee has to make its own decisions along with the scope and variety of the tasks they have to perform (Saari & Judge, 2004), based on the job
characteristic model developed by Hackman and Oldham in their book about work design and motivation. The reason why some of the points above are linked to job satisfaction is that too much or a lack of some of the points can cause job stress, which has a negative impact on job satisfaction and performance (Chan, Lai, Ko, & Boey, 2000). For instance, according to Chan, Lai, Ko and Boey (2000) work overload or performance pressure was found to be the biggest influencer of work stress and had the strongest relation with job satisfaction in their research. The lack of clarity on how to perform your job, better known as role ambiguity (Beehr, Walsh & Taber, 1976) also leads to higher work stress and lower job satisfaction, although this could be avoided by giving employees more autonomy in their roles (Beehr, 1976).
Another example of how autonomy can help to improve job satisfaction and of great relevance for this current research is provided by Goldberg and Grandey (2007). In their paper they did research about different ways to deal with customers in a call center, by having the participants answer acted phone calls about situations they had just received training about. They made one group of participants follow certain display rules comparable to the ones that are used in the hospitality industry (service with a smile, showing positive emotions and to be enthusiastic) while the other group was given more autonomy on how to deal with the customer, having complete freedom on how to interact with the customer as long as they were being “real and themselves” (Goldberg & Grandey, 2007). Display rules
are, as mentioned before, the rules set by a company for its employees on how to deal with the guests (Ashford & Humphrey, 1993). The goal of the research was to test whether the participants who had to follow the positive display rules during the interaction would experience higher emotional exhaustion. They found this to be true, although the proof was only marginally statistically significant. According to Goldberg and Grandey (2007) this higher experienced exhaustion was due to the degree of surface acting the participants following display rules used in the interactions with the customer.
1.3 Dealing with display rules
Front-line worker in hospitality have a lot of interactions with guests and because working in hospitality is all about the service one delivers, most companies set certain rules on how to deal with a guest properly, rules such as always staying polite and friendly during interactions and smiling while you help a guest (Hochschild, 1983). These are examples of positive display rules, as described before, but display rules don’t always have to be positive, a funeral director for instance has to appear sad and serious to the family in front of him, even though he might be fine himself.
So, in the hospitality industry an employee has to be friendly and cheerful towards the guests, but because they can’t always feel like this, sometimes acting is used to comply with the display rules set by the company. This acting can be done in two different ways: surface acting and deep acting (Hochschild, 1983). With surface acting one tries to portray the required emotions by simulating emotions through the way they present themselves, for example through facial expression, gestures and voice tone. People who use deep acting to comply with the display rules try to modify feelings to actually feel the required emotions, by actively inducing, suppressing or shaping their feelings (Ashford & Humphrey, 1993). So the main difference between these two types of acting is that employees using surface acting feel a discrepancy between the emotions they are required to show and the emotions they feel, which is not the case with deep acting. The effort, planning and controlling needed for these desired emotions is called emotional labor (Morris & Feldman, 1996). Although, according to them both surface acting and deep acting require emotional labor, it costs less emotional labor to display the required emotions when one actually feels them, which is the case with deep acting. Someone who uses surface acting will experience an incongruency between their own emotions and the emotions they are expected to show, which is called emotive or
emotional dissonance (Hochschild, 1983; Lewig & Dollard, 2003; Morris & Feldman, 1996). According to Grandey (2003) this emotional dissonance is caused by two reasons; firstly, the
employee experiences tension caused by the conflict between their true emotion and the emotions they are required to show. Secondly, the effort put in to portray the required emotions taxes the employee’s emotional resources. Emotional dissonance can lead to more experienced emotional exhaustion, which is a state of reduced energy because of the
emotional demands dealing with guests have (Morris & Feldman, 1996). Emotional
exhaustion in its turn can lead to lower job satisfaction and burnout (Boles, Johnston & Hair, 1997), so the effects of using surface acting instead of deep acting can have a big influence on a person’s well-being as well as a company’s results.
Another possible way of dealing with the display rules set by the company is emotional consonance, but in this case no acting is needed. Where surface and deep acting measure the effort put in to deal with the set display rules, emotional consonance measures the absence of this effort. So, emotional consonance is a dimension where it’s not necessary to regulate your emotions because they already match well with the required emotions in that situation (Zammuner & Galli, 2005). One could even state that emotional consonance isn’t a matter of choice or effort, only when a person’s own emotions happen to match the emotions required by the display rules emotional consonance can be achieved. Since no emotional labor is needed for this factor, one could assume that it is the most desirable way of dealing with display rules. This is confirmed by Naring, Briet and Brouwers (2006), who found a positive relation between emotional consonance and personal accomplishment, which in its term has a negative relation with burnout (Maslach & Jackson, 1981). So instead of causing job dissatisfaction through experienced stress due to emotional labor, emotional consonance might actually contribute to job satisfaction. Although links between emotional consonance and personality haven’t been researched thoroughly up till now one could theorize that extraverted people should be the most likely group to experience this state, since their
personality traits in general align well with the emotions that are required by the display rules set in most hospitality businesses.
1.4 Personality and surface/deep acting
With the clear downsides of surface acting one would expect that all employees should try to match their own emotions with the required emotions, but existing literature shows that this is not per se a matter of choice, personal differences cause people to react differently when dealing with regulation of their emotions (Grandey, 2000). An example of this is a person’s level of emotional intelligence, which is the skill to use emotional information while
intelligence can manage their own emotions better making it easier to use deep acting as a way to deal with guests (Mikolajczak, Menil & Luminet, 2007). Affectivity is another
concept that has an influence on a person’s way of dealing with emotions at work. Affectivity is the tendency of a person to experience a particular mood, to express certain emotions and to respond to things in a particular way (Lazarus, 1993) and has two dimensions, a positive or negative affect. People with a high positive affect tend to experience more positive emotions, such as enthusiasm and delight, whereas people with high negative affect experience more negative emotions like irritation and nervousness (Chu, Baker & Murrmann, 2012). Chu, Baker and Murrmann reason that a person scoring high on positive affect struggles less with displaying the required moods while working, because he or she already feels positive which makes it easier to act in a positive manner when interacting with a guest. On the other hand, people with high negative affect have to act more to show positive emotions causing them to use surface acting, leading to a higher sense of emotional dissonance.
So, employees in the service industry act in different ways when they interact with guests, and part of this can be explained with the help of the ‘big 5 personality trait theory”, developed by Costa and McCrae (1985). With their theory they divide a person’s personality traits into five basic dimensions: neuroticism, extraversion, openness to experience,
agreeableness and conscientiousness. These dimensions are of great value for hospitality companies because some dimensions can predict a possible match between a future employee and the company. For example, conscientiousness reflects, amongst other things, the degree to which people are careful, responsible, organized, hardworking and achievement oriented (Barrick & Mount, 1991) and is a good projector of job performance. Extraversion is linked to being outgoing, assertive and talkative and people scoring high on extraversion tend to experience positive emotions (Judge & Bono, 2000). Neuroticism, frequently labeled as emotional stability, includes being anxious, depressed emotional and insecure and has the biggest correlation with life satisfaction (Barrick & Mount, 1991; Judge & Bono, 2000).
According to Dekker (2014) there are two components that help to determine the suitability of an employee in the hospitality industry; hospitable service skills and genuine hospitableness. Hospitable service skills are the specific skills that can be learned to perform well in hospitality (Dekker, 2014), while genuine hospitableness is part of a person’s
character which can’t be developed over years and is the degree to which an employee is naturally inclined to help guests (O’Connor, 2005). Both of these components are linked to dimensions of the big 5. As mentioned earlier, people scoring high on conscientiousness are responsible, organized and hard-working, which all contribute to acquiring the hospitable
service skills needed in for example a restaurant (Dekker, 2014). Extraversion and
neuroticism are linked to genuine hospitableness, where people scoring high on extraversion are more likely to be genuinely hospitable whereas neuroticism has a negative relation with being genuinely hospitable. The social skills that come with extraversion help an employee to deal with guests, where being outgoing, talkative and active is of great importance for
successful service (Dekker, 2014). The negative relation of neuroticism with genuine hospitableness is due to the emotional instability that people with high neuroticism have, making it harder for them to handle their emotions properly and to match their own emotions with the required ones (Dekker, 2014). In this research the main focus is on people’s natural ability to perform well in hospitality and the matching personality dimensions; extraversion and neuroticism.
As stated before, characteristics of extraverted people match well with work in the hospitality industry, while neurotic people tend to struggle more with the aspects of working in hospitality and these findings are confirmed by Austin, Dore and Donovan (2008). In their research they found a positive association between extraversion and deep acting as well as a positive association between neuroticism and surface acting. According to Larsen and
Ketelaar (1991) this is caused by the difference in positive and negative affect these different personalities poses. The positive affect extraverted people have causes them to perceive more positive emotions which match with the display rules set by a company making it easier to engage in deep acting (Diefendorff & Richard, 2003). The opposite happens with people high on neuroticism, who experience more negative emotions in general. This along with their inability to regulate their emotions leads them into using surface acting as a way of dealing with display rules.
1.5 Mood
The effect of surface and deep acting on job performance has been researched extensively, but the moderating role moods can play in this hasn’t received a lot of attention up till now. According to George (1991) positive mood at work can cause individuals to be more helpful and engage more in social situations. A research about influence of moods on job
performance showed a positive association, with increased productivity reported for
participants in a good mood (Miner & Glomb, 2010). They also found non-significant proof of mood influencing participant’s willingness to engage in voluntary organizational
citizenship behavior, with people in a good mood doing this more often. In another research conducted by Ilies and Judge (2002) they not only confirmed previous findings that an
employee’s level of job satisfaction is influenced by mood, but also found that the variation in job satisfaction was in synchrony with their changes in mood. So, there are clear
indications of mood influencing the way a person performs in their job, as well as effecting a person’s job satisfaction, but no direct links have been made with regard to surface and deep acting, even though a relation can be theorized. The emotions felt during a good mood match well with the required display rules in the hospitality industry, making it easier to engage in deep acting. Combining this with the earlier findings that extraverted people tend to
experience more positive affect creates space to believe that personality, mood, job
performance and job satisfaction are interrelated. This is supported by Ilies and Judge (2002) with the findings that a person scoring high on neuroticism their job satisfaction’ is more likely to be affected by mood. This could be explained through the fact that neurotic people tend to have higher negative affect, causing more bad moods which leads them to use surface acting because of their inability to regulate their experienced emotions, eventually causing lower job satisfaction.
The purpose of this research is to find out if a bad mood will cause elevated levels of surface acting or declining levels of deep acting for a person scoring high on extraversion. Because, if an extraverted person is naturally more inclined to use deep acting because of his generally positive offset, whenever he has a bad mood this person will struggle more with the display rules possibly leading him to use surface acting more and deep acting less. This are the hypothesis in this research:
H1: Bad mood increases the use of surface acting in extraverted people H2: Bad mood decreases the use of deep acting in extraverted people
Figure 1: A moderation model of the effect of bad mood on extraverted people and their use of surface or deep acting.
Bad mood
Use of surface/deep acting Extraversion score
2. Methodology
2.1 Participants
Data for this survey was collected through a cross-sectional survey. A total amount of 234 complete responses have been collected and reported. All the respondents not currently working in hospitality or not in direct contact with the guests were removed to get more reliable scores. Also, one person didn’t agree with the terms in the beginning of the survey, so was left out of the analysis, leaving a total of 108 usable completed surveys. This group of respondents consisted of 50 males and 58 females. The mean age of the contestants was 30.96 years (SD=12.04) and their average work experience in years in the hospitality industry was 12.59 years (SD=11.38). Respondents didn’t receive any compensation for their
participation, it was on voluntary and anonymous basis.
2.2 Measures
Respondents were collected by sharing an anonymous link to the survey with personal contacts, and by sharing a link in an online group for hospitality employees. The survey was conducted in Qualtrics, which also saved the data for it to later be exported to excel where the data was arranged to be able to export it to SPSS to undergo the necessary testing. The survey itself consisted of 4 parts. In the first part the respondent was asked some general questions regarding their sex, age and experience in the hospitality industry. In the second part questions were asked to make an assessment of the contestant’s personality focusing on extraversion and neuroticism. The third part of the survey served to make an assessment of the respondents’ mood at that time. Finally, the fourth part of the survey served to measure scores on the use of surface and deep acting and emotional consonance. This test was
conducted by Naring, Briet and Brouwers (2007) to measure the degree to which test persons experienced emotional labor.
2.2.1 Personality
The first independent variable that was measured is personality of the respondent. Respondents were asked to reply to 20 statements on a 5-figure scale ranging from 1
(disagree) to 5 (agree). The question list was derived from the international personality item pool (IPIP), which provides a wide variety of question lists focused on personality for public use, and the specific question list used in this research was Goldberg’s Big-five factor markers (1992). The original question list consisted of 50 items measuring agreeableness, extraversion, openness to new experience, neuroticism and conscientiousness, but because
only scores on extraversion and neuroticism were needed for this research the other items were left out of the survey. Both personality constructs consisted of 10 items with five statements worded positively and the other five statements worded negatively. Examples of statements are “I am the life of the party”, “I start conversations” (extraversion), “I worry about things”, and “I get upset easily” (neuroticism).
Before the data analysis the negatively worded items were reverse coded to be able to calculate the Cronbach’s alpha. Both scales for extraversion and neuroticism showed good to reasonable reliability (extraversion: α= .80, neuroticism α= .72). Scores on each trait
depended on the respondents’ answer, where the score (1 to 5) of each answer on a statement was added up or subtracted to or from a fixed number (number at the beginning of the
equation) leading to the subsequent scores, here are the formulas used:
Extraversion = 20 + (1) ___ - (3) ___ + (5) ___ - (7) ___ + (9) ___ - (11) ___ + (13) ___ - (15) ___ + (17) ___ - (19) ___ = _____
Neuroticism = 38 - (2) ___ + (4) ___ - (6) ___ + (8) ___ - (10) ___ - (12) ___ - (14) ___ - (16) ___ - (18) ___ - (20) ___ = _____
Numbers in parentheses refer to question number in survey
2.2.2 Mood
The second independent variable measured was the participants current mood. The question list used was the PANAS-scale, developed by Watson, Clark and Tellegen (1988) to get a reliable scale for measuring positive and negative affect. The scale contains ten positive and ten negative affect terms and contestants were asked to label the extent to which they
experienced the current state of mind at that moment on a 5-figure scale ranging from 1 (not at all) to 5 (extremely). Adding up these ratings generated two scores ranging from 10-50, one for positive affect and one for negative affect. Higher scores represent higher
experienced feeling of subsequent moods. Examples of states asked for in the questions are interested, inspired (positive), upset and nervous (negative). Both scales showed good reliability (positive affect α= .90, negative affect α= .83)
2.2.3 Surface and deep acting
The dependent variable in this research was measured with the “Dutch questionnaire for emotional labor (D-QEL) developed by Briet, Naring, Brouwers and van Doffelaar (2005).
This questionnaire consists of four scales measuring surface acting, deep acting, suppression and emotional consonance. Participants were asked to rate how often each expression applied to them on a scale from 1 (never) to 5 (always) on a total of 13 statements. Examples of statements are “I put on a mask in order to express the right emotions for my job” (surface acting), “I work hard to feel the emotions that I need to show to others” (deep acting), “I hide my fear of a guest who appears threatening” (suppression) and “I react to guests’ emotions naturally and easily” (emotional consonance). The scores on the statements were added up to get a score on each of the four scales. Since only the scores on surface and deep acting and emotional consonance matter for the current research only these scores were used in further analysis of the data, the scale of this item showed reasonable reliability (surface acting α= 0.76, deep acting α= .65, emotional consonance α=0.60). For deep acting to reach this level of Cronbach’s alpha one question asked for in the survey had to be removed so the reliability was within the reasonable limit.
3. Results
3.1 Moderation effect on surface acting
Table 1 shows the means, standard deviations and intercorrelations of all the scales used to test hypothesis 1. In order to calculate the intercorrelations in a reliable way, the Cronbach’s alpha for each scale was calculated and reported in the table, shown as the numbers within parenthesis. All the reported intercorrelations unfortunately turned out to be non-significant, extraversion and negative affect (r= .027, p= .78), extraversion and surface acting (r= -.109, p= .26) and negative affect and surface acting (r= .031, p= .75). In the discussion possible explanations for the non-significance will be provided.
Table 1
Descriptive Statistics and Intercorrelations
Variable Mean SD Extr NA SA
Extr 27.39 5.99 (.80)
NA 17.21 5.96 .027 (.83)
SA 13.34 4.62 -.109 .031 (.76)
Note. N = 108. Entries in parenthesis are Cronbach’s alpha. Extr = Extraversion; NA = Negative affect; SA = Surface acting.
To test whether or not bad mood moderated the relationship between extraversion and surface acting a multiple regression analysis was conducted. The first regression included negative affect and extraversion, and turned out to be non-significant, R2 = .013, F(2, 105) = .693, p= .50. To make sure that there was no high multicollinearity with the interaction term, all the variables were centered and an interaction term was created for extraversion and bad mood. After doing that, this interaction term was added to the regression model, but again it got a non-significant result, R2 = .024, F(1, 104) = 2.619, p= .11, b = -.005, t(104) = -1.616, p = .11. To test for hypothesis 1 a moderation analysis was used, developed by Hayes (2013). This tool in SPSS helps with analyzing moderation and mediation effects, and in this particular case model 1 of the framework was used.
Table 2
Results of moderation analysis using PROCESS (unstandardized coefficients) Surface acting
R2 = .024 B s.e. t p LLCI ULCI
Extr -.02 .02 -1.62 .23 -.05 .01
NA .01 .01 1.01 .31 -.01 .04
Extr x NA -.01 .00 -1.62 .11 -.01 .00 Note. N = 108. Extr = Extraversion; NA = Negative affect
The results were non-significant again (p = .11), causing hypothesis 1 to be rejected, but despite this an interaction plot, created by Jeremy Dawson, was made. From reading the plot a moderation effect seems present, with people high on extraversion that were experiencing a high bad mood reporting higher levels of surface acting, but because the results were non-significant other possible explanations for the higher score on surface acting can’t be ruled out.
Figure 2: The interaction effect of extraversion and bad mood on surface acting.
3.2 Moderation effect on deep acting
To test for hypothesis 2 all the steps performed to test hypothesis 1 were repeated. In table 3 the descriptive statistics and intercorrelations are reported, with Cronbach alpha between parenthesis. The intercorrelations were non-significant again, extraversion and negative affect (r= .027, p= .78), extraversion and deep acting (r = .004, p = .96) and negative affect and deep acting (r = .043, p = .66).
Table 3
Descriptive Statistics and Intercorrelations
Variable Mean SD Extr NA DA
Extr 27.39 5.99 (.80)
NA 17.21 5.96 .027 (.83)
DA 5.98 2.08 .004 .043 (.65)
Note. N = 108. Entries in parenthesis are Cronbach’s alpha. Extr = Extraversion; NA = Negative affect; DA = Deep acting. 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
Low extraversion High extraversion
S u rfac e ac ti n g
Low bad mood High bad mood
To test for moderation first the two required regressions were plotted again, the first regression contained extraversion and negative affect and came out non-significant, R2 = .002, F(2, 105) = .096, p = .91. Again the interaction term for extraversion and bad food was used to avoid high multicollinearity, this term was added to the regression and this model was significant, R2 = .077, F(1, 104) = 8.698, p < .05, b = -.012, t(104) = 2.837, p < .05. This means that hypothesis 2 is accepted.
Table 4
Results of moderation analysis using PROCESS (unstandardized coefficients) Deep acting
R2 = .077 B s.e. t p LLCI ULCI
Extr -.01 .03 -.15 .88 -.07 .06
NA .05 .03 .14 .14 -.02 .11
Extr x NA -.02 .01 -2.84 .01* -.03 -.01 Note. N = 108. Extr = Extraversion; NA = Negative affect, * p < .05
To be able to better understand the information provided by the PROCESS model an
interaction plot was made. The effect of bad mood on the level of deep acting in extraverted personalities is clearly visible, with the scores on deep acting declining more for highly extraverted people with a high bad mood than for highly extraverted people with a low bad mood.
Figure 3: The interaction effect of extraversion and bad mood on deep acting.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Low extraversion High extraversion
D ee p ac ti n g
Low bad mood High bad mood
To see if emotional consonance could be linked to certain personality traits linear regressions were calculated for extraversion, neuroticism and emotional consonance.
The D-QEL model used in this research to find out sores on deep and surface acting also provided scores for emotional consonance, so these scores were used to plot the regressions and a significant positive relation was found for extraversion and emotional consonance, R2= .111, F(1, 106) = 13.208, p< 0.01. The result for neuroticism was non-significant, R2= 0.016, F(1, 106) = 1.679, p = 0.198. So, there is reason to believe that extraversion and emotional consonance are related, but no evidence is found of a relation between neuroticism and emotional consonance.
Finally, because men and women are said to have different ways and skills for regulating emotions regressions were plotted to check for statistical evidence, which turned out to be present for two of the three variables. The results are summarized in the following table:
Table 5
Simple linear regression scores Gender
B s.e. t p R2
SA -1.70 0.88 -2,25 .03* .046
DA 0.15 0.40 0.40 .71 .001
NA 3.23 1.11 2.90 .01* .074
Note. N = 108. SA = Surface acting; DA = Deep acting; NA = Negative affect, * p < .05
Interpreting the table shows that on average women score 3.23 points higher on negative affect and 1.70 points lower on surface acting compared to men, both with a significant p value.
4. Discussion
The goal of this research was to contribute to the existing literature about certain personality types and the influence they have on the likeliness to engage in surface or deep acting within the hospitality industry and more specifically if bad mood has a moderating effect on this relationship. The relevancy of this research lies in the fact that the use of personality test in order to assess whether or not a new employee would fit well within the organization has become a common part of the job interview process, showed by the fact that 89 out of the “fortune 100” in the USA use a type of personality test during this process (Grant, 2013).
This is done because a good match between personality and organization can contribute to a better job performance (Tett, Jackson & Rothstein, 1991). Personality within the hospitality industry has been studied extensively leading to the conclusion that, amongst other things, extraversion and conscientiousness are related positively to job performance of employees working in hospitality, whereas neuroticism is said to have a negative impact on the match between an employee and organization in this field of work (Dekker, 2014). The moderating variable in this model, bad mood, could play an important factor in this process since it could mean that if a negative effect of bad mood on extraverted personalities is proven, employers must take this into account when hiring someone and develop a way to lighten the mood of the employees before they start working. The current study is designed to find out if there is a significant moderation effect of bad mood on the use of surface acting by extraverted
personalities.
To check the first hypothesis, if bad mood would increase the use of surface acting in extraverted personalities, the relation between extraverted people and surface acting has to be tested first. According to existing literature extraverted personalities in general are more likely to use deep acting instead of surface acting because certain personality traits
extraverted personalities possess align well with display rules set by their employer, such as relatively positive offset and social skills (Dekker, 2014; Diefendorff & Richard, 2003; Larsen & Ketelaar, 1991). So, the correlation between extraverted personalities and surface acting should be negative, if the score on extraversion goes up the use of surface acting should go down. This negative relation was present but since it was non-significant it can’t be assumed that there are is no other reason for it to be negative. After this the moderating variable of bad mood was added and plotted in an interaction plot and while the graph produced by this action gave reason to believe that bad mood increases the level of surface acting by people scoring high on extraversion compared to the people scoring low on extraversion, the p-value was non-significant, leading to a rejection of hypothesis 1.
In the second hypothesis it was predicted that higher negative affect would decrease the level of deep acting within extraverted personalities. This study suggests that bad mood would cancel out the favorable characteristics extraverted personalities possess which makes it easier for them to engage in deep acting (Dekker, 2014; Diefendorff & Ritchard, 2003). First the correlation between extraversion score and deep acting was calculated, a tiny non-significant positive relationship was measured. To check what the effect of bad mood is on this relation, bad mood was added as a moderation variable and an interaction plot was created. This did generate a significant p-value and thus hypothesis 2 is accepted. This means
that a high bad mood causes a decrease in the use of deep acting for people that score high on extraversion, which is clearly visible in figure 3.
So, by combining the information generated by testing the two hypotheses some interesting new insights in this field of study have been discovered. A decrease in the use of deep acting when experiencing bad mood for extraverted personalities was proven to be true, the general positive offset extraverted people possess, which makes it easier for them to engage in deep acting, is disturbed when bad mood is experienced. But this doesn’t necessarily mean that during these bad moods the extraverted personalities make use of surface acting, since testing for this gave a non-significant p-value. One possible explanation for this is that a decrease in deep acting doesn’t automatically mean that the use of surface acting increases. What’s more likely, based on the found results, is that the employee needs to work harder to match his own emotions with the emotions he or she is required to show. This is in line with what Morris and Feldman (1996) claimed in their research. They stated that both deep and surface acting require emotional labor, but that with deep acting less labor is needed because it costs less emotional labor to display required emotions when one
actually feels them.
So, when an extraverted person is experiencing a bad mood it doesn’t mean he will fake his emotions to comply with the display rules, but it will cost him more effort to match his felt emotions with the required emotions. This might also explain why the moderation analysis with surface acting was not significant, because extraverted people do not
necessarily need to switch to surface acting when their own emotions do not match the desired emotions, they just need to put in more effort to change their own emotions into the desired ones. And even though deep acting might not be as draining as surface acting when it comes to emotional labor, these findings stay relevant for employers in the hospitality
industry since there is more experienced emotional labor, which contributes to emotional exhaustion and through this could have an impact on job satisfaction and burnout (Morris & Feldman, 1996; Boles, Johnston & Hair, 1997). Hospitality businesses should take this into account and try to figure out a way to enhance the mood of the employees when they arrive at work.
A second factor that could have an influence on the way extraverted personalities handle their emotions at work is emotional consonance. A small significant positive relation was found between extraversion and emotional consonance. With these findings one could assume that extraverted people feel emotional consonance while at work and in general don’t need a way of acting (deep or surface) to comply with display rules. When these people are
experiencing a bad mood, emotional consonance can’t be the way to deal with the display rules, so they switch to a type of acting, deep acting most likely, because of their ability to handle their emotions well (Kokkonen & Pilkkinen, 2001). This would mean bad mood doesn’t make them switch from deep to surface acting, but from emotional consonance to deep acting, hence the significant result with deep acting as dependent variable and the non-significant result with surface acting. But, since the reliability of the emotional consonance scale just met the required minimum level to be called reasonable and the found correlation was small (R2 = .111) the evidence is very limited making it too early to be able to say this with certainty, but it could be interesting to do more research about in the future.
The impact of gender on how to regulate emotions was also tested since existing literature implies a difference between men and women in how to deal with display rules. According to Kim (2008) women, in general, are better at emotion management. This would imply that they are better at matching their own emotions with the emotions they are required to show. This is confirmed by the tests performed in this research, where women score significantly lower for surface acting than men, and also reporting higher scores for deep acting, although this failed to meet the requirements for significance. The third test involving gender showed a significantly higher score on negative affect for women. A research by Fujita, Diener and Sandvik (1991) confirms this, in their research they reported higher levels of negative affect for women as well. According to them this is caused by the fact that women have a higher affect intensity. High affect intensity leads people to experience emotions more heavily, whether they are positive or negative. This could mean that women experience more emotional labor while having a bad mood, something future research could have a deeper look into.
5. Practical implications
The findings made in this study have a few practical implications for employers in the hospitality industry. For instance, the moderation effect of bad mood on the relation between extraversion and deep acting shows that bad mood can cause a person scoring high on
extraversion to struggle more to match their own emotions with the emotions that they are supposed to show while interacting with guests. People scoring high on extraversion suffered significantly more from a high bad mood compared to a low bad mood than less extraverted people, in terms of deep acting. This implies that they need to work harder to regulate their own emotions, which is said to cause more experienced emotional labor (Morris & Feldman, 1996). This is bad for the company because too much emotional labor leads to emotional
exhaustion, which in its term can impact a company negatively in various ways, such as elevated stress, sick-leave, lower job satisfaction and even burnout (Allen, Pugh, Grandey & Groth, 2010; Chen et al, 2012; Grandey, 2003; Kim, 2008; Lee & Ok, 2012; Pienaar & Willemse, 2008). This makes it very relevant for companies in the hospitality industry that hire new employees based on their personality with a main focus on extraversion. Possible ways of how to turnaround a bad mood must be thought of for the employees to perform at the top of their ability, without taxing too much of the emotional resources. Some examples on how to change mood are provided by Thayer, Newman & McClain (1994), in a research conducted by them, possible ways of changing bad mood are offered and seem fairly easy. For instance, along with other options, listening to music or eating something were listed as ways of changing a bad mood. This would mean that offering a small snack at the employee entrance and playing music in the dressing room could already contribute to the moods of employees starting their shift, something which seems achievable in most organizations.
Furthermore, the small correlation found between emotional consonance and
extraversion confirms that testing for personality during the hiring process can be beneficial for companies. Since experiencing emotional consonance requires no emotional labor, emotional exhaustion is avoided. So, while a direct positive effect is absent, no negative effects related to emotional exhaustion take place, which in the long run still can be beneficial for a company, for instance through lower turnover.
6. Limitations and recommendations for further research
Some general limitations of this study can be contributed to the way this research was conducted, a cross-sectional study through online surveys. This might lead the collected data to be not completely reliable. First, to calculate the amount of completed surveys needed for a sample size to be reliable the g-power application was used. After filling in the required input parameters the application suggested to have a minimum of 107 samples. Although this number was met in current research (108 usable responses) it just passed the minimum, causing it to maybe not be a representative sample size for the population. This is supported by Guadagnoli and Velicer (1988), according to them, in order for a sample size to be reliable a minimum of 150 samples should be collected for the data to be representative.
A second limitation of doing research through online surveys is the generalization of the findings. Even though spreading surveys online is an effective way of collecting data it does exclude people without access to a computer or internet. Although these days most people do own the means to be able to participate in online surveys, in future research
spreading out a hard copy of the survey might make the research more representative for the entire population. Also, the tested group of people could be more diverse to achieve greater generalizability.
A third limitation is the validity of this study. Even though a moderation effect was measured for bad mood on extraversion and deep acting, all the regressions for personality and surface or deep acting gave non-significant results. Since prior research has been able tp determine that extraversion is related to deep acting and neuroticism is related to surface acting (Austin, Dore & Donovan, 2008), the lack of statistical evidence in this research to prove these relations raises suspicion as to how reliable the other results are, something that could be controlled by repeating current research.
Some specific limitations about the study itself have also come up. For instance, to calculate the score for deep acting the used survey only had two questions to determine this score. This lead to an alpha of .65 which is reasonable and thus acceptable, but by adding more questions the reliability of this variable might grow, leading to a more trustworthy score on deep acting. This might have an impact on the results received from further analysis and should be taken into account in a next study.
Some interesting findings in this research could be worked out more in future research. For instance, the significant positive correlation found between extraversion and emotional consonance is something that could be studied more. Although some research has been done about emotional consonance a clear link to personality has yet to be found. This could be interesting since it has been proven that emotional consonance doesn’t require emotional labor (Naring, Briet & Brouwers, 2006). If the found proof of correlation between extraversion and emotional consonance can be extended it might provide more reason for businesses in the hospitality industry to take personality into account when looking for a new employee. If future research about this subject will ever take place more questions testing for emotional consonance should be added to the survey. The survey used in this research only had two questions testing for this factor, and the Cronbach’s alpha just met the minimum level of acceptance, for the study to be more reliable this has to be improved.
Finally, although cross-sectional designs are frequently use for doing research, it could be interesting to do a longitudinal study instead and to add a test for experienced emotional labor. Although it has been determined in various studies that especially surface acting but also deep acting contribute to emotional labor it could be interesting to test for emotional labor to see if it increases or decreases along with increases or decreases in the two types of acting, when bad mood is added as a moderator. Since moods generally last for a
limited time period, it could very well be that a person increased emotional labor only lasts for a short period of time. In the long run a bad mood might not have the same effects on the experienced emotional labor, which makes it interesting to do a longitudinal study on this subject and to add emotional labor as an outcome variable.
7. Conclusion
Testing for personality when looking for new employees has become a common practice in the hiring process of businesses within and outside the hospitality industry. Being able to predict a future match between the organization and a future employee can reap huge benefits for the company. A good match might lead to higher job performance due to higher job satisfaction, which could also lead to a reduced turnover rate. An extensive amount of research on this subject has been done, providing evidence for relations between personality and different ways of dealing with display rules, along with possible consequences these different ways of dealing with display rules entail. Current research adds to this by testing for these relations along with a possible moderation effect of bad mood. This moderation effect was found between extraversion and deep acting, causing the level of deep acting to go down as extraversion goes up while experiencing a high bad mood. This could possibly lead to higher levels of emotional labor and thus is something hospitality businesses should keep in mind when taking personality into account during the hiring process.
Despite this new finding, other relations tested for in this research failed to meet the minimum requirements of statistical evidence, therefore replication of the current study is advised along with adding emotional labor as an outcome variable to see if the moderating effect of bad mood has an influence on job performance and personal well-being as well.
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