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Effective strategies to combine fun and energy saving in game missions in
order to stimulate behavioural change
SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF SCIENCE
MINA BIPARVA
10760210
MASTER INFORMATION STUDIES
GAME STUDIES
FACULTY OF SCIENCE
UNIVERSITY OF AMSTERDAM
Effective strategies to combine fun and energy saving in
game missions in order to stimulate behavioural change
Mina Biparva
Game Studies University of Amsterdam 10760210 mina.biparva@yahoo.comABSTRACT
Games can have a great impact on changing behaviour. There is a rising trend in various fields of serious games, and energy efficiency is one of these growing fields. Energy-efficiency games, as well as any other serious games, need to create player engagement for the objectives of the game to be achieved. In order to create engagement, serious games should not only provide information and educate the players, but also create a balance between fun and education. This paper investigates the impact of fun and education on the player’s energy behaviour in various game missions. A quantitative method is used to collect data for this investigation. The results suggest that effective strategies for designing game missions for behaviour change will bring together various factors such as Information, Education and Engagement and create a balance between those factors. Use of proper behaviour change techniques and appropriate type of missions are also emphasized.
General Terms
Measurement, Factors, Design, Theory
Keywords
Serious games, Engagement, Energy behaviour, Game mission, Virtual mission, Real world mission, Fun, Education, Impact.
1. INTRODUCTION
Games can positively change the player’s behaviour and this notion has long been accepted by social change game creators and producers (Whitson & Dormann 2011). Multiplayer games are the most engaging, complex and practical media for changing behaviour in a serious game context (Reeves, Scarborough, Cummings, Yokels, Flora, & Anderson, 2012). There is therefore a rising trend in the design and development of serious games for behavioural and social change in different fields, such as Military training, Healthcare and Energy efficiency.
Recently energy conservation has become a central and rather urgent issue (Shafiee & Topal, 2009). Research on reduction of home energy use estimates that the current amount of energy usage could be reduced by 22% if people were aware of and more perspicacious with their energy behaviour (Reeves et al., 2012). Reducing consumption is a solution to the energy conservation issue (Rasanen, Ruuskanen & Kolehmainen, 2008), which can be
achieved by education and through changing behaviour (Yang, Chien & Liu, 2012). Games can change energy behaviour and reduce consumption (Reeves et al., 2012). This paper focuses on “game missions” by dividing them into two categories: “Virtual” and “Real-World” missions. Virtual or “In-game” missions refer to game missions, such as defeating a big boss, in a virtual world, and real-world missions refer to games missions the player needs to fulfil in a real world, such as visiting a new place. The purpose of this study is to investigate the impact of “Fun” and “Education” on the player’s energy behaviour1 and create a basis for future ranking of the games missions in a way that motivates the player to play the game continuously. In order to investigate this topic, a set of games missions has been created for an energy-efficiency training game (The Age of Energy). “The Age of Energy” (which is still in development phase) is a game for educating young people about energy-related issues (e.g. energy consumption, energy savings, smart meter, energy & environment). The purpose of the game is behaviour change toward saving energy in the target group (youth 16-24 years old), and the long-term objective of the game is to achieve measurable results and a sustained effect. In order to create missions for the game and measure the impact of different criteria on the player’s behaviour, a few different topics need to be considered. Since the focus of this study is on the impact of fun and education on behaviour change, the following section of this paper addresses the related work on behaviour change techniques and fun and education and game missions.
2.
RELATED WORK
2.1 Behavioural Change
A wide range of personal, social and environmental factors influences human behaviour. These factors are divided into three categories of personal or individual factors, social factors and environmental factors. According to an EUFIC review2 on motivating behaviour change, “interventions that only address factors at the individual level, and do not take into account the social and environmental influences are unlikely to work”. An approach that considers the factors influencing behaviour at all three levels is likely to be most effective on behaviour change (“EUFIC review,” 2014).
1The term “Energy behaviour" in this paper refers to the player’s
behaviour toward saving energy.
2A review by "The European Food Information Council" on motivating
behaviour change. Retrieved from:
Additionally, the Information Deficit Model of behaviour change
is based on the assumption that providing knowledge about the consequences of certain actions would lead to a change in behaviour (Burgess, Harrison & Filius, 1998). However, although
providing information is an important and traditional approach in education, it is rarely sufficient to change behaviour on its own. Information could increase people’s knowledge, which may result in a ‘will’ to change and a change in attitude (Speller, 2007). But for some people, the provision of advice and information may be perceived as a force and create a “resistance” to change (Britt, Hudson & Blampied, 2004). Therefore, in addition to providing the target audience with information in order to change their behaviour, different types of behavioural change techniques must be considered and appropriate techniques must be applied in parallel. Table 1 (Appendix1) presents the behavioural change techniques retrieved from the taxonomy of behavioural change techniques used in interventions. (Abraham & Michie, 2008) These techniques are categorized in nine different types: Information, Planning, Implementing, Feeling good, Monitoring, Teaching, Agreeing, Supporting and Managing (Hurst, 2014). A short definition of each technique is addressed in Table 1 to provide extra information (Hurst, 2011). In order to apply these techniques for behaviour change in games and actuate behaviour change, the player should feel personally invested in the game and its outcome (Phelps, 2013). To achieve this engagement, three attributes must be in incorporated: the player must get constant feedback, play a role and participate in a compelling narrative (Reeves, 2011).
The right choice of behavioural change techniques or models is one of the first steps in designing serious games. Other important issues for designers of serious games are sustainability3 and environmental issues (Games for Change, 2011). Both persuasive and serious games need to persuade the player in order for the sustainability issue to be overcome. Ian Bogost’s concept of “Procedural Rhetoric” is a recent theory on how a game can persuade the players (Bogost, 2007). Procedural Rhetoric is a theory based on the concept that the processes and activities that interactors engage in during play are more persuasive than the information that is layered on top of those processes. (Tanenbaum, Antle & Robinson, 2013) Therefore procedural rhetoric is based on the interactive cycle of experience and reflection (Tanenbaum, Antle, & Robinson, 2013) and has a significant effect on sustainability and engagement of players in behavioural change games as well as in persuasive games. In general, a game for behaviour change must consider individual, social and environmental factors. It should give the player constant feedback and involve possible role-playing actions and emphasize the use of a compelling narrative. In addition, it must provide information for players in parallel with using appropriate behaviour change technique(s) appropriate to the content of the game and suitable for achieving desired behaviour.
Accordingly, Table 1 addresses 15 behaviour change techniques (Abraham & Michie, 2008) appropriate for designing different missions in “The Age of Energy”. (Definition for each technique can be found in Appendix1)
3Sustainability issue here refers to the problem of motivating and
captivating the player to become a continuous player or, in other words, “player engagement.”
Table 1. Behaviour Change Techniques Nr Behaviour Change Technique Type of
Technique
1 Provide information on consequences of behaviour to the Target Information
2 Provide normative information about others’ behaviour Information 3 Goal setting (behaviour) Planning 4 Goal setting (outcome) Planning 5 Set graded tasks Implementing 6 Prompting generalization of a target behaviour Implementing
7 Prompt rewards contingent on effort or progress towards behaviour Feeling good
8 Provide rewards contingent on successful behaviour Feeling good 9 Stimulate anticipation of future rewards Feeling good 10 Prompt self-monitoring of behaviour Monitoring 11 Prompt self-monitoring of behavioural
outcome
Monitoring
12 Teach to use prompts/cues Monitoring 13 Environmental restructuring Monitoring 14 Provide feedback on performance Teaching 15 Plan social support/social change Supporting
2.2 Fun & Engagement
There are many feelings that people associate with “fun”: the sense of timelessness, of being at one, of exhilaration, focus, and immediacy. All of these are characteristic of fun (Chen, 2007).
Fun, enjoyment, amusement or pleasure is a short-term experience that varies from one person to another. According to Taflinger (2010), “The means of arriving at enjoyment are as varied as people are. What makes one person happy may make another depressed. Nonetheless, there are a few actions or events that most people find enjoyable” (Introduction section, para. 4).
In this paper, the notion of fun actually refers to engagement. While fun is more personal, setting a goal to create a fun game is not completely achievable; however, creating engagement and designing for the player’s engagement is an achievable goal. If a game is engaging and players enjoy playing the game, the goal of creating fun in a game is certainly fulfilled.
In a study (Klimmt 2003), Klimmt investigates why players begin, sustain and repeat playing digital games. Klimmt proposed that a conceptual model consists of three key dimensions of game enjoyment: 1) The experience of ‘effectance’ or the immediacy of feedback to the player. 2) Repeated cycles of suspense and relief, curiosity and an increase in self-esteem. 3) The fascination of becoming part of an alternative reality and playing a new role in simulations of spatial environments and/or interesting narratives. Klimmt (2003) claims, “enjoyment is the reason for players to begin, sustain, and repeat exposure to digital games” (p 247).
Ryan, Rigby, & Przybylski, (2006) applied the self-determination theory4 in their study to investigate motivation for computer game play. As a result of their study they suggest that perceived game autonomy and competence are associated with game enjoyment, preferences and changes in well-being pre to post-play. Competence and autonomy perceptions are also related to the intuitive nature of game controls and the sense of presence or immersion in participants’ game play experiences.
To avoid confusion, a major point to mention is the difference between motivation and engagement in this study. Motivation here is the reason that players start to play a game; it refers to what persuades the players to play a game, while engagement is more concerned with aspects related to the playing situation. Engagement is more about what makes people want to continue playing and what it is that “hooks” players so much that they want to do so (Schoenau-Fog, 2011).
‘Immersion’ is an important concept to understanding and creating engagement. It is stated in a research by Jennett, Cox, Cairns, Dhoparee, Epps, Tijs & Walton (2008) that “immersion is primarily a result of a good gaming experience and is thus critical to game enjoyment. While being immersed, almost all attention is focused on the game, because the players can still be immersed in the game to some extent but they are not immersed to the exclusion of all else and therefore not in flow”. (p. 642).
‘Flow’ is defined as activities in which there is a match between high challenge and high skills (Csikszentmihalyi, 1997). The outcome of Flow is that the ego, or self-consciousness, disappears, after which people report feeling stronger and more vital (Csikszentmihalyi, 1997). Research participants of Flow report feeling best when skills and challenges are both high, and they tend to be negative, regardless of the activity, if challenges and skills are low (Csikszentmihalyi, 1997).If challenge and skills are out of balance the player feels unsatisfied, which results in anxiety and stress in case the challenge exceeds the individual’s time or skills. If the challenge does not engage an individual’s time or skills, the individual becomes bored and anxious, as is illustrated in Figure 1 (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990).
Figure 1. The flow
4Self-Determination Theory (SDT) is a theory of motivation. It is
concerned with supporting our natural or intrinsic tendencies to behave in effective and healthy ways.
Retrieved From: http://www.selfdeterminationtheory.org/
There is definitely no fun without a balance between the challenge of an activity and the ability or skills to face that challenge. As Chen (2007) cites: “making it possible for anyone to find exactly the right amount of challenge to engage with the exact abilities is the only way to access Flow. This means that when work is fun we have created complex, but negotiable challenges, challenges that allow the individual to engage or disengage, to work harder or work safer” (p. 7).
This is the point that Fun and Flow can be similarly defined as a balance of the relationship between challenge and ability. In regard to the equality of fun and flow, it is clearly concluded at this point that in order to create fun in a game and design for player’s engagement, there should be a definite balance between the challenge the game offers and the abilities of players. Game missions should be designed in a way that keeps players motivated and excited to fulfil one mission and continue playing the game in order to face new missions and challenges.
Mental health and happiness training experts suggest a relationship between fun and change of behaviour. (Buck, 2014) In 2009, Volkswagen introduced a theory, “The Fun Theory”, which claims that something as simple as fun is the easiest way to change people’s behaviour for the better. The concept of the fun theory is mostly known from the example of an escalator and stairs, when the staircase at a Stockholm subway station was turned into a piano and travellers’ responses were videotaped. The intended purpose was simply to demonstrate immediate effectiveness, and whether or not behaviour change is sustained long-term was not measured. Moreover, as a result of a few experiments, Corey, Sitar, & Bernardo (n.d.) cite that “fun can be used to change people’s behaviour for the better”. However, although these experiments were successful in measuring immediate response and effectiveness, the long-term impact of fun on behaviour change was not proven in this study, nor by the results obtained from Volkswagen experiment.
2.3
Energy efficiency perspective
As is stated on the International Energy Agency5 website, “energy efficiency is a way of managing and restraining the growth in energy consumption”. The International Energy Agency (IEA) is an independent organization which works to ensure reliable, affordable and clean energy. IEA promotes energy-efficiency policy and technology in buildings, appliances, transport and industry, as well as end-use applications such as lighting. IEA has developed 25 efficiency recommendations for efficiency improvements and the realization of full energy-efficiency potential (Table 2). The IEA recommendations are a great educational basis for communicating energy-efficiency aspects to end users. These recommendations can be used in the game design process in order to create and design different levels, missions or even narrative of a game and to communicate any conceptual message related to the purpose of the game to the target group.
5http://www.iea.org/topics/energyefficiency/
Table 2. Energy efficiency recommendations of IEA
Cross-sectoral
• Data collection and indicators
• Strategies and action plans • Competitive energy
markets, with appropriate regulation • Private investment in energy efficiency • Monitoring, enforcement and evaluation Buildings:
• Mandatory building codes and MEPS
• Net zero-energy consumption in buildings • Improved energy efficiency
in existing buildings • Building energy labels or
certificates
• Energy performance of building components and systems
Appliances and equipment
• Mandatory MEPS and labels
• Test standards and measurement protocols • Market transformation policies Lighting • Phase-out of inefficient lighting products • Energy-efficient lighting systems Transport
• Mandatory vehicle fuel-efficiency standards • Measures to improve
vehicle fuel efficiency • Fuel-efficient non-engine
components • Eco-driving
• Transport system efficiency
Industry
• Energy management • High-efficiency industrial
equipment and systems • Energy efficiency services
for SMEs
• Complementary policies to support industrial energy efficiency
Energy utilities
• Utility end-use energy efficiency schemes
2.4 Game & missions
A “Mission” or “Quest” is an important assignment or task that a player or a group of players may complete in order to gain a reward.Various types of missions can be designed depending on game genre and type and the objective of a game. In an assortment, games can be categorized in social or individual types. Social gaming commonly refers to online games that allow or require social interaction between players.6 In many social games and social interactions, players have the choice of which actions to play and with whom they interact. Social media (e.g. Facebook) are typically the platform for playing social games, which may include social or individual missions. Social missions require social interaction and facilitate the development of cooperative skills and social competence, while individual missions only require the action of one player (Granic, Lobel, & Engels, 2014).
Another categorization in regard to the game theory7, divides the games into two categories: cooperative and competitive games. In
6 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_gaming
7 Game theory is the study of cooperative and non-cooperative approaches
to games and social situations in which participants must choose between individual benefits and collective benefits. Retrieved from:
http://www.referenceforbusiness.com/encyclopedia/For-Gol/Game-Theory.html
game theory, a cooperative game is a game in which groups of players ("coalitions") may enforce cooperative behaviour. The game is therefore a competition between coalitions of players rather than between individual players (An Introduction to Game Theory-e-book, n.d). However, competitive games are designed based on the fact that humans have, over the centuries, always been at each others' throats for various reasons such as Survival, Rivalry, Revenge, Conquest, among many more. But this is all part of the simple concept of “competition” which is part of human nature. In another categorization games and game missions are divided into two categories: Virtual and Real-world. Virtual games refer to online games where players control virtual characters in a virtual environment, whereas in Real World games, characters are real players and the interactions take place in a real world environment.
In general, games and game missions can be classified in three ways: social or individual, cooperative or competitive and virtual or real world. It is important to use an appropriate type of mission for a game and its target group in order for that game to be successful and engaging. Furthermore, what motivates the player to play games and fulfil game missions is the desire to obtain a reward, so motivating rewards and a proper reward system in games can create highly-motivated players. Game rewards can be divided into two categories: virtual and real world. Virtual rewards refer to rewards that players achieve in a virtual game, such as Coins, Extra life, Unexpected gift box, whereas real-world rewards refer to rewards the player achieves in the real world for playing a game, such as discount on a product, air miles, etc. Physical or real world rewards can create motivation and boost engagement (Shane, 2014).
3. RESEARCH QUESTION
3.1 Problem statement & research question
The primary goal of serious games is not entertainment, so an important issue for designers of serious games is getting the players motivated enough to start playing the game. However, keeping the players continuously motivated to play the game in order to achieve the objectives of the game (e.g. education, acquiring skills or behaviour change) is an even more significant issue. Engagement and motivation or disaffection and boredom obviously affect learners’ wills and skills in acquiring new knowledge. (Bandura, 1986) Games for behaviour change (e.g. energy-efficiency games) need active players in order for the goals to be successfully achieved and to have an impact on the player’s behaviour. The number of players also should be emphasized in here. A game can be successful at changing behaviour however, when the number of players is very small the overall impact is still minimal. Most energy-efficiency games only try to educate players by communicating energy matters and energy-saving tips to their target group. However, although providing information creates awareness, it will not stimulate behaviour change in the absence of motivation and engagement. On the other hand, entertainment and commercial games have been successful in motivating and persuading the players by creating fun and engagement, while most serious games could not achieve the same success in engaging the players. It can thereforebe argued that lack of fun and engagement in educational games is the reason that these games are not as successful as commercial games in persuading the players. This problem leads this study to investigate and explore the impact of different criteria such as fun and education on behaviour change and generates a main question for this investigation.
Does the combination of fun and energy-saving education in game missions increase the impact on the player’s energy behaviour?
In order to get detailed insight into the relationships of different criteria (e.g. fun, education) with energy behaviour, a number of related hypothesis are tested in this investigation. In addition, since this study is focused on game missions and considering previous studies on different types of missions, a number of other related assumptions are also tested. These hypotheses are related to different types of game missions and game rewards. As is addressed in previous section, social and online games are increasing every day and people’s need for social interaction could cause a growing trend in social games. The competitive nature of people could be a reason for players to prefer competitive game missions and physical or real-world rewards could create player motivation and boost engagement (Shane, 2014). This information and related assumptions lead this study to the following hypothesis:
1. Education has a positive impact on a player’s energy-saving behaviour.
2. Fun has a positive impact on a player’s energy-saving behaviour.
3. The combination of fun and education has a positive impact on a player’s energy behaviour.
4. Players prefer social game missions to individual game missions.
5. Players prefer competitive game missions to cooperative game missions.
6. Players prefer virtual game missions to real-world game missions.
7. Players prefer virtual game rewards to real-world game missions.
8. The combination of virtual and real-world rewards has a positive impact on a player’s motivation to fulfil a game mission.
The following section will discuss in detail the method used in this study to answer the research question and test the hypotheses.
4. METHODS
The Quantitative method was used to collect data in this study. In order to design a questionnaire and collect data on the questionnaire’s items, it was essential to create a mission list.
4.1 Mission list
In order to measure the impact of fun and education on a player’s energy behaviour, a list of 47 game missions was created. These
missions were designed by using behavioural-change techniques (mentioned in Table 1) and IEA energy-efficiency study and recommendations (mentioned in Table 2). Use of fun elements was also considered in designing these missions. Approximately half of these missions are Virtual or In-Game and the other half are Real-World missions. 8 After creating this list it was possible to design a questionnaire about the missions. (Appendix 2 presents this mission list)
4.2 Questionnaire
A questionnaire consisting of two parts was designed in order to collect quantitative data for this study. Firstly the 47 missions were divided into 8 categories (e.g. real-world missions related to installing a smart meter9 or missions related to changing the transportation methods or virtual missions such as defeating a big boss or building defensive buildings in the game. See Appendix 3). The first part of the questionnaire was designed to measures the impact of fun and education10 on the players’ behaviour (for each category of missions). The second part of the questionnaire was designed to measure player preference on: 1) Social vs. Individual game missions. 2) Real-world vs. Virtual game missions. 3) Cooperative vs. Competitive game missions. 4) Real-world vs. Virtual rewards. All the items of the questionnaire were answered on a 5-point Likert scale (range [0, 4], with “Completely disagree”, “Disagree”, “Neutral”, “Agree” and “Completely agree” respectively) per item. Table 3 presents an example of one item on the questionnaire.
Table 3. Example of 1 item on the questionnaire
1 I think game missions that require me to change my transportation’s method (such as using a bike or public transport):
1.1 Are Educative
Completely disagree ¢ ¢ ¢ ¢ ¢ Completely Agree
1.2 Are fun/engaging Completely disagree ¢ ¢ ¢ ¢ ¢ Completely Agree
1.3 Are affordable
Completely disagree ¢ ¢ ¢ ¢ ¢ Completely Agree 1.4 Are easy
Completely disagree ¢ ¢ ¢ ¢ ¢ Completely Agree 1.5 Are achievable Completely disagree ¢ ¢ ¢ ¢ ¢ Completely Agree
1.6
Have a Positive impact on my energy consumption behaviour
Completely disagree ¢ ¢ ¢ ¢ ¢ Completely Agree
8 Since changing the player’s behaviour is the main purpose of
energy-efficiency games, creating missions that engage the player in real-world energy-saving issues facilitates achieving the desire behaviour.
9A smart meter is usually an electronic device that records consumption
of electric energy at intervals of an hour or less and communicates that information at least daily back to the utility for monitoring and billing. Retrieved from: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smart_meter
10Easiness, achievability and affordability are also measured within the
first part of the questionnaire. (Table 3. 1.3 - 1.5) The data that measuring these criteria is generated has been used for ranking the game missions in future development of the game (The Age of Energy).
The questionnaires were distributed randomly among students of a college. 72 respondents to the questionnaire consisted of 31 females and 41 males aged between 16-24 years old. The questions were about game missions related to energy saving in general. It was not possible for respondents to play the game before answering the questions as the game (The Age of Energy) had not yet been developed.
4.3 Data analysis
All 8 categories of missions were measured by means of a questionnaire to determine whether the players found these missions fun/engaging and whether or not they found them educative (by measuring the mean score for each factor of each item and testing the scores). In cases where players found the missions fun or educative, the impact of fun and education and the impact of the combination of fun and education on energy behaviour were tested. Several “ANOVA” tests were conducted in order to evaluate the statistically significant differences of the items, and specifically to test the null hypothesis (ANOVA tests were used as the items are measured on the Likert scale and variables have more than 2 levels). A one-way ANOVA measures the differences when there is 1 independent variable (e.g. fun or education) and 1 dependent variable (e.g. impact). Similarly a two-way ANOVA measures the differences when there are 2 independent variables (e.g. fun and education) and 1 dependent variable (e.g. impact). Regarding the hypothesis of the study, several categories of missions were required to conduct a test for measuring the significant differences. Yet comparing group with multiple T-test was not chosen for analysing the data for the first part of the study as there is a chance of making a Type 1 error11 every time a T-test is conducted. This error is usually 5%. By running two T-tests on the same data, the chance of "making a mistake” is increased to 10%. However, the formula for determining the new error rate for multiple T-tests is not as simple as multiplying 5% by the number of tests; making only a few multiple comparisons will generate similar results as multiplying by 5%. And so the chance of error for three T-tests would be 15% (precisely, 14.3%) and this chance will increase by the number of conducted tests. Therefore, comparing groups with multiple T-tests will generate unacceptable errors. An ANOVA checks for these errors so that the Type 1 error remains at 5% and it increases confidence that any significant result is not by chance.12
Unlike the first part of the questionnaire, which measures the impact of independent variable on dependent variable, the second part compares two variables within a sample. To measure the significant differences for the second part of the questionnaire a “Paired Sample T-Test” was used to compare the means of two variables (e.g. Paired sample T-test was conducted to compare the number of respondents who prefer cooperative game missions and the number of players who prefer competitive game missions.). Table 4 presents the results of a one-way ANOVA test between education (in game missions) and impact (on player’s energy
11In statistical hypothesis testing, a type I error refers to the incorrect
rejection of a true null hypothesis;it is the detecting of an effect that is not present.
12Retrieved from:
https://statistics.laerd.com/statistical-guides/one-way-anova-statistical-guide-2.php
behaviour13). P value for this test is P < 0.05. The scores, which are specified by (*) sign in the right column of the table (Sig.), have P < 0.05, which means the result of the test is statistically significant and the sample gives reasonable evidence to reject the null hypothesis and support the alternative hypothesis (hypothesis of this study are mentioned in section 3.1). Accordingly for Type 1 Missions (F(4,67) = 2.962, p = .026) P value is smaller than 0.05, which results in rejecting the null hypothesis for this mission type. This method applies for all scores with (*) sign in Table 4, Table 5, Table 6 and Table 7. Additionally, the scores which are not are specified by (*) sign in the right column of the table (Sig.), have P > 0.05, which means that there are no statistically significant differences between group means as determined by one-way ANOVA (or Paired sample T-Test for Table 7).
Table 4. One-way ANOVA between Educative & Impact
V/R column presents Virtual or Real-world missions
Nr V / R Mission Category df F Sig.
1 R Type 1 Missions 4 2.962 .026* 2 R Type 2 Missions 4 3.300 .016* 3 R Type 3 Missions 4 4.130 .005* 4 V Type 4 Missions 4 0.684 .606 5 R Type 5 Missions 4 6.838 .000* 6 V Type 6 Missions 4 2.484 .052 7 R Type 7 Missions 4 9.865 .000*
Table 5 presents the results of one-way ANOVA test between fun (in game missions) and impact (on player’s energy behaviour.) P value for this test is P < 0.05. The same analysing method used for Table 4 was also applied to this Table.
Table 5. One-way ANOVA Between Fun & Impact Nr V / R Mission Category df F Sig.
1 V Type 4 Missions 4 0.420 .739
2 R Type 5 Missions 4 6.757 .000*
3 V Type 6 Missions 4 2.228 .075
4 R Type 7 Missions 3 4.548 .003*
5 V Type 8 Missions 4 0.688 .604
Table 6 presents the results of two-way ANOVA test on the combination of fun and education (in game missions) with impact (on player’s energy behaviour.) P value for this test is P < 0.05. The same analysing method used for Tables 4 and 5 was also applied to this Table.
Table 6. Two-way ANOVA Combination of Fun & Education with Impact
Nr V / R Mission Category df F Sig.
1 V Type 4 Missions 7 1.366 .237
13This test was conducted on mission categories 1-7, which were
determined as educative missions. Since the average score for each item is 3, this score is defined as standard and all mean scores are compared with standards score of 3. Missions which have a mean score of µ >3 determined as educative and missions with a mean score of µ<3 determined as non-educative missions.
2 R Type 5 Missions 7 0.519 .817
3 V Type 6 Missions 7 1.673 .135
4 R Type 7 Missions 9 2.125 .143
Table 7 presents the results of Paired Sample T-Test on choice of respondents between 1) Individual vs. Social Missions. 2) Cooperative vs. Competitive Missions. 3) Virtual vs. Real-world Missions. 4) Virtual vs. Real-world Rewards. The scores, which are specified by (*) sign in the right column of the table (Sig.), determine that there are significant differences between the means. Accordingly for cooperative vs. competitive Missions “there is significant difference in the scores for the competitive missions (M=4.10, SD=.937) and cooperative missions (M=3.64, SD=1.202); t(71)=3.044, p=.003”. Additionally, for the scores that are not are specified by (*) sign in the right column of the table (Sig.), there are no statistically significant differences between the means, therefore the differences between means are likely due to chance and not likely due to the manipulation of variables.
Table 7. Paired Sample T-Test
Nr Missions df t Sig.
1 Social vs. Individual Missions 71 -0.630 .531 2 Competitive Missions Cooperative vs. 71 3.044 .003* 3 Virtual vs. Real-world Missions 71 1.588 .117 4 Virtual vs. Real-world Rewards 71 0.253 .801
Table 8 presents the results of a two-way ANOVA test on the impact of combining virtual and real-world rewards on players’ motivation to fulfil a game mission. P value for this test is P < 0.05. The same analysing method used for Table 6 was also applied to this Table.
Table 8. Two-way ANOVA Combination of Virtual & Real-world Reward with Impact on Motivation Nr V / R Mission Category df F Sig.
1 V Type 4 Missions 8 0.985 .457
5. RESULTS
Hypothesis
This section presents the results of this study. After analysing and interpreting the data (data analysis methods are mentioned in section 4.3), the following results were obtained.
Hypothesis 1: “Education has a positive impact on a player’s energy-saving behaviour.” This hypothesis was researched on 7 categories of game missions. As is presented in Table 4 for real world game missions, there are statistically significant differences
between group means and for virtual game missions there are no statistically significant differences between group means. Accordingly, this study provides reasonable evidence to support the hypothesis number 1 for real-world missions; however there is insufficient evidence to support this hypothesis for virtual missions.
Hypothesis 2: “Fun has a positive impact on a player’s energy-saving behaviour.” This hypothesis was researched on 5 categories of game missions. As is presented in Table 5 for real world game missions, there are statistically significant differences between group means and for virtual game missions there are no statistically significant differences between group means. Accordingly, this study provides reasonable evidence to support the hypothesis number 2 for real-world missions; however there is not sufficient evidence to support this hypothesis for virtual missions.
Hypothesis 3: “The combination of fun and education has a positive impact on a player’s energy behaviour.” This hypothesis was researched on 4 categories of game missions. As is presented in Table 6, there are no statistically significant differences between group means in both virtual and real-world game missions. There is therefore not sufficient evidence to support this hypothesis.
Hypothesis 4: “Players prefer individual game missions to social game missions.” As is presented in Table 7, there are no statistically significant differences between group means in both virtual and real world game missions. There is therefore not sufficient evidence to support this hypothesis.
Hypothesis 5: “Players prefer competitive game missions to cooperative game missions”. As is presented in Table 7, missions, there are statistically significant differences between group means. This study therefore provides reasonable evidence to support this hypothesis.
Hypothesis 6: “Players prefer virtual game missions to real-world game missions.” As is presented in Table 7, there are no statistically significant differences between group means in both virtual and real-world game missions. There is therefore not sufficient evidence to support this hypothesis.
Hypothesis 7: “Players prefer virtual game rewards to real-world game missions.” As is presented in Table 7, there are no statistically significant differences between group means in both virtual and real-world game missions. There is therefore not sufficient evidence to support this hypothesis.
Hypothesis 8:“The combination of virtual and real-world rewards has a positive impact on a player’s motivation to fulfil a game mission.” As is presented in Table 8, there are no statistically significant differences between group means in both virtual and real-world game missions. There is therefore not sufficient evidence to support this hypothesis.
Table 9. Results of Testing the Hypothesis
Nr Hypothesis Status
1.1 Virtual Missions Education has a positive impact on a player’s energy-saving behaviour. Failed to accept 1.2 Real-World Missions Education has a positive impact on a player’s energy-saving behaviour. Accepted
2.1 Virtual Missions Fun has a positive impact on a
player’s energy-saving behaviour. Failed to accept 2.2 Real-World Missions Fun has a positive impact on a player’s energy-saving behaviour. Accepted
3 The combination of fun and education has a positive impact on a player’s energy behaviour. Failed to accept 4 Players prefer individual game missions to social game missions. Failed to
accept 5 Players prefer competitive game missions to
cooperative game missions. Accepted 6 Players prefer virtual game missions to real-world game missions. Failed to accept 7 Players prefer virtual game rewards to real-world game missions. Failed to
accept
8
The combination of virtual and real-world rewards has a positive impact on a player’s motivation to fulfil a game mission.
Failed to accept
6. DISCUSSION
The purpose of this study was to investigate whether the combination of fun and energy saving education increases the impact on a player’s energy behaviour. Player motivation and continuous play is required for behaviour change, hence designing the proper game missions has a significant effect on motivating players for sustained play. As mentioned in the results section, this study proves that in the real world, a game missions fun and energy education have a positive impact on a player’s energy behaviour. Therefore an effective strategy in designing game missions with the purpose of changing behaviour regarding energy efficiency is to create more real-world missions by using fun elements and energy saving education. In this case, while real-world missions are designed to stimulate behaviour change, virtual missions should be designed to emphasise the game’s narrative and create engagement. This result also supports the concept of the fun theory14. As real-world missions take place in the context of real life and real activities, they are fun and effective for changing behaviour. The result also supports the notion in behaviour change techniques that providing information is not enough on its own to change behaviour (See section 2.1). Virtual missions can provide information and create awareness; however real-world missions, besides providing information and awareness, practically engage the player in the process of saving energy and becoming energy efficient.
In addition, real-world game missions can be designed for different genders and age groups in order to create a balance between challenge and skills and therefore create flow in the game for different players. Another significant result obtained by this study is on player preference for competitive game missions. Competition is human nature. We like to compete, win and be rewarded. Since this study shows that players prefer competitiveness, competition should be kept as a basic element in designing both real-world and virtual game missions in order to create player motivation. Moreover, designing competitive missions means that players should participate in social games in order to compete against or cooperate with each other.
14 “The Fun Theory” claims that something as simple as fun is the easiest
way to change people’s behaviour for the better.
Additionally, the 72 respondents in this study included females (43%) and males (57%). However, although this study did not provide sufficient evidence to support the hypothesis on player preference for virtual or real-world game missions and rewards (hypothesis number 6 and 7), the results of the questionnaire suggest that, “females mostly prefer world missions and real-world rewards whereas males mostly prefer virtual missions and virtual rewards.” This is an important finding which should be considered in designing game missions, thereby enabling the creation of engagement and flow. Considering all these results and factors in designing energy-efficiency missions will create effective games for stimulating behaviour change regarding energy saving and therefore energy-efficient players and finally less energy consumption.
Whether the impact of fun and education on behaviour change is a long-term or short-term effect has not been discussed in this study. As this study has been done by means of a questionnaire and in a limited time, it cannot be argued that fun or education has a long-term effect on behaviour change. In addition, this study provides a number of non-significant results (hypotheses number 3, 4, 6, 7 and 8) and hence does not support those hypotheses. However, non-significant results can still increase confidence in the null hypothesis being false and the high probability value could be caused by the small number of respondents, therefore it is not definitely evident that the null hypothesis is true for these hypotheses. Lastly, this study could possibly create more reliable results by conducting an experiment and observing the players behaviour. Whereas reading the definition of the missions in questionnaire gives the respondents an idea about the game and missions, playing the actual game may result in completely different opinions. Conducting an experiment with different game missions could therefore generate better results for this study.
7. FUTURE WORK
As this study was necessarily limited in scope, considering the time constraints and the small number of participants, follow-up research should be done to investigate the motivating missions and motivating rewards for target. Another related topic, which needs to be studied, is the possibility of cheating in real-world missions, possible solutions for this issue and possible methods to check if a player truly fulfilled the real-world missions. Conducting an experiment using the game missions designed by this study is suggested in order to study the player’s experience. Moreover, designing a follow-up questionnaire for participants of the experiment could measure whether the impact on a player’s behaviour is long term or short- term.
8. CONCLUSION
This study investigated the impact of fun and education (in game missions) on a player’s energy behaviour. Since behaviour change is a major objective in many serious games, use of proper factors and behaviour change techniques is essential in order to achieve the desired behaviour. Therefore, in designing game missions, individual, social and environmental factors should be considered,
in addition to constant feedback and captivating narrative that can stimulate the behaviour change.
Furthermore, a game for behaviour change must educate the players by providing useful information in parallel with proper behaviour change technique(s). Games for behaviour change should be able to persuade the players that they are entertaining games and offer the players a sense of competence and autonomy to motivate them for sustainable play. In order to create fun and engagement in a game, there should be a balance between the challenge that the game offers and the abilities of the players, which is defined as flow by Csikszentmihalyi (1990).
A serious game that is able to create flow is more likely to succeed in stimulating behaviour change as the game provides information and educates the players without creating anxiety or boredom. Therefore creating flow in game missions is of great importance in the process of designing for behaviour change. In addition, game missions can be categorized in various ways. A proper choice of mission type (e.g. social or individual, cooperative or competitive and virtual or real-world.) motivates the player to fulfil the missions and hence increases the probability of achieving the objective of the game and the desired behaviour.
As the results of this study suggest, in designing a game with the purpose of energy efficiency, real-world missions should contain fun and educational elements in order to have a significant effect on a player’s energy behaviour. Virtual missions should be designed next to the real-world missions to strengthen game play and place emphasis on the narrative of the game. Competitive and social aspects should be included in both virtual and real-world missions. Lastly, effective strategies for designing game missions for behaviour change will bring together all the mentioned factors and create a balance between those factors.
9. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author would like to thank Dr. Andre Nusselder and Dr. Sander Bakkes and Gerben Kijne for their valuable feedback as supervisors to this study. Additionally, special thanks to Clicks and links for providing the opportunity to work on this interesting project and lastly, thanks to all the participants of this study.
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Appendix 1
Abraham and Michie’s 40 behaviour change techniques
Behaviour Change Technique Definition Type of Technique 1. Provide information on consequences of behaviour in general
Provides information about the relationship between the behaviour and its possible or likely consequences in the general case, usually based on epidemiological data, and not personalized for the target.
Information
2. Provide information on consequences of behaviour
to the Target
Provides information about the benefits and costs of action or inaction to the target based on those targets characteristics (e.g. demographics, clinical, behavioural or psychological information). This can include any costs/ benefits and not necessarily those related to health, e.g. feelings.
Information
3. Provide information about others’ approval
Provides information about what others think about the behaviour and whether others will approve or disapprove of any proposed behaviour change.
Information
4. Provide normative information about others’
behaviour
Provides information about what other people are doing i.e. indicates that a particular behaviour or sequence of behaviours is common or uncommon amongst the population or a specified group.
Information
5. Provide information on affective consequences
Provides information concerning how the target IMB, TPB information may/will feel if she/he performs or does not perform the behaviour, including enjoyment and anticipation of regret.
Information
6. Fear Arousal
Involves presentation of risk and/or mortality information relevant to the behaviour as emotive images designed to evoke a fearful response (e.g. “smoking kills!” or images of horrendous collision scenes).
Information
7. Goal setting (behaviour) The target is encouraged to make a behavioural resolution (e.g. take more exercise next week). This is directed towards encouraging target to decide to change or maintain a change.
Planning
8. Goal setting (outcome)
The target is encouraged to set a general goal that can be achieved by behavioural means but is not defined in terms of behaviour (e.g. to reduce blood pressure or lose/maintain weight), as opposed to a goal based on changing behaviour as such. The goal may be an expected consequence of one or more behaviours, but is not behaviour per se.
Planning
9. Action planning
Involves detailed planning of what the target will do. Should include; when, in which situation, and/or where to act. “When” may describe frequency (such as how many times a day/week or duration).
Planning
10. Barrier identification/problem
solving
This presumes the formation of an initial plan to SCogT Planning change behaviour. The target is prompted to think about potential barriers and identify ways of overcoming them. Barriers may include competing goals in specified situations. This may be described as “problem solving” in relation to particular behaviours. Examples of barriers may include behavioural, cognitive, emotional, environmental, social and/or physical barriers.
Planning
11. Set graded tasks
Breaking down the desired behaviour into smaller easier to achieve tasks and enabling the target to build on small successes to achieve the behaviour. This may include increments towards the desired behaviour, or incremental increases from baseline behaviour.
Implementing
12. Prompting generalization of a target behaviour
Once a behaviour is performed in a particular situation, OC Implementing the target is encouraged or helped to try it in another situation. The idea is to ensure that the behaviour is not tied to one situation but becomes a more integrated part of the target’s life that can be performed at a variety of different times and in a variety of
contexts. 13. Use of follow up
prompts
Sending letters, making telephone calls, visits or follow up meetings after the main intervention has been completed.
Implementing
14. Prompt rewards contingent on effort or progress towards behaviour
Involves using praise or rewards for attempts at achieve a behavioural goal. This might include efforts made towards achieving the behaviour, or progress made in preparatory steps towards the behaviour, but not merely participation in intervention. This can include self-reward.
Feeling good
15. Provide rewards contingent on successful
behaviour
Reinforcing successful performance of the specific OC Feeling good desired behaviour. This can include praise and encouragement as well as material rewards but the reward/incentive must be explicitly linked to the achievement of the specific behaviour i.e. the target receives the reward if they perform the specified behaviour but not if they do not perform the behaviour.
This can include self-reward.
Feeling good
16. Shaping
Contingent rewards are first provided for any approximation to the desired behaviour e.g. for any increase in physical activity. Then, later, only for a more demanding performance, e.g. brisk walking for 10 minutes on three days a week would be rewarded. Thus, this is graded use of contingent rewards over time.
Feeling good
17. Prompting focus on past success
Involves instructing the target to think about or list previous successes in performing the behaviour (or parts of it).
Feeling good
18. Prompt identification as role model/position advocate
Involves focusing on how the target may be an example to others and affect others behaviour e.g. being a good example to children. Also includes providing opportunities for targets to persuade others of the importance of adopting/changing the behaviour, e.g. giving a talk or running a peer-led session.
Feeling good
19. Relapse prevention/coping planning
Planning how to maintain behaviour that has been changed. Feeling good
20. Stimulate anticipation of future rewards
Create anticipation of future rewards without necessarily reinforcing behaviour throughout the active period of the intervention.
Feeling good
21. Prompt review of behavioural goals
Involves a review or analysis of the extent to which previously set behavioural goals (e.g. take more exercise next week) were achieved.
Monitoring
22. Prompt review of outcome goals
Involves a review or analysis of the extent to which previously set outcome goals (e.g. to reduce blood pressure or lose/maintain weight) were achieved.
Monitoring
23. Prompt self-monitoring of behaviour
The target is asked to keep a record of specified behaviour/s as a method for changing behaviour. This should be an explicitly stated intervention component.
Monitoring
24. Prompt self-monitoring of behavioural outcome
The target is asked to keep a record of specified measures expected to be influenced by the behaviour change, e.g. blood pressure, blood glucose, weight loss, physical fitness.
Monitoring
25. Teach to use prompts/cues
The target is taught to identify environmental prompts, which can be used to remind them to perform the behaviour (or to perform an alternative, incompatible behaviour in the case of behaviours aimed at being reduced). Cues could include times of day, particular contexts or technologies such as mobile phone alerts, which prompt them to perform the desired behaviour.
Monitoring
26. Environmental restructuring
The target is prompted to alter the environment in ways so that it is more supportive of the desired behaviour.
Monitoring
27. Provide feedback on
performance, identifying a discrepancy between behavioural performance and a set goal, or a discrepancy between the targets own performance in relation to others.
28. Provide information on where and when to perform
the behaviour
Involves telling the target when and where they might be able to
perform the behaviour. This can be in either verbal or written form. Teaching 29. Provide instruction on
how to perform the behaviour
Involves telling the target how to perform a behaviour or preparatory
behaviours, either verbally or in written form. Teaching
30. Model/demonstrate the behaviour
Involves showing the target how to perform a behaviour e.g. through physical or visual demonstrations of behavioural performance, in person or remotely.
Teaching
31. Agree behavioural contract
Must involve written agreement on the performance of an explicitly specified behaviour so that there is a written record of the target’s resolution witnessed by another.
Agreeing
32. Prompt practice Prompt the target to rehearse and repeat the behaviour or preparatory behaviours numerous times. Agreeing 33. Facilitate social
comparison
Involves explicitly drawing attention to others’ performance to elicit comparisons.
Supporting
34. Plan social support/social change
Involves prompting the target to plan how to elicit social support from other people to help him/her achieve their desired behaviour/outcome. This may include support during interventions e.g. setting up a “buddy” system, or other forms of support from the individuals delivering the intervention, partner, friends and/or family.
Supporting
35. Prompt self talk Encourage the target to talk to themselves (aloud or silently) before and during planned behaviours to encourage, support and maintain action.
Managing
36. Prompt use of imagery
Teaching the target to imagine successfully performing the behaviour or to imagine finding it easy to perform the behaviour, including component or easy versions of the behaviour.
Managing
37. Stress management/emotional
control training
This is a set of specific techniques (e.g., progressive Managing relaxation), which do not address the behaviour directly but seek to reduce anxiety and stress to facilitate the performance of the behaviour. They might also include techniques designed to reduce negative emotions or control mood or feelings that may interfere with performance of the behaviour, and/or to increase positive emotions that might help with the performance of the behaviour.
Managing
38. Motivational interviewing
This is a specific set of techniques prompting the target to engage in talk of changing their behaviour to motivate then minimize their resistance to change.
Managing
39. Time management
This includes any technique designed to teach a target how to manage their time in order to make time for the behaviour. These techniques are not directed towards performance of target behaviour but rather seek to facilitate it by freeing up times when it could be performed.
Managing
40. General communication skills training
This includes any technique directed at general communication skills but not directed towards a particular behaviour change. Often this may include role-play and group work focusing on listening, assertive and/or negotiation skills, and resisting social pressures.
Appendix 2
List of missions for Age of Energy
Nr Type Multiplayer Single or Description
1 Real-world Singleplayer Remembering to turn off lights (every morning for one week when leaving the house) 2 Real-world Single player Buy smart meter
3 Real-world Single player Connect to smart meter
4 Real-world Single player Cleaning out the freezer (reduces power consumption) 5 Real-world Single player Eliminating Standby Power demand
6 Real-world Single player Running the washing machine in the evenings (for an entire week). 7 Real-world Single player Lowering the thermostat before going to bed (week)
8 Real-world Single player Using CO2 friendly transport (bike, walk, public transport, etc.)
9 Real-world Single player Achievements (such as renting a bicycle, using car sharing program, etc.). 10 Real-world Single player Put on a jumper before turning up the thermostat when I’m feeling cold. 11 Real-world Single player Take shorter showers.
12 Real-world Single player Take colder showers.
13 Real-world Single player Do my laundry at a lower temperature.
14 Real-world Single player Wait with doing the laundry until I have a full load.
15 Real-world Single player Hang out my clothes to dry instead of using the tumble dryer. 16 Real-world Single player Install double-glazed windows.
17 Real-world Single player Insulate the house by sealing leaks. 18 Real-world Single player Install solar panels on the roof.
19 Real-world+virtual world Multi player Defeating a Big Boss with your teammates.
20 Real-world+virtual world Multi player Going out to rescue more survivors
21 Real-world Multi player Visit a place that can teach you something about energy saving.
22 Real-world Multi player Discovering a cool, new place in my neighborhood.
23 Real-world Multi player Helping out my neighbours (e.g. get some groceries for my elderly neighbour).
24 Virtual world Multi player Form a team
25 Virtual world Multi player Share on social media
27 Real-world Single player Replace your traditional lights with Eco lights
28 Real-world Single player Boil only the water you intend to use when you boil a kettle, for a month.
29 Real-world Multi player Invite one friend to play the game as well
30 Real-world Multi player Share 5 energy saving tips with 2 neighbours
31 Real-world Single player Compare your energy bill after a month of playing the game with previous bill
32 Real-world Multi player Visit a friend’s house who plays the game as energy inspector and try to find out what aspects still can be improved
33 Real-world Single player Think of 5 proper energy efficiency aspect that can be applied at your work place in order to save energy
34
Virtual world Multi player Ask your friends on social media, if they are aware that with applying simple energy efficiency tips they can save on their energy bills and contribute to have a cleaner environment
35 Virtual world Single player Find a hidden quiz in the game environment and get bonus by having 80% correct answers 36 Virtual world Single player Increase your population to 20/100/250
37 Virtual world Single player Steal 200/2000/10000 food from other players
38 Virtual world Single player Build 5/10/20 defensive buildings
39 Virtual world Single player Stop 100/1000/10000 attackers
40 Virtual world Single player Increase your town guards to 15/30/45
41 Virtual world Single player Win 100/1000/10000 skirmishes
42 Virtual world Single player Destroy 100/1000/10000 walls with a charger
43 Virtual world Single player Steal 100/1000/10000 building materials
44 Virtual world Single player Destroy 100/1000/10000 electricity production buildings
45 Real world Single player Real-life scavenger hunt 6 Real-world+
virtual world Resource Donation Ponzi Scheme
