Insight into Film-induced Tourism : how do a film viewer transfer into a traveller?

Insight into Film-induced Tourism

How do a film viewer transfer into a traveller?

Author: Yulin Wen (11578467) Supervisor: Renske van Bronswijk

Date: 30 January 2019 Word count: 8875

Master’s Thesis

Master’s program Communication Science University of Amsterdam

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Abstract

With the rapid development of film and TV industries, people are increasingly exposed to new media contents from various media platforms. Since tourism products (such as travel destinations) can be seen in movies or TV series, this exposure serves as a promotion, even if unintentionally. Because of this, tourism that is induced by films has become a hot topic among professionals as well as the public. People want to know how films successfully motivate different audiences to take actual visits, as well as how films influence their attitudes towards and behaviours at film destinations. This thesis aims to explore the underlying psychological process wherein a film tourist transfer into a traveller. Based on 11 semi-structured interviews, this thesis found four major findings: 1) compared to cognitive information, the affective perception towards a destination is more important for film tourists in regards to their travel decisions. 2) the major influences that films have on people's destination choices includes forming travel inspiration, shaping expectations, attaching emotional feelings, and sharing various understandings of a destination. 3) appreciating beautiful scenery is the most important motivation for people to travel to a film destination, while the influences of other film elements (settings, actors/actresses) are conditional and limited. 4) there is a reverse phenomenon where a tourist who has visited a film destination is more likely to watch films related to the destination after his or her return. Although the samples used in this thesis are limited to a small group of young graduates, hopefully it can provide several potential directions for future studies.

Keyword: film-induced tourism; motivations; cognitive; affective; destination image; emotional; film; film tourists

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Introduction

Popular media has had a close relationship with tourism for a long time. Before the development of film and television, written works were considered the primary information source for mass audiences (Beeton, 2016). However, literary tourism was limited to a relatively small group of book lovers. With contemporary television and movie industries, tourism induced by popular media can no longer be regarded as a random activity, but should be seen as a considerably widespread phenomenon (Reijnders, 2016). It is estimated that Salzburg, the Austrian city, attracted 300,000 to 400,000 visitors after the release of The

Sound of Music (Hazelton, 2017), while the Wallace Monument had a threefold increase in

tourism due to the success of Braveheart (Championtravel, 2017). More recently, popular films, such as Frozen, Game of Thrones and Mission impossible, have hugely influenced tourism in Norway, Croatia and Sydney respectively (Championtravel, 2017; Taylor, 2018). This sort of tourism induced by televisions or film is often labelled "TV tourism", "screen tourism", "movie tourism", "cinematic tourism", "film-induced tourism", "film-motivated tourism" etc.

Although much of the literature uses film tourism and film-induced tourism interchangeably, small differences still exist between them. According to Rittichainuwat and Rattanaphinanchai (2014), ‘film tourism’ describes all incidental tourist activities at film-shooting locations, while film-induced tourism emphasises that tourists' visits to and activities at film locations are motivated by films (Croy & Heitmann, 2011). This thesis will use the term “film-induced tourism” to be specific to this paper’s intentions. ‘Film-induced

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tourism’ is defined as “tourist visits to a destination or attraction as a result of the destination featured on the cinema screen, video or in television” (Busby & Klug, 2001, p.318).

In our media-saturated society, many companies attempt to influence purchase decisions via the planned entry of branded products or services in movies or television programmes, commonly described as product placement (Balasubramanian, 1994; Chan, Petrovici & Lowe, 2016). In film-induced tourism, tourism products (e.g. travel destinations) can be seen in a movie or TV series and serves as a promotion, even if unintentionally. Many film destinations become well-known not because of any deliberate attempt, but because viewers are emotionally attracted by the storylines or characters and unconsciously change their perceptions towards the film destination (Sousa & Silva, 2018). In contrast, sometimes media contents designed to intentionally advertise tourism products fail to achieve their expected goals. Even worse, films tourists may be discouraged from travelling if such media contents present the destination improperly or negatively (Pratt, 2015). People wonder why tourism product placements in films can have such different results. Rittichainuwat et al. (2014) points out that the variability of these results may partly related to the various perceptions tourists hold towards films and film-induced destinations.

Therefore, it is important to analyse how audiences evaluate film-induced tourism differently. This is especially important for professionals in the tourist industry, because in order to provide visitors with better travel experiences in these film destinations it is necessary for them to explore the perceptions and expectations of film tourists. Also, this topic is important for professionals in the movie and TV industries. Nowadays, what audiences consume is no longer merely the trendiest films recommended by traditional media,

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but those patterned after their own individual media consumptions, especially in regard to the rapid development of dynamic computing methodology (McDevitt, Pizzuto & Lipan, 2018). Riley, Baker, and Van Doren (1998) predicted that the influence of the most popular films on related tourist areas could last between three and four years, but nowadays, since people can easily access personalized and even niche films through changing and updating playlists on digital channels (e.g., media streamer, smart TV) (McDevitt et al., 2018), the influence of films on tourism may be more long-lasting. It implies something new and different in the field of film-induced tourism may emerge, and deserves further consideration.

Currently, there exist two gaps between film-induced tourism and media studies. First, many previous studies discussed film-induced tourism from the viewpoint of economic and marketing perspectives, but few empirical studies focused on media and psychological perspectives. Second, audience's media consumption patterns have been changed with the emergence of streaming platforms (e.g., Netflix) (Benesch, 2017, McDevitt et al., 2018), so how these new patterns influence the tourism industry deserves a new round of exploration. Therefore, this thesis will try to explore the underlying factors that transfer a film viewer into a film tourist in the current media environment, and how these factors vary with the individual. This thesis hopes to add new research topics to the fields of media, entertainment and tourism.

Theoretical framework

When it comes to tourism, the concept of ‘destination image’ cannot be ignored. It is defined as "an individual's mental representation of knowledge (beliefs), feelings and overall

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perception of a particular destination (Chen & Tsai, 2007)." A destination image encompasses a tourist's whole perception towards a destination, composed of both affective and cognitive components (Baloglu & Macleary, 1999). Affective components refer to feelings about a destination, while cognitive components represent beliefs and knowledge of a destination, mainly about tangible physical attributes.

In film-induced tourism, the screen contents influence viewers/tourists' affective and cognitive destination images collectively (Chen et al., 2007). The elements (e.g., settings and sceneries) presented on the screen are perceived by film viewers, serving as ‘raw materials’ to form the destination images they will plan their future trip around. Additionally, unlike advertising, films are usually broadcast for a relatively long period of time, providing more detail and information to tourists, so the effects on tourism can be more considerable and long-term (Young and Young, 2010).

Moreover, a destination image is determined by both stimulus factors (e.g., information sources, distribution and previous experience) and personal factors (e.g., psychological and social characteristics) (Baloglu et al., 1999). Because of this, the influence of films on people’s destination image can be conditional. Individuals with different personal traits form different destination images, even if they watch the same film. Considering these various destination images, people may travel for multiple motivations. Pearce and Lee (2005) concluded that all travel motivations belong to one of these four categories: novelty, escapism/relaxation, self-development, and relationships. These four travel motivations largely influence tourists' travel attitudes towards and behaviours at a destination. Basically, tourists who promoted by films can be categorized into one of these four.

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Although there exist various motivations for travelling, King (2002) emphasises that “travel is increasingly more about experiences, fulfilment and rejuvenation than about ‘places and things’” (p.105). More recently, Elliot and Papadopoulos (2016) noted that compared to cognitive perceptions towards a destination, an affective destination image was more tightly associated with tourist’s “belief and receptivity to travel” (p.1163). This implies a trend where people have become more focused on what they can feel and experience in their trips, rather than on physical products or services. Since films enable people to build an emotional attachment to destinations by creating a strong storyline and arousing viewers’ admirations towards characters (Kim et al., 2012), a more affective destination image is formed accordingly. Currently, very few studies have directly compared the different influences of films on tourist’s affective and cognitive destination images. Therefore, the RQ1 is: How do films influence tourist’s affective and cognitive destination images differently?

From film-viewers to destination-visitors

Since films partly shape viewers’ destination images, which then motivates film viewers to visit shooting locations as visitors, it is interesting to explore the psychological changes that occur in the shift from a film-viewer to a destination-visitor. Researchers have dug into this topic further, and given some interesting findings.

Many studies have specifically explored the influences of films on travel motivations (Riley and Van Doren 1992; Kim, Agrusa, Lee & Chon, 2007; Bolan & Willian, 2008; Robinson, Heitmann & Dieke, 2011; Meneguel, Santos & Lima, 2017). Young and Young (2010) interpreted that film exposures unnecessarily predict tourist's visits to shooting

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locations. This means that tourists travel to shooting locations incidentally, merely because these locations were included in their tour packages (Robinson et al., 2011). However, more recent studies focused more on specifically ‘film-induced’ tourism - tourist’s intentional visits to film destinations. They found that people who had a stronger affective destination image in their minds would more actively visit filming locations, since they had an emotional connection to the places involved (Elliot and Papadopoulos, 2016, Hamzah et al., 2016;

Garner, 2018; Šegota, 2018).

In film-induced tourism, most films inform viewers of places rather than necessarily direct their travel decision-making process in a specific way (Robinson et al., 2011). On the one hand, successful films increase the visibility of shooting locations (Meneguel et al., 2017), but Rittichainuwat et al. (2014) pointed out that increased destination awareness might not contribute to specific visits. Only film tourists with emotional attachments will visit film destinations specifically. On the other hand, films can increase visitor’s favourability of shooting destinations (Roesch, 2009). Such favourability is related to novelty, prestige and personalisation (Robinson et al., 2011). Taking pictures at shooting locations is then an important motivation for viewer's specific visitations. Again, this phenomenon usually appeared when tourists happened to be in general film-shooting areas, rather than visiting there intentionally (Robinson et al., 2011).

Although most studies have pointed out tourists visits to film destination were unintentional or random activities (Young et al, 2010; Robinson et al, 2011; Rittichainuwat et al, 2014), more recent studies began to explore intentional visits that are pursued out of personal interests (Hamzah, Aminudin, Mustapha, and Ismail, 2016; Garner, 2018; Šegota,

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Hamzah et al. (2016) found that to gain a unique experience was the most important motivation for tourists when they were considering travelling to film locations proactively.

Garner (2018) noted that tourists felt immersed and pleased when visiting a film destination that sought to “recreate the show’s narrative pleasure” (p.446). This implied that tourists who were motivated by films actively tried to represent scenes from the films to gain a better travel experience. Also, since films succeed in "emphasising the extraordinariness of ordinary, must-see tourism products" (Šegota, 2018, para.2), people are able to see different understandings of a location by watching films, and are consequently more interested in travelling to the places and sites shown.

Researchers have also noted that feelings of familiarity were associated with tourists' intentional visits film destinations. Riley et al. (1992) observed that visual elements in films decreased the perceived risks of visiting a film place, and increased a viewer’s knowledge and familiarity with the shooting locations. A more recent study by Kim and Kim (2017) linked this cognitive perception to the viewer’s emotional states, and found casual relationships between nostalgia and familiarity in the context of film-induced tourism. Hamzah et al. (2016) also indicated that “Nostalgia, romance, personal pilgrimage and fulfilling personal dreams” (p.456) motivated tourists to travel with the aim of visiting film locations specifically. This implies that, in our globalised modern society where people have various information channels, the feeling of familiarity is not merely associated with the abundance of information, but more with the emotion attached to films.

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explanation. Kim et al. (2007) pointed out that the interest and empathy for leading stars increases fans’ preferences for films and increases their motivations to visit film destinations. Reijnders, Waysdorf, Zwaan, and Duits (2017) indicated that the places used by media producers became “sites for fan gatherings” (p.9), and so it was the fans in addition to the media that gave these places special meanings. Linden and Linden (2016) noted fans of stars (e.g., Elvis Presley) would visit the places where stars “came from or have lived, and anything included in their body of work, and idols of their own, or places referred to in their works” (p.108), while fans of films (e.g., Harry Potter) usually “visited studio sites and film locations, joined walking tours and bus tours" (p.113). This implied a small distinction between fans of stars and films that was seldom discussed before. Further, Jenkins and Deuze (2008) noted the importance of online communities for fans, regarding the current socialised media context. Gray, Sandvoss and Harrington (2017) further explained that a fan’s experience is one of “a duality of community and identity” (p.11), which means being a fan is not only about engaging oneself into fan communities, but also about conducting individual fan behaviours (e.g., collecting). Few previous studies have discussed this attribute of fan’s specific visits to film destinations (individual or communal).

However, not all viewers want to travel after watching a film. Sometimes, fans are reluctant to visit film destinations. Because films shape their specific expectations of a shooting place (Robinson et al., 2011), they become afraid of destroying their ideal destination images and thus refuse to take an actual journey. Bolan et al. (2008) pointed out that people wished to recapture a destination in the same way that it was portrayed in films, but films, by their nature, distort the reality of the actual place. This inconsistency is very

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likely to disappoint visitors, as the film beautifies and idealises actual locations.

Conclusively, most previous studies pointed out the influences of films on tourist visits to shooting destinations were conditional and indirect. However, TCI Research (2017) revealed that 80-million travellers actively selected their destinations based on films and TV series. This shows an obvious trend, where an increasing number of tourists are actively travelling to film destinations, rather than going by there or passively visiting followed by tours guides. RQ2: How do films motivate tourists to travel to film destinations specifically?

Film genre counts

In reality, we found that some movies attract more tourists than others. If storylines and locations are closely interrelated, film viewers will link the emotions they gained from the film with the shooting sites, and thus their motivations to travel to the shooting location are increased (Hudson et al., 2006). Wong, Lee & Lee (2015) used Narrative Transportation Theory (Gerrig, 1993) to explain this phenomenon. An individual's destination image is significantly influenced by the narrative intensity in contents. The level of narrativity is tightly related to film types and themes (Wong et al., 2015). Since the genre of a film can elicit an audience's particular expectations towards that film, film genre becomes an important consideration in this study. Current literature has provided several findings on the relationship between film genres and film-induced tourism.

First, Park and Berger (2010) indicated that different genres evoke viewers' emotions in different ways. Comedy mainly helps audiences to laugh and escape from real life through exaggerated situations, characters' actions and language. Action movies, in contrast, offer a

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different emotion (e.g., the feeling of tension) to viewers through non-stop motion sequences, chase scenes, intensive sounds and rhythms (Park and Berger, 2010). Since different film genres can influence viewers’ affective destination images by releasing different emotions, the travel intentions would be affected accordingly.

Second, different genres maintain very different levels of authenticity. Films that present a more authentic image of the destination tend to be more successful in attracting film tourists (Hudson et al., 2005). For example, Hudson et al. (2015) considered that since historical films present more authentic settings in the foreground of the story, they allow for deeper impressions on viewers’ minds. However, Kim and Jamal (2007) doubted that the authenticity of information was important for general visitors, as it was proved to be unnecessary for those visitors who hoped to “enjoy heightened bodily feelings, or express, regain, or reconstruct a sense of desired self” (p.181). These visitors might not concentrate on the extent to which a film can provide authentic information, but on the extent to which they can feel mentally relaxed if they were to travel to the real filming sites.

Third, different film genres portray a destination based on their own specific characteristics, which means they may present film elements (e.g., music, settings) differently. Sousa et al. (2018) noted that a film that focuses on characters and plots rather than on locations themselves had a bigger influence on tourists' affective destination image than their cognitive image. Shani, Wang, Hudson and Gil (2009) pointed out that when people watched historical movies, ecotourism features (e.g., landscapes, scenery & culture) mainly increased their desires to visit the shooting destination, instead of the plot and characters. Kim (2007) indicated that for romantic TV series, visitors travelled to film destinations mainly out of their

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admiration for leading actors/actress. Therefore, how to present film elements (e.g., scenery, setting, storyline) in various film genres can significantly influence tourists' travel intentions.

Many previous studies chose a specific film genre as their research objects, but few studies compare the influences of various film genres on tourism. Different film genres can evoke different mechanisms of change in the viewer's mind by presenting film elements in different ways. Therefore, RQ3 is: how people perceive various film genres, and how specific elements in films affect their attitudes and behaviours at film destinations.

Method

Compared to quantitative studies, an extensive range of information and data are more likely to be gained in qualitative studies. Considering the flexibility and interactivity of in-depth interviews, this thesis decides to use this method to explore the underlying mechanism wherein a film viewer transfer into a film traveller. In order to explore the topic, 11 semi-structured interviews were conducted to gather information on four subtopics, including their descriptions of film viewing behaviours, their perceptions towards films and film genres, their travel motivations and previous experiences, as well as their attitudes towards film-induced tourism (See Appendix 1, the interview guideline). Interviews were conducted in-person at study rooms or canteens in the University of Amsterdam. At the beginning of each interview, interviewees were required to declare their informed consents audibly. Each interview lasted for about 30-60 minutes, during which interviewees freely express their opinions and attitudes towards each subtopic. Snacks and drinks were offered. At

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the end of interviews, interviewees could ask additional questions.

Sample

Interviewees were mainly recruited from the University of Amsterdam campus, with four males and seven females. Because of the limited time and resources, participants are recruited from personal contacts (e.g., friends, colleagues), within a relatively young age group (22- to 29-year-old). Fortunately, it means they all live through the rise of streaming platforms and can use digital technologies with ease. This attribute of participants helps to explore the influence of new media technology. To explore more diverse opinions, interviewees were recruited from six different majors, namely Economy and Business, Communication Science, Computer Science, Physics, Artificial Intelligent and Pharmaceutical Science. Participants all indicated that they were interested in both travels and films.

Data collection and analysis

This thesis used grounded theory as a systematic methodology to explore this topic. By using ATLAS.ti 8, all interviews were recorded, transcribed, and coded by one researcher. The inductive thematic analysis technique was used for data analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2006). Based on first four interviews, the codebook was developed. All codes were selected carefully in order to generate a set of themes grasping the essences of the interviews. Finally, the researcher organized the theme labels and definitions by merging, adding, or removing redundant codes. Refined themes and representative quotations were discussed in the results

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section. The conceptual framework (See Appendix 2) for the study included two sensitising concepts – cognition and affection, which provided an analytic frame serving as a guide in the data analysing process.

Cognition

The cognitive component refers to the beliefs or knowledge a person has of the characteristics or

attributes of a tourist destination (Martín & Bosque, 2008, p.264). The cognitive component of an attitude can be made salient by requiring persons to list the reasons for liking or disliking an attitude

object (e.g., list why they feel the way they do) (Millar & Tesser, 1986, para.9).

Affection

The affective dimension is represented by the individual’s feelings toward the tourist destination (Martín et al., 2008, p.264). The affective components of the attitude can be made salient by requiring

persons to list the feelings they experience in the presence of the attitude object (Millar et al., 1986,

para.9).

Results

The result part will present the underlying process wherein a film viewer transfer into a film traveller. Here, "films" included both movies and TV series, as most participants didn’t separate them.

The influences of films on travel attitudes and behaviours

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gain emotional feelings, to acquire various understandings of film destinations. From these four perspectives, films influence people's attitudes towards and behaviours at shooting destinations.

Inspiration and expectation. Films inspired people to travel to film destinations, and partly shaped their expectations towards the places. The study showed that films gave people a general impression about a destination, rather than specific information (e.g., tips, routes and local transportation). Most participants turned to other sources (e.g., the Internet) for detailed information after they got inspired by a movie. A participant thought films, just like a clue, inspired her to travel to a country. When she needed to make a final decision, she would search for and combine various practical information (e.g., money, time and weather).

If I decide to visit there, apart from some knowledge I gained from the books or novel, from movies or

tv series, I will search it in the Wikipedia and combine my previous knowledge. Only if I have a good

expectation, then I will visit there.

Also, participants thought it was important to know the opinions from friends, families and previous visitors. A participant noted,

When I choose a travel destination, I usually go by different factors, not only the movies. It is more

about other people’s experiences. Like my friends’ opinions, whether they think it is a cool place or

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Additionally, some participant indicated that if they had decided the next travel destination, they would deliberately watch films related to that destination. A participant said,

I think movies can help me to know more about the place. It will remind me of something in the movie

when actually travelling… I feel I can travel like a local.

In this situation, people hoped to be informed by films, and then formed expectations towards their future visits. Notably, for those film viewers with specific aims to travel, information provided by films was not merely facts but also emotional stimulations. For example, one participant said that if he knew for certain he would visit a location, he wanted to watch a movie shot there because this made him “more excited and desperate to travel”. So, people who watch films with deliberate travel intentions can view the locations in films from different perspectives, compared to those without specific aims.

It is worth noting that, the extent to which a person would be inspired by films to travel, partly depends on the level of popularity of the destination. When a location is not so famous or popular among the public, a related film can be the only information source for tourists. In such circumstances, how films present a place hugely influences people’s perceptions and expectations towards there. For example, a participant’s perception of Bruges was largely formed by a film, In Bruges.

I knew Bruges by watching the movie In Bruges. Because of this movie, I always considering Bruges as a dark and gloomy Belgian town. Until travelled there, I found Bruges was completely the opposite,

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quiet and bright.

In contrast, if the shooting location was already famous (e.g., New York, London), most participants indicated they travelled to there not primarily for films. Instead, they travelled to New York just because New York was a must-visit city in their minds. Because they already gained much knowledge from different information sources (e.g., news, friends, books), their travel intentions and expectations towards the destination were hardly affected by one film. Also, they seldom visited filming sites in famous cities on purpose unless they happened to be there, because they already knew many interesting things to do.

Also, the reasons for watching films are related to people’s intentions to visit film destinations. The result showed that most participants watched films for relaxation and fun, and some participants for social reasons. For the latter, they watched commercial movies with friends, in order to increase common topics or expand social contacts. A participant said,

I don't have preferences over films. I usually watch some influential movies which are popular on

social media. Sometimes my friends ask me to watch a movie, so I think it is a kind of social meanings.

Films were not watched for their own sake, but rather as a tool for them to gain an intimate relation. In this situation, visiting the filming location seemed not the same attractive and inspiring for them as for those people who were more focused on the content of films.

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thus enriching their travel experience. The interviews indicated that, films emotionally prepared people to visit the film locations, and allowed them to form affective destination images. For example, a participant usually wanted to get a feeling of a location by watching related films, as it helped him to gain a better travel experience. In order to feel what the main characters felt in films, people sometimes repeated specific film plots at these locations. A participant who watched Good Will Hunting indicated, he wanted to visit Boston and to sit on the bench, feeling what Robin Williams felt in the movie. However, most participants repeated film plots at film destinations only if it was really easy to conduct.

In addition, people considered “film” as a determinant factor when selecting travel destinations, especially among similar alternatives. Three participants indicated they would choose a film destination over other similar alternatives, because they felt more related. They also felt more fulfilled and happier after visiting a destination where their favourite films were shot. For example, two participants indicated that they decided to travel Croatia rather than other similar European countries, because the fictional entertainment content in Game of

Thrones made Croatia different and more attractive.

Visiting film destinations was also related to identity formation, mainly the feeling of being different. Basically, most participants tended to create a personalised travel experience. By watching films, people gained special or extra feelings relating to the destinations. These feelings differentiated them from other "normal" tourists. Further, they felt that their travel destinations were chosen out of their interests, rather than on recommendations of others (e.g., online articles or tourism packages). A participant said:

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I travelled to different locations, and these locations are not from other's recommendations or suggestions. It absolutely came from my personal experience. I travel absolutely for myself, not for

other purposes.

As well, he never visited locations where he didn’t have feelings, even if they were very famous. Notably, the awareness of self-identity was more prominent when the participants were film lovers, or they regarded watching films as a hobby. In contrast, a participant who was not big fan of films thought inquiring destination information through movies just wasted her time. She could get the same information by reading online articles within 10 minutes. It implies that individuals with various personalities may focus on different perspectives (feelings or information) provided by films. Additionally, not all people associate their self-identities to their visits to shooting locations.

Various understandings. To satisfy the curiosity, people watch films to know various understandings of a destination. A participant liked to see how movies and episodes reflected "the different states of culture and societies." Another participant noted movies usually "used drones to shoot a bird's eye view", which was “amazing” as he could not see it on the ground. Various understandings of the locations they gained from films helped them to gain better travel experience afterwards.

Since such attractive and different destination images were presented on the screen, participants wanted to check them for real, or to compare the actual place with the screened one. The motivation for comparison was an important reason for visiting shooting places. Surprisingly, participants hardly ever felt disappointed for long with the inconsistency

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between movies and reality; any initial disappointment would soon dissipate. Instead, they felt curious about why these inconsistencies existed. A participant even said,

If I found something not so match with my imaginations, I will watch the movie again and see what is

not real.

Meanwhile, many participants noted that, because recalling films was not the main reason for them to visit film destinations, they didn't feel disappointed to the inconsistency and simply enjoyed their travels. For them, visiting a shooting destination was more like a bonus, enriching their experience. However, for those who did feel some disappointment, this tended to be directed at the film which glorified a place too much, not at their own travel experience.

Film elements and film genres

The result found that elements in films and film genres had a relation to people's attitudes towards and behaviours at shooting destinations.

Beautiful sceneries. During interviews, it became apparent that to appreciate beautiful sceneries shown in films was a major reason for people to visit filming destinations, regardless of film genres. Natural places with beautiful scenery and historic cities were commonly considered as good choices to relax. A relaxing and beautiful film setting not only contributed to enjoyment when watching this film, but also influenced people’s intentions to visit this destination. The enjoyment they gained from watching films contributed to their positive perceptions towards shooting locations.

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Film settings. Some participants indicated they didn’t want to visit somewhere really similar to where they came from. A participant said,

If a film was set in a suburban area, I don't want to visit. Because I am from that area, I know how it

works. Because it is so close to my life, because if I intend to go there, it is incredibly boring, it is not

interesting to me.

When travelling, they wanted to experience special things which attracted their attention easily. Most of special things were different from people’s previous experience. For example, a Dutch tourist expected to see hills and mountains, which were really different from the sceneries in Holland where everything was flat. Meanwhile, several participants mentioned they felt excited to see familiar places on the screen, because they knew the places, yet it didn’t mean they have interests to visit there.

Film storylines. When it comes to the relationship between shooting destinations and storylines, there were two different opinions. On the one hand, most participants thought “the scenery in films should correspond with the storyline and promote plot development”. This correspondence was considered to be important in particular film genres, including dramas, thrillers and comedies. As film stories happened in these locations, viewers would attach the feeling they gained from storylines to the locations unconsciously. For example, since many romantic movies were shot in Paris, such as Before Sunset, a participant said,

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Additionally, participants pointed out it was unnecessary for them actually to experience the fictional plots in films. They might image romantic affairs in Paris, but they expected more realistic experiences, like dining in a restaurant where some scenes were shot. Regarding such viewers' expectations, some filming locations customized special services based on films, and some participants had tried these before. For example, a participant visited the Harry Potter theme park and felt excited to try everything she saw in movies for real. Most participants thought such commercialisation was normal and common, but only attractive for real fans. Avid fans had a deeper emotional attachment to their favourite movie, so their dreams would come true if they experienced plot-related events for real. Conversely, if one was not a fan of a movie or TV series, participants thought it seemed embarrassing and even stupid to visit that film destination specifically.

On the other hand, some participants thought it was not always necessary that sceneries in films corresponded storylines, especially in Japanese animations and science fiction movies. Sometimes the sceneries or settings in films were independent of the storylines, which meant even if they were deleted or changed, the main stories would not be changed accordingly. However, these plot-unrelated sceneries indeed motivated people to travel. For example, a participant said,

In Woody Allen's European Trilogy, he showed a lot of beautiful but plot-unrelated sceneries on the

screen. They seem useless, but I was motivated by these sceneries to travel to Paris, Barcelona and Roma.

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Additionally, people who liked to escape from their mundane lives for a while by watching a film preferred less realistic but fancier and more imaginary settings. Since a completely virtual universe with adequate details made audiences more engaged in films, those plot-unrelated settings became indispensable as they helped people to image a world, thus enhancing their emotional connections to films. A participant mentioned,

For me, TV series usually were more attractive than movies, because they use more episodes to

illustrate a virtual world in detail. If I enjoyed the virtual universe deeply, I would travel to the

destination where the virtual world was filmed, like the French town Colmar where a Japanese

animation Howl's Moving Castle was filmed.

Apart from these two opposite opinions about the relationship between film storylines and locations, participants also came up with another two valuable ideas under this topic. As some genres (e.g., detective and suspense) had stronger storylines, some participants indicated they forgot or neglected film settings when storylines were too intricate. For example, a participant thought the settings in Quentin Tarantino’s movies were featured by his personal style and mainly served for the complex storylines, so the films didn’t raise her interests to travel, as her attentions were directed to follow the intense plots.

Additionally, people easily attach negative feelings to destinations when films showed potential dangers or problems in the places. For example, a participant was concerned more about American visa problems after watching The Terminal in which the main character was

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trapped in an America airport due to his visa, while another participant also mentioned she would give priority to the security of a cruise after watching Titanic. Therefore, if a film portrayed a location in a relatively negative way, a negative bias effect would hugely influence their final travel decisions.

Preference for actors/actresses. Among the interviewed participants, the preference for actors/actresses was a reason for people to watch a film, but not a strong motivation to travel to filming locations. Unlike those fans of films (they thought good actors/actresses helped them to establish emotional connections to films, which increased their interests in travelling), fans of actors/actress would watch films intentionally because their favourite stars played a role in those films. A participant indicated,

I usually watch a film for a handsome actor or a beautiful actress. Even if the storyline was not so

good, I still feel interested and satisfied.

Although most participants never went to a filming location out of fandom as they felt embarrassed, they admitted that the preference for actors/actresses made fans feel more connected to a shooting destination.

Music in films. Many participants pointed out music had a relation to the location of a film. By uniting hearing and viewing, music and sound effects enhanced the film viewing experience. For example, a participant noted,

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gives me a feeling of fear, making the hotel more isolated and scarier.

Similarly, another participant thought, the Flamenco music in Vicky Cristina Barcelona gave Spain an exotic and mysterious feeling.

Documentary. Although most of this research was about fictional contents, it was worth noting that participants thought the documentary was different from other genres. Unlike genres which mostly focused on raising audience's emotions, most documentaries provide facts, including history, culture, habit, local life, geography, animals, etc. Many participants had been informed and sometimes even did specific activities suggested by documentaries. For example, after watching a food documentary which discusses seafood in a boat, a participant said: "I wanted to travel in the sea and to eat fresh seafood on the board." Because most things transported by documentary films were available in reality, people have opportunities to experience them for real. So, their travel intentions are more likely to be increased by documentary films, compared to other genres. Participants further noted when choosing documentary films to know destinations, the information authenticity was an important consideration.

A reverse phenomenon

Although this is beyond the scope of the research questions, there is one important finding which should be mentioned. The result shows that there exists a reverse phenomenon – previous travel experience motivated people to watch films relating to the destinations after

27 travelling.

Previous visits at filming locations helped people to form personalised expectations towards films relating to the destinations. For example, a participant travelled to Hong Kong before and considered the city represented Asian gangster culture, so he expected more action movies were shot there. Further, since locations are usually associated with specific social values, cultural meanings or affective hints, the choice of filming sites, like a clue, helps viewers to better understand film themes. For example, a participant travelled to Vienna before watching Before Sunrise. She noted,

I went to Vienna before and though this city was rich in culture and arts. So, when I watch Before

Sunrise afterwards, I can understand why the director chose Vienna to present such a film containing a lot philosophical and artistic topics.

Some participants indicated they watched films relating to the destination they visited afterwards, mostly in order to re-experience their travels. When a participant watched the

Doctor Strange which was set in Katmandu, he said,

I feel excited to recognise those shops, temples and streets that I had been to, and I felt surprised that I

went to the same places as the superhero.

Due to the familiarity of shooting destinations, everything you saw on the screen become recognisable, which gives a feeling of relatedness. This feeling turns a destination visitor into

28 a film viewer.

Additionally, to some extent, since a film can make familiar things unfamiliar, audiences have to re-understand and re-explore locations. When people watch films after travelling, they are given a chance to observe something they were originally familiar with from a new and unfamiliar perspective. In this process, they are appreciating a “way of seeing”, which is another reason for them to watch a destination-related film after travelling.

Discussion and Conclusion

As said before, people's travel intentions are decided by their affective and cognitive destination images. A vivid destination image transfers a film viewer into a traveller. However, this transformation is not always successful, as individuals have different preferences and identities.

According to the study, a film can use specific film elements (e.g., scenery, setting, music, storyline) to form both cognitive and affective destination images in audiences’ minds. The affective component is unique to film tourists, compared to the cognitive component (RQ1 was answered). Forming travel inspiration, shaping expectations, attaching emotional feelings, and sharing various perspectives of a destination are the four major influences that film has on people’s destination images (RQ2 was answered). In terms of RQ3, among all film genres, to appreciate the beauty of the scenery is always a major motivation for people to visit a film destination. The influences of other factors (e.g., setting, storyline, music) are

29

relatively conditional and fractional. Unexpectedly, this thesis noted a reverse phenomenon where tourists who visited a film destination would then turn into a film viewer who would watch destination-related films afterwards. Below, I will explain them in detail.

RQ1: How do films influence tourist’s affective and cognitive destination images differently?

Based on two sensitizing concepts, this study found, in the current media background, the affective perception towards a destination is more tightly related to people’s travel intentions, compared to cognitive information about the destinations. Notably, this study found that when an individual has decided on a travel destination, he/she is more likely to deliberately watch destination-related films with fictional contents, mainly to gain certain feelings related to the destination rather than for information. This finding is supported by Robinson et al. (2011) who stated that films enable audiences to attach emotions to shooting sites. However, I did not find that information contained in films was the same important as emotions induced by films. Instead, participants preferred to find practical information from other sources (e.g., friends and the Internet), which appeared more reliable and time-saving.

Although tourists nowadays can access destination information from various sources directly and immediately (Kislali, Kavaratzis & Saren, 2016), the role of films is still unique and irreplaceable (Kim et al., 2017). Tourists motivated by films have always shown a high level of loyalty and satisfaction after travelling filming sites (Chiu et al., 2016). Moreover, with the emergence of streaming platforms (e.g., Netflix), audiences can easily watch a wider range of films at little cost (Benesch, 2017). Watching a 90-minute film before the actual visit

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is an option simple enough only if the film viewer has a TV or laptop. Therefore, the ease of watching films on current streaming platforms encourages people’s intentions to watch films to gain emotional perceptions to the film’s settings.

Notably, the authenticity of information in films is no longer as important as it once was. Hudson et al. (2005) pointed out that films presenting a more authentic image could attract more film tourists, yet this finding was only supported by the findings in the documentary. Inversely, this study found that virtual and imagery sceneries attract film tourists to the same extent, which was similar to the findings of Kim et al. (2007) and King (2002). Especially for those tourists who want to escape from mundane lives for a while by watching movies, an unreal universe which is largely different from the real life, appears more attractive and gives them a higher level of emotional relatedness. Moreover, as previous studies note, if people feel disappointed in the inconsistency between the actual and the filmed destination, they would be reluctant to travel for real (Bolan et al., 2008). However, this study found the opposite, where people didn’t feel disappointed and even desired to compare such inconsistencies for real, which became an important motive for visiting visit film locations. Therefore, future research can analyse how people with different personal traits (e.g., habits, age) evaluate the authenticity of information in films differently, and why some have a higher level of acceptance to the glorified and inaccurate images on the screen.

This study gave one potential reason as to why people nowadays have a higher level of acceptance to unauthentic information, which is related to people's wide variety of media choices (e.g., Internet, books, films, news). For example, some participants noted that many films nowadays were based on books. Since they often read the novel and watch the film both,

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they naturally compare the world they imagined when they read with the world they watched on the screen. Partly due to these different media formats, they gain different feelings for these locations, which makes the location so attractive that they wanted to visit for real. Therefore, this information implies that tourists who access more diversified media sources are more likely to accept two or more sorts of destination images in their minds. For them, whether a film authentically provides destination information is not so important, instead what matters is if they can easily recall the feelings they gained from films in the destinations. However, this study cannot prove the causal relationship between the abundance of media choices and the level of acceptance to inauthentic information in films, which deserves future consideration.

RQ2: How films motivate tourists to travel to film destinations specifically?

There exist four major influences had by films on people's specific visits to film destinations, namely the way they form travel inspiration, shape their expectations, attach emotional feelings, and gain various perspectives of a destination. This study found that the extent to which a person would be inspired by a film to travel partly depends on whether the destination was already popular or not. This is a potential topic for future study. Although Bolan and Williams (2008) pointed out that films can reinforce a destination image in the viewer's mind or develop a new image of a potential location, but they didn't consider the level of popularity of the film destination. This study found that films mainly helped the public to create a destination image for infamous places. Instead, for famous filming locations, people became aware of them through various channels, and their preconceptions were hardly changed. Further, their preconceptions towards a location, especially a well-known place,

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influenced their understandings of the media (e.g., films) which was filmed there.

Films also enable people to build an emotional connection to the destination, so that tourists who are motivated by films regard their travel decisions out of their own interests, rather than on recommendations from others. To some extent, visiting specific filming locations can be related to identity formation. However, this is a large topic that can do with further explanation, especially in terms of the rise in streaming platforms. Notably, most participants in this study indicated that they watch films on streaming platforms (e.g., Netflix) or the Internet. Oyedele and Simpson (2018) noted that since streaming platforms expand audience's film choices, selecting films becomes a big part of their identity formation. Several film lovers indicated that they visited film destinations in order to gain personalized travel experiences. By doing so, their feelings of being different were largely enhanced (they were not "normal and passive" tourists). This argument was supported by Beeton et al. (2014), who stated that a person who highly values self-identity is more likely to visit filming locations, because they attach greater significance to visit there for personal rewards. This implies that the current boom in film-induced tourism (Yiga, 2018) may be related to the emergence of streaming platforms, as streaming platforms make audiences more aware of their identity formation. However, this study cannot prove this causal relationship. Future studies can explore the extent to which viewing films on streaming platforms is associated with the awareness of identity formation, as well as how this feeling is related to the intention to travel to film destinations.

As stated above, those participants who indicated themselves as film lovers were more likely to visit film destinations, and actively associated their film-induced visits with

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self-identity formation. Inversely, participants who were fans of actor/actress didn’t show this trend. One explanation to this phenomenon is fan identity, which means “being a fan may be as important to one’s community memberships as one’s sense of self” (Gray et al., 2017, p.11). It implies that fans of different categories may evaluate the importance of fan communities at different levels (Gray et al., 2017). In this case, since visiting film destinations can be differently regarded as an activity undertaken by an individual or community (e.g., fan gatherings in film theme parks), people who evaluate the importance of fan communities at different levels make different decisions for travelling to film destinations.

RQ3: how people perceive various film genres, and how specific elements in films affect their attitudes and behaviours at film destination.

This study indicated that, among all film genres, beautiful sceneries are always the most attractive factor for people looking to travel a filming location. Hudson, Wang and Gil (2011) also supported that people who were motivated by films to travel were "especially influenced by the scenery, landscape and the cultural attraction of the destination" (p.177). Many participants further suggested that compared to other elements (e.g., storylines), sceneries were relatively unchanged and objective. It seems against the above-mentioned opinions that people tend to search for emotional stimulus instead of physical "travel products (e.g., beautiful sceneries)" from films, but it implies that, in reality, people have no opportunity to repeat plot-related activities easily, and so the scenery is the most realistic and film-related thing they can experience for real. They expect to feel echoes of the same affections as the main characters by appreciating their surroundings. As Garner's study (2018) noted, film

34

tourists hoped to "momentarily combine the diegetic and the extra-diegetic, blur the boundaries between the virtual and the actual world, in order to enhance their affective connection" (p.446). Of course, a more important reason is that people travel to a destination not just for the film itself, but also for relaxation in a beautiful environment. So, the emotion given by films is more like a bonus, making trips special, rather than a necessity on its own.

As many previous studies pointed out, people would be more likely to travel to film destinations if the film’s storyline was closely interrelated with those locations (Hudson et al., 2006; Park, 2010; Beeton et al., 2014; Wong et al., 2015). This study found that people were less likely to be aware of the film’s settings (including the destination information) if its storyline was too intricate and complex. That level of complexity was associated with particular film genres (Lee et al., 2015). For genres like suspense and detective films, the settings mainly serve to contain the storylines, so most of the viewers’ attention is directed to uncovering the obscure relationship between the settings and storylines, naturally thinking less about travelling there.

Further, the study found that if a film portrayed a location in a relatively negative way, a negativity bias effect would arise. ‘Negativity bias’ is a notion that, when it is of equal intensity, negative-valanced information (e.g. harmful/traumatic events) has a larger effect on one's psychological state than neutral or positive information (Lang, 2006). In this case, when a film presents harmful, undesirable or even traumatic clips, viewers become actively and greatly concerned about similar problems that might be present in the filming locations. Few studies have discussed this phenomenon before, although Pratt (2015) noted it in his study. However, they only argued from an economic perspective with market data (e.g., price change,

35

net value) with Kazakhstan as an example. Future research can explore this idea from a media or psychological perspective, comparing how positive- and negative-valanced information in films influence one's travel intentions differently.

Unexpectedly, this study founded that there existed a reverse phenomenon. People were not only motivated to travel by films, but also were motivated by previous travels to watch films afterwards. This was nearly never discussed in previous studies, and is thus worth further exploring in future research.

Many participants spontaneously indicated that the feeling of familiarity was the main reason why they watch related films after travelling, because they can recognise those familiar places on the screen. On the one hand, this helps them to “re-experience” their previous travels. On the other hand, they can gain new “ways of seeing” something that was comparatively important to them. How film directors present a destination can indirectly reflect their own understanding of the place. Tourists can be encouraged by films to think about destinations from different perspectives, so that their affective and/or cognitive perceptions towards the place are correspondingly enriched. Considering the rise of streaming platforms, people nowadays can watch not only the latest and trendiest films, but also evergreen and even niche movies (Benesch, 2017). They can easily find all destination-related media contents after travelling, which enables them to re-shaping their feelings of the location.

In order to verify personal expectations for a film, people sometimes watch films after travelling. Based on previous travel experience, people have already formed certain

36

expectations towards a destination-related film before they step into a movie theatre, such as what film genres are likely to be screened at this location. Based on their personal knowledge (e.g., the Statue of Liberty is associated with freedom), audiences may even already have preconceptions of what a film’s themes may be in ways that are related to a location. So, does it mean that actually watching a film is just to satisfy the audiences' film expectations? For example, when selecting movies filmed in island locations, some participants expected to see light comedies with love stories, because they had attached a perception of relaxation to both islands (destinations) and comedies (film genres). Therefore, it is interesting for future research to analyse how this preconception towards a destination influences an individual's choices of film genres, and the extent to which their film expectations were influenced by their previous travels.

Meanwhile, there existed several limitations in this study. First, the sample was limited to a small group of young and educated graduates, without including participants from various age groups and backgrounds. Second, movies and TV series were not clearly distinguished in this thesis, although they have many different characteristics as two important types of media (Beeton, 2005). Future research can explore how TV series and movies influence film-tourism differently, especially in terms of the broadcasting duration. Third, considering the nature of qualitative studies, this research cannot prove arguments with causal relations, but still hopefully provides several potential topics for future studies.

In conclusion, film-induced tourism is a huge topic, considering the wide fields of tourism, entertainment and media studies. People's attitudes towards and behaviours at filming

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destinations are varied on their different personal traits, and also continuously changing with the rapid development of media technology. Researchers can dig into this area well into the future.

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