A social work empowerment programme for H1V1AlDS poverty stricken families
BOTSANG PRISCILLA LEKGETHO MAY 2010
A social work empowerment programme for HIV/AlDS poverty stricken families
SOTSANG PRISCILLA LEKGETHO SA (SOCIAL WORK), MA (SOCIAL WORK)
Thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree PHILOSOPHIAE DOCTOR
In
SOCIAL WORK
In the
FACULTY OF HEALTH SCIENCES at the
NORTH-WEST UNIVERSITY POTCHEFSTROOM CAMPUS
Promoter: Dr CC Wessels Co-Promoter: Prof H Strydom
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research is dedicated to my grandmother Sedie Rebecca Basupeng who has made me who I am today.
I express special thanks to the following:
II Thabo, my husband, and my daughter Gofaona, for providing a working environment during the execution of this research. I will forever be indebted to their unqualified support, encouragement, patience and, above all, their steadfast love.
III My guardian parents, Mr. and Mrs. Thobedi, and my sister Brenda for always being there when [ needed them.
II My mother and sister in-law (Minah and Gadifele) for baby-sitting while I attended my supervisions.
II Dr CC Wessels. I strongly believe you were a God-send since the beginning of my junior degree. Your expertise, professionalism, guidance, support and encouragement were unbelievable. Most of ali, your patience and understanding were beyond all expectations. Thank you so much for all you have taught me. You are an incredible person, a supportive supervisor and a mother to me.
II Special thanks to Prof Strydom, my co-promoter, who despite time constraints and tight schedules, willingly and continuously gave me encouragement and valuable guidance and support. His valuable advice contributed in a most Significant manner towards my research.
II Special thanks also to Portia and Gadifele from Women in Partnership against HIV and AIDS (WIPPA), a Non-Governmental Organisation in !kageng/Potchefstroom, for training members of the Heuningvlei community in a shoe-making programme as part of income-generating
• My colleague, friend, sister, Nando Tlou, who did not allow me to lose focus and found time to do much of my work while I was studying.
• Heuningvlei Chief and research in the village.
his tribal council for allowing me to conduct my
• The community of Heuningvlei for project.
allowing the implementation of the
The National Research Foundation (NRF) for financial support throughout my studies
• Above all, my thanks goes to God, my Creator, for his infinite wisdom, strength and sustenance during the course of this research.
TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...1 TABLE OF CONTENTS... 111 SUMMARY ...VIII OPSOMMING ...IX FOREWORD ...
x
SECTION A ...1ORIENTATION AND CONTEXTUALISATION OFTHE RESEARCH ... 1
1. INTRODUCTION ...2
2. BACKGROUND INFORMATION ABOUT THE HEUNINGVLEI COMMUNITY ... .2
3. PROBLEM STATEMENT ...4
4. RESEARCH AIM AND OBJECTIVES ...7
4.1 AIM ...7
4.2 OBJECTIVES ...7
5. CENTRAL THEORETICAL ASSUMPTION ...8
6. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ...8
6.1 LITERATURE STUDy...8
6.2 EMPIRICAL RESEARCH ...8
6.2.1 THE DEVELOPMENT RESEARCH AND UTILISATION PHASE ...8
6.2.2 RESEARCH DESiGN ...11 6.2.3 SAMPLE ...13 6.2.4 MEASURING INSTRUMENTS ...13 6.2.5 PROCEDURES ...14 6.2.6 DATA ANALYSIS ...17 6.2.7 ETHICAL ASPECTS ...17 7. DESCRIPTION OF CONCEPTS ...19 7.1 HIV...19 7.2 AIDS ...19 7.3 FAMILy...20 7.4 EMPOWERMENT ...20
7.5 SOCIAL GROUP WORK ...21
7.6 POVERTY ...21
7.7 HEALTHY LI FESTYLE ...22
7.8 PROGRAMME ...23
8. RESEARCH LIMITATIONS ...23
9. STRUCTURE OFTHE REPORT...24
10. REFERENCES ...26
SECTION B ...32
ARTICLE ONE ...32
POVERTY-STRICKEN FAMILIES AFFECTED BY UNEMPLOYMENT, HIV AND AIDS IN THE RURAL AREA OF HEUNINGVLEI ...33
ABSTRACT ...33
1. I NTRODUCTION ...33
2. PROBLEM STATEMENT ...34
3. AIM ...35
4. LITERATURE REVIEW ...35
5. DESCRIPTION OFTHE CONCEPTS ...36
5.1 HIV...36
5.2 AIDS ...36
5.3 RU RAL ...37
5.4 POVERTY ...37
5.5 HEALTHY LI FESTYLE ...38
6. THE DYNAMICS OF POVERTY, HIV AND AIDS IN RURAL AREAS ...38
7. THE RELATION BETWEEN POVERTY AND HIV INFECTIONS ...41
8. POPULATIONS AT HIGHER RISK ... .43
8.1 WOMEN ...43
8.2 ADOLESCENTS AND YOUNG ADULTS (15-24) ...44
9. THE IMPACT OF HIV AND AIDS AND POVERTY ON THE ECONOMY OF RURAL AREAS ...44
10. POVERTY AND ITS IMPACTONTHECOMMUNITYIN RURALAREAS... .46
11. THE IMPACT ON HOUSEHOLDS AND FAMILIES IN RURAL AREAS ... ..47
12. HIV, AIDS AND ITS IMPACT ON EDUCATION ...51
13. DISCUSSION ...51
14. RECOMMENDATIONS ...52
15. CONCLUSION ...52
16. REFERENCES ...54
ARTICLE TWO: THE RESULTS OF A NEED ASSESSMENT FOR FAMILIES AFFECTED BY THE RESULTS OF A NEED ASSESSMENT FOR FAMILIES AFFECTED BY POVERTY, HIV POVERTY, HIV AND AIDS IN HEUNINGVLEI ...59
AND AIDS IN HEUNINGVLEI ...60
ABSTRACT ...60
. 1. INTRODUCTION ...61
2. PROBLEM STATEMENT ...61
3. AIM AND OBJECTIVES ...62
3.1. AIM ...62
4. BASIC THEORETICAL STATEMENT ...62
5. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ...62 5.1 EMPIRICAL STUDY ...62 5.1.1 RESEARCH DESIGN ...63 5.1.2 SAMPLE ...63 5.1.3 MEASURING INSTRUMENT ...64 5.1.4 RESEARCH PROCEDURES ...65 5.1.5 ETHICAL ASPECTS ...65 5.1.6. DATA ANALYSIS ...66 6. DESCRIPTION OF CONCEPTS ...67 6.1 HIV...67 6.2 AIDS ...67 6.3 FAMILy...68 6.4 POVERTY ...69 6.5 HEALTHY LIFESTYLE ...70 6.6 EMPOWERMENT ...70 6.7 RURAL ...70 6.8 RURAL COMMUNITIES ...70 7. DISCUSSION OF RESULTS ...71
SECTION 1: CHARACTERISTICS OF PARTICIPANTS ...71
7.1 PROFILE OF INDIVIDUAL DETAILS ...71
7.1.1 GENDER ...72
7.1.2. AGES OF RESPONDENTS ...73
7.1.3. LANGUAGE...74
7.1.4 QUALIFICATION OF RESPONDENTS ...74
7.1.5 MARITAL STATUS ...75
SECTION 2: LIVING CONDITIONS ...76
7.2 HOUSING ...77
7.2.1 NUMBER OF PEOPLE LIVING IN THE HOUSE ...77
7.2.2 TYPE OF HOUSE ...78 7.2.3 TOILET FACiLITIES ...79 7.2.4 NUMBER OF ROOMS ...80 7.2.5 WATER...81 7.2.6 RESOURCES ...82 SECTION 3: NUTRITION ...83 7.3. NUTRITION ...83
7.3.1 FEEDING SCHEMEAND FOOD GARDEN ...83
7.3.2 HOW OFTEN PEOPLE WENT HUNGRY ...84
SECTION 4: IMPACT OF POVERTY, HIV AND AIDS IN HOUSEHOLDS ...85
7.4.1 UNEMPLOYMENT ...85
7.4.2 DIAGNOSIS OF HIV AND AIDS IN THE FAMILY AND CAUSES OF DEATH IN HOUSEHOLDS ... : ... 86
7.4.3 KNOWLEDGE OF HIV AND AI DS ...87
SECTION 5: SOURCE OF INCOME ...91
7.5.1. TYPE OF GRANTS ...91
7.5.2 MAINTENANCE ...93
7.5.3 CAUSES OF POVERTY ...94
7.5.4 SKILLS TO GENERATE INCOME ...96
7.5.5 BUDGET...97 7.5.6 SKILLS ...98 8. DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS ...99 9. RECOMMENDATIONS ... : ... 100 10. CONCLUSiON ...101 11. REFERENCES ...102 ARTICLE THREE ... , ... 109
A GROUP WORK PROGRAMME TO EMPOWER POVERTY-STRICKEN FAMILIES AFFECTED BY HIVANDAIDS IN HEUNINGVLEI...110
ABSTRACT ...110
1. INTRODUCTION ...111
2. PROBLEM STATEMENT ...111
3. AIM ...112
4. BASIC THEORETICAL STATEMENT ...112
5. ETHICAL ASPECTS ...113
6. GROUP WORKAS A MEDIUM FOR PROGRAMME PRESENTATION ...114
6.1 DEFINITION OF SOCIAL GROUP WORK ...115
6.2 CLASSIFICATION OF GROUPS...115
6.3 ADVANTAGES AND DiSADVANTAGES ...116
6.4 ADMI NISTRATIVE ASPECTS OFTHEGROUP...116
6.5. PHASES OF GROUP WORK ...117
6.5.1 PRE PREPARATION PHASE ...117
6.5.2 THE BEGINNING PHASE ...117
6.5.3 THE EXPLORATION PHASE ...118
6.5.4 THE WORKING PHASE ...118
6.5.5 THE TERMINATION PHASE. ...118
7. AIMS OFTHE GROUP WORK PROGRAMME (TSWARAGANO) ... 118
8. PROCEDURE FOR-SELECTING PROGRAMME ACTIVITIES ...119
8.1. METHODS OFTEACHING UTILISED IN PROGRAMME IMPLEMENTATION ... 121
8.1.1 GROUP DISCUSSION ...121
8.1.2 GROUP PARTiCiPATION ...121
8.1.3 VISUAL AIDS ...122
8.1.4 LEARNING AIDS ...122
8.1.5 STORYTELLING AND SHARING ONE'S EXPERIENCE ...122
8.1.6 ROLE-PLAY AND STIMULATION ...123
9. CONTENT OF THE PROGRAMME ...123
9.1 PREPARATION ...125
9.1.1 SESSION ONE: ORIENTATION ...125
9.1.2 SESSION 1WO: LI FE SKI LLS ...127
9.1.3 SESSION THREE: HIV AND AIDS ...139
9.1.4 SESSION FOUR: POSITIVE LIVING ...141
9.1.5 SESSION FIVE: CLOSING SESSiON ...150
10. DISCUSSION ...151
11. CONCLUSION ...151
12. RECOMMENDATIONS ...152
13. REFERENCES ...155
ARTICLE 4 ...159
AN EVALUATION OF ASOCIAL GROUP WORK PROGRAMME FOR EMPOWERMENT OF POVERTY STRICKEN FAMILIESAFFECTED BY HIV AND AIDS IN HEUNINGVLEI ...160
ABSTRACT ...160
1. INTRODUCTION ...161
2. PROBLEM STATEMENT ...161
3. AIM OF RESEARCH ...163
4. BASIC THEORETICAL STATEMENT ...163
4.2. EM PIRICAL RESEARCH ...163
4.3. RESEARCH DESIGN ...164
4.4. MEASURING INSTRUMENT ...164
4.5. RESEARCH PROCEDURE ...165
5. THE NATURE OF EVALUATION AND MEASURING ...167
6. RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY OF MEASURING SCALES ...168
6.1. THE RELIABILITYOFTHE MEASURING INSTRUMENT ...168
6.2. THE VALIDITY OFTHE MEASURING INSTRUMENT ...169
7. RESULTS OF PERSONAL MULTI-SCREENING INVENTORY (PMSI): COM PREHENSIVE PERSONAL ASSESSMENT ...170
7.1 MEASUREMENT OF SELF PERCEPTION OFTHE GROUP ...171
7.2 MEASUREMENT OF POSITIVE/NEGATIVE PSYCHOSOCIAL FUNCTIONING ... 173
7.2.1 POSITIVE/NEGATIVE PSYCHOSOCIAL FUNCTIONING RESULTS ... 174
8. EVALUATION OFTHE GROUP WORK PROGRAMME BYGROUP MEMBERS ... 177
9. RECOMMENDATIONS ...180
10. CONCLUSION ...181
11. REFERENCES ...182
SECTION C ...187
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...187
1. INTRODUCTION ...188
2. SUMMARy ...188
3. EVALUATION OFTHE RESEARCH ...189
3.1 CENTRAL THEORETICAL ARGUMENT ...190
3.2 CONCLUSIONS REGARDING CENTRAL THEORETICALARGUMENT ... 190
4. CONCLUSIONS ...192
4.1. CONCLUSIONS REGARDING HIV AND AIDS POVERTY STRICKEN FAMILIES IN RU RAL AREAS (ARTICLE 1 ) ...192
4.2 CONCLUSIONS REGARDING THE NEEDS ASSESSMENT OF POVERTY STRICKEN FAMILIES AFFECTED BY HIV AND AIDS (ARTICLE 2) ...194
4.3. CONCLUSIONS: A GROU P WORK PROGRAMME TO EMPOWER POVERTY STRICKEN FAMILIES AFFECTED BY HIV AND AIDS (ARTICLE 3) ...195
4.4. CONCLUSIONS: EVALUATION OF GROUP WORK PROGRAMME AIMED AT EMPOWERING POVERTY STRICKEN FAMIUES AFFECTED BY HIV AND AIDS (ARTICLE 4) ... ...196
4.5. CONCLUSIONS REGARDING THE OBJECTIVES ...197
4.6. CONCLUSION REGARDING THE RESEARCH AIMS ...197
5. RECOMMENDATIONS ...198
5.1. RECOMMENDATIONS REGARDING POVERTY-STRICKEN FAMILIES AFFECTED BY HIV AND AIDS. (ARTICLE 1) ...198
5.2 RECOMMENDATIONS REGARDING THE RESULTS OF NEED ASSESSMENT: POVERTY-STRICKEN FAMILIES AFFECTED BY HIV AND AIDS. (ARTICLE 2) ... 198
5.3 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR THE SOCIAL GROUP WORKER WHO WANTS TO EMPOWER POVERTY-STRICKEN FAMILIES AFFECTED BY HIV AND AIDS. (ARTICLE 3) ... .200
5.4 RECOMMENDATIONS REGARDING THE EVALUATION OF A SOCIAL GROUP WORK PROGRAMME FOR THE EMPOWERMENT OF POVERTY-STRICKEN FAMILIES AFFECTED BY HIV AND AIDS. (ARTICLE 4)... .202
6. SUMMARY STATEMENT ...203
7. REFERENCES ...205
SECTION D ...206
CONSOLIDATED LIST OF REFERENCES ...206
LIST OF TABLES ARTICLE 2 TABLE 1: GENDER ...72 TABLE 2: AGE ...73 TABLE 3: LANGUAGE ...74 TABLE 4: QUALIFiCATION ...74
TABLE 5: MARITAL STATUS ...75
TABLE 6: NUMBER OF PEOPLE LIVING IN THE HOUSE ...77
TABLE 7: TYPE OF HOUSE ...78
TABLE 8: TOILET FACiLITIES ...79
TABLE 9: NUMBER OF ROOMS...80
TABLE 10: WATER ...81
TABLE 11: RESOURCES ...82
TABLE 12: FEEDING SCHEMEAND FOOD GARDEN ...83
TABLE 13: DAILY FEEDING AND HOW OFTEN ...84
TABLE 14: TYPE OF WORK ...85
TABLE 15: KNOWLEDGE OF HIV AND AIDS ...87
TABLE 16: SOURCE OF KNOWLEDGE ...89
TABLE 17: TYPE OF GRANTS ...91
TABLE 18: MAINTENANCE FOR CHILDREN ...93
TABLE 19: CAUSES OF POVERTY ...94
TABLE 20: PREVIOUS EXPERIENCEWITH PROJECTS...96
TABLE 21: BUDGET ...97
TABLE 22: SKILLS NEEDED ...98
ARTICLE 3 TABLE 1: AN OVERVIEW OFTHE PROGRAMME ...124
ARTICLE 4 TABLE 1: SELF-PERCEPTION OFTHE GROUP ...171
SUMMARY
A Social Work empowerment programme for poverty-stricken families affected by HIV and AIDS.
Keywords: HIV, AIDS, poverty, families, empowerment, social group work This research forms part of the Tswaragano project. The study further reports on the project of a multi-disciplinary programme that was developed and implemented by postgraduate students of the North-West University, comprising two doctoral students and five masters students. People from the project including the researcher were involved in this effort. The main objective of this research was to develop a social work programme as an empowerment initiative for poverty-stricken families in rural area of Heuningvlei: to investigate the strengths in these families and to empower them to playa supportive role in the care of dependent and vulnerable family members.
The difference between this study and that of other disciplines that were part of Tswaragano is that the focus of this programme was mainly on empowerment programme for poverty-stricken families affected by HIV and AIDS. At the time when the first part of the project was completed, Heuningvlei was part of the North-West Province. Since 2007, Heuningvlei was reallocated to the Northern Cape Province.
The results of the current study reinforced the notion that a link exists between HIV, AIDS and poverty. Unfortunately, some of the results of the programme indicated little improvement; however this does not necessarily imply that the programme was ineffective as a whole; and, recommendations were made for community, individuals and government for future practice.
OPSOMMING
n' Maatskaplikewerk bemagtiginsprogram vir gesinne in armoede wat geaffekteer word deur MIV en VIGS.
Sleutenwoorde: MIV, VIGS, armoede, gesinne, bemagtiging, maatskaplike
groepwerk.
Hierdie navorsing vorm deel van Tswaragano-projek. Die hoof doer van die navorsing was om 'n maatskaplikewerk bemagtingsprogram vir gesinne deur MIV en VIGS gesteister te ondersoek en om hulle te bemagtig om 'n ondersteunde rol in die versorging van die afhanklike en kwesbare gesins!ede te speel. Die navorsing is in Heuningv!ei onderneem. Ten tye van die afhandeling van die eerste dee! van die projek het Heuningvlei dee! gevorm van die Noord-Wes Provinsie, maar in 2007 is Heuningv!ei aan die Noord Kaap Provinsie toegewys. Maatskaplike probleme behoort binne gemeenskapsverband beskou te word. Lede van 'n gemeeskap raak op 'n tydstip bewus van die toestand wat ver!ig moet word. VIGS word beskou as 'n sosiale probleem in d gemeenskap. Tarle gesinne wat deur die gevolge van VIGS geaffekteer word word ook deur armoede geteister. Epidemiese siektes soos enige ander siekte, het die potensiaal om armoede te bevorder en die gevolg hiervan is 'n bose kringloop.
Die gevolgtrekking waartoe hierdie ondersoek kom is dat daar 'n verband tussen MIV en VIGS en armoede bestaan. Ongelukkig het die Tswaragano Bemagtigingsprogram min verligting vir die gesinne meegebring. Oit impliseer egter nie noodwendig dat die program in sy totaliteit nie geslaag het nie. Aanbevelings ten opsigte van hoe die gemeenskap, individue en die regering die
FOREWORD
This manuscript is presented in article format in accordance with Rules A.11.5.3 and A.11.5.4 that are set out in the yearbook of the North-West University: Potchefstroom Campus. The context and technical requirements of the accredited professional journals Social Work Practitioner-Researched Maatskaplike Werk NavorserlPraktisyn, Social WorkiMaatskaplike Werk were
SECTION A
1. INTRODUCTION
Reports on poverty in South Africa show that 71
%
of the poor population in South Africa live in rural areas (Msindisi, 2000:5). Poverty, lack of employment and access to social services, food insecurity, the fragmentation of the family and alienation from kinship and the community are some of the factors contributing to the declining quality of family rife in South Africa. The family as the basic unit of society should be recognised as playing a key role in the survival, protection and development of children. Families should be supported and their capability strengthened to meet the needs of their members (Patel, 2005:167). The community of Heuningvlei was identified by the project leader with referral by the social worker born and raised in Heuningvlei, after their lengthy discussion where it was fully outlined that the community is living below poverty level.2.
BACKGROUND INFORMATION ABOUT THE HEUNINGVLEICOMMUNITY
With reference to the above, the community of Heuningvlei falls in a rural area. Housing, water and sanitation as well as other service delivery are very poor or non-existent. Heuningvlei is surrounded by the following sub-communities: Shalaneng, Tsilwane, Kome, Perth, Klein Avon, Klein Effel, Madibeng, Ganap and Loopeng. Chief Bareki reigns over all these sub-communities with the help of his council. The council consists of community leaders and elders.
The community fully embraces traditional rituals, for example before any development that needs to be done within the community that should take place; they request the approval of their forefathers. This can be argued to assist towards an increase in poverty, since people who come with projects aimed at reducing poverty end up getting demorafised and take the projects to communities who need them urgently. Surprisingly, the area has many possible tourist attractions which could be put to use to create jobs and incomes for many families; however, due to their rigorous adherence to traditional belief systems, the community will probably suffer for many decades to come.
As discussed briefly in the pilot study of this research, the majority of Heuningvlei inhabitants indicated that they live in traditional houses or mud huts. The respondents indicated that four to eight people live in these two-roomed houses, which suggest that the community is facing a problem of overcrowding due to a lack of housing for a large number of inhabitants. There is also a problem with drinking water and sanitation in Heuningvlei and inhabitants mostly use tap water and boreholes. They also indicated that the taps are not within walking distance from their houses and there are times when they have to do without a tap, and thus fresh water, for long periods at a time. Pit latrines are mostly used, indicating poor seNice delivery in this area. The community of Heuningvlei has electricity; however, most houses do not use electricity for cooking but only for lights. This is due to the fact that they cannot afford electricity for cooking.
The Heuningvlei community is a large settlement area with over seven hundred households, but it has one health care centre (clinic) seNing the entire community. There are no medical surgeries or hospitals within the village. Health care is a serious problem in this community, which calls for immediate inteNention. This will help to address major health problems such as HIV and AIDS experienced in the community. Since those who receive their ARV's treatment have to travel for about two hundred kilometres which costs them about R300 return ticket by a taxi.
As a result of poverty in the Heuningvlei community, people resort to prostitution and other risky sexual behaviours to earn money for a living, which renders them vulnerable to HIV and Aids and other infectious diseases. These can be attributed to lack of information, poor literacy and low levels of education of the community members.
HIV and AIDS pose major challenges to people, with implications beyond the health sector. According to Akinso[a and Mulaudzi (2009:204), the economic factors and other aspects such as gender inequality, poverty and livelihood issues are believed to contribute towards the spread of the disease and are, in
turn, exacerbated by it. Schenck (2002:17) also points out that people living in rural areas are the poorest of the poor and are, by and large, the 'unseen' and 'voiceless' people. It is also the researcher's opinion that government programmes aimed at poverty al!eviation as well as community empowerment programmes are not sufficiently addressing poverty, especially in rural areas. This section presents the problem statement and discussion of the research objectives, in which the main objectives and primary objectives are provided. The research structure is set out and a report layout is presented.
3. PROBLEM STATEMENT
Social problems must be viewed in societal context. They exist because members of society at a given point in time have become conscious of a condition that is undesirable and subject to improvement (Basupeng, 1999:1). AIDS is considered as a societal problem that many families are experiencing; being infected presents a very real dilemma and many are affected by HIV and AIDS wilen family members are infected; the disease is also related to broader health problems in South Africa (Basupeng, 2002:1). AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome) and the Human Immune Deficiency Virus (HIV) reached pandemic proportions during the 1980s (Alcamo, 2002:1; James & Gilliland, 2005:333; Measham & Paylor, 2009:133). Furthermore, according to UNAIOS (2009:4), at least two-thirds of aU people living with HIV and AIDS are African. There is a distinct relationship between poverty and communicable disease epidemics. At any time, epidemic diseases - like any illness - have the potential to increase poverty. Stillwagon ( 2002:19) has shown that HIV-prevalence is highly correlated with declining calorie consumption, unequal distribution of income and other variables conventionally associated with susceptibility to infections diseases, however transmitted (Stillwagon, 2002:22). More recently, however, there has also been the recognition that individual behaviour needs to be considered within its economic, social, and cultural context, otherwise efforts to alter such behaviour will ultimately fail. South Africa's previous president, Mr Thabo Mbeki, has highlighted poverty as a major factor contributing to the HIV
and AIDS epidemic (Horton, 2000:356:225). According to Reid et al. (in Frain,
Berven & Tschopp, 2008:16) HIV and AIDS, since 2008, is no longer treated as a terminal illness, but it is rather seen as a chronic illness. The estimated number of people who needed treatment in South Africa during 2007 was 889 000 (Anon, 2006/2007:28).
According to Drimie, Germishuyse, Rademeyer and Schwabe (2009:247), poverty is likely to deepen as the AIDS epidemic takes its course, with households being caught up in a vicious cycle of poverty and HIV and AIDS. Furthermore, poverty is also associated with a lack of education, and illiteracy can mean that messages regarding risks and prevention measures are inaccessible to those who need these most. Even with knowledge of the risks, the cost of prevention may be prohibitively high; many poor people are, for example, unable to afford condoms. According to Collins and Rau (2000:3), poverty also restricts people's choices and leaves few options but to undertake high-risk behaviours.
According to Polzer and Shuring (2003:16), poverty is one important factor in increasing a person's susceptlbility to HIV and AIDS, and facilitates the spread of these diseases. HIV and AIDS also gives rise to increased poverty at all levels - from individual to nation - through its impact on working age populations. The morbidity and mortaHty among this age group therefore affect the incomes of many households, and pose a major challenge to the ability of a country to deliver services such as education (Bennel, 2003:493-508). It is important to recognise, however, that there are many other factors besides poverty that facilitate the spread of HIV and AIDS.
The HIV epidemic that has swept through South Africa has by now developed into a mature AIDS epidemic. According to Cohen (2000:2), households are battling to cope with caring for a severely ill household member in many communities around the country, while simultaneously having to deal with the economic consequences of the person's illness. South Africa has a well developed system of social security and the reach of the social grant safety net
has expanded rapidly over the past five years. Social grants are likely to play an important role in mitigating the impact of HIV and AIDS, given that eligibility for these grants is driven largely by the increasing burden of chronic diseases and impoverishment of households associated with the epidemic (Booysen, Bachmann, Matebesi, & Meyer, 2003). The rate of poverty reduction has continued to increase over time in affected households, but remains fairly low, nonetheless, and there is still much scope to improve take-up rates. One should remember that these social grants also play an important role in poverty alleviation (Booysen, 2004:45).
It has been strongly argued that the AIDS epidemic's greatest impact will be felt by individuals living with HIV and AIDS, the health sectors and the poorest households, as a result brought by AIDS-related iHness and death (Maile, 2004 110). This state of affairs contributes to the fact that people withdraw from society because they are at risk of losing their jobs and are abandoned by their families: spouses, lovers and friends tend to reject those who are affected, and this, in turn, leads to an increase in poverty (Zastrow & Kirst-Ashman, 2004:376 378). This is exacerbated by the fact that most people who are infected and affected as a result of HIV and AIDS become secretive about the disease for fear of victimisation (Maile, 2004: 113).
The Tswaragano Empowerment programme was developed with a common aim of empowering and supporting the disadvantaged poverty-stricken families affected by HIV and AIDS of the Heuningvlei community with relevant f<nowledge, skifls and insight pertaining to their poor social circumstances with a view to enable them to improve their social functioning. According to Toseland and Rivas (2009:12), group work is a goal-directed activity with small treatment or task groups within a common aim, purpose and objective; the group members must have a connection in some way to form a group. The researcher felt that the group work method of social work practice would assist social workers to empower poverty-stricken families affected by HIV and AIDS in rural area of Heuningvlei.
The following questions can be formulated based on the above-mentioned contextualisation of the research problem:
• What are the concepts of HIV, AIDS and poverty and the impact it has on families in rural areas?
" How do poverty, HIV and AIDS affect families in rural areas?
• What should a social work empowerment programme for poverty-stricken families that are affected by HIV and AIDS entail?
.. Which social work guidelines can be utilised with a view to evaluate the empowerment programme?
4. RESEARCH AIM AND OBJECTIVES
The research objectives are divided into main and primary objectives.
4.1 AIM
The main objective of this research was to develop a social work programme as an empowerment initiative for poverty-stricken families affected by HIV and AIDS.
4.2 OBJECTIVES
<!l To describe the concepts poverty, HIV and AIDS with reference to rural areas and the impact it has on rural families (Article 1).
t) To describe and evaluate poverty-stricken families affected by HIV and AIDS by means of empirical research and a literature sUNey (Article 2). 1& By means of the literature sUNey and empirical studies, develop and
implement a social work programme for poverty-stricken families affected by HIV and AIDS (Article 3).
<!> By means of empirical research and a literature sUNey, evaluate the social
work empowerment programme and the task of the social worker for such families (Article 4)
5. CENTRAL THEORETICAL ASSUMPTION
The following central assumption guides the current research: a social work empowerment programme for poverty-stricken families that might be affected by HIV and AIDS wll1 have a positive effect on people living in rural areas in South Africa and improve their social functioning.
6. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
The research methodology of this study includes a description of the specific techniques to be employed, the particular measuring instruments to be utilised and the relevant series of activities to be conducted in making the measurements (cf. De Vos et al., 2005:118). The research methodology of this
study consisted of a literature study and empirical research.
6.1 Literature study
A literature study is aimed at contributing towards a clear understanding of the nature and meaning of the identified problem (De Vos et al., 2005:123). A
researcher can plan in a scientifically valid and meaningful way after having performed a thorough and relevant literature study on the topic. According to Royse (2004:40), a literature review contributes towards relating the research problem to existing theories. The databases that were utilised for a systematic library search were the following: EBSCOHost, the Internet and Ferdikat. A selection of overseas and South African journals, social science journals, books, articles and government publications was also consulted.
6.2 Empirical research
6.2.1 The Development Research and Utilisation phase
The DR & U Model was used as the overall research model in order to reach the objective of this study (Strydom, 2003:151-158). In order to answer to the five phases of this model, a survey was conducted with a view to assess the needs of the families in Heuningvlei. From the literature survey, a programme was developed, implemented and evaluated.
PHASE 1: The Analysis Phase
Analysis, the first phase in this model, embraces relevant activities that necessarily precede the· developmental effort itself. Analysis entails, amongst others, the identification of the problem and the consideration of existing social technology (e.g. a social group-work empowerment programme) (Geyer, 2006:118).
For the purposes of this study and specifically during this phase, a sUNey was conducted; this is often called a needs assessment (Royse, 2004:177). This type of research could be viewed as one of the oldest forms of social research and is defined as: 'research aimed at documenting the needs of people living within a particular community or other geographical region or needs of a particular subgroup within a region'. It is the researcher's opinion that without a needs assessment research, it would be difficult or impossible to perform any type of inteNention.
Data were processed by the Statistical Consultation SeNices of the Potchefstroom Campus, North-West University; a step that assisted with the validity and reliability of the research project.
The information obtained here was discussed in detail in artic!e one and two respectively. Based on the findings of the analysis phase, the researcher developed a social group work empowerment programme and identified different programme activities relevant to the empowerment of the poverty stricken families affected by HIV and AIDS in Heuningvlei community.
PHASE 2: The Development Phase
The development phase, the second phase in the DR & U model, is salient because it 1s during this phase that the inteNentional innovation is created. The management of relevant data in the new technological subject/topic is conducted during this phase (Geyer, 2006:118; Strydom, 2003:157). Following the findings of the needs assessment in the first phase and the recommendations made, a social group work empowerment programme was
developed. The name of the programme was Tswaragano Empowerment Programme'. The aim of the programme was to empower the poverty-stricken families affected by HIV and AIDS of Heuningvlei community in particular with relevant knowledge, skills and insight regarding how they can deal with their poor social circumstances. Sessions on different social issues such as budgeting, improving knowledge of HIV and AIDS, life skills (communication, problem-solving and parenting), techniques of positive daily living and skills aimed at generating income were discussed comprehensively with the group members. The contents of the programme are discussed in detail in chapter four. The programme consisted of fourteen members and ran over five sessions.
PHASE 3: Evaluation Phase
In this phase, the new product is subjected to a preliminary field implementation in order to study its provisional results (Strydom, 2003:157; Geyer, 2006:121). A great deal of the evaluation phase is embraced in evaluation research. However, unlike some evaluative research in which the evaluation component turns out to be an end in itself and is disembodied from earlier development and subsequent events, the evaluation activities in the DR & U model are an integral part of a research-innovation process which begins with the phases that generate social technology.
During this phase, the effectiveness of a social group work empowerment programme for poverty-stricken families affected by HIV and AIDS in the Heuningvlei community was evaluated. Evaluation is a very important aspect of inteNention research. According to De Vos et a/. (2002:374), the aim of evaluation is to determine or assess the value of something. Patton (2002:10) defines programme evaluation as the systematic collection of information about the activities, characteristics and outcomes of programmes in order to make judgements about the programme, improve its effectiveness and/or inform decisions about future programmes. In measuring the effectiveness of the programme on the social functioning of the people, the researcher used the
Personal Multi-Screening Inventory (PMSI) scale, developed by the Perspective Training College in Potchefstroom. The effectiveness of the programme was evaluated by both quantitative and qualitative measurements. The programme was also evaluated using a self-developed evaluation questionnaire. The ratter was completed after programme intervention.
PHASE 4: The Diffusion Phase
According to Grinnell (1981 :604), after the innovation has been evaluated and found to be worthy of use, information concerning its nature and applicability should be prepared and disseminated. In the case of this study, the researcher presented the first article at the 34th Biannual Congress of the International Association of Schools of Social Work, 2008 in Durban. Since the current study is in article format, articles will be submitted for review and publication to accredited journals in the social work discipline.
PHASE 5: The Adoption Phase
GrinneH (1981 :604) further indicates that implementation by users consists of the use in social work practice of such contributions as new practice methods, programme changes in the case of new service programmes, and legislative enactment and administrative follow-through in the case of welfare policy. According to Grinnell (1981 :604) the goal here is to have the innovation broadly used by large numbers of those who are potentially the primary consumers. In the context of this study, the researcher recommended the "Tshwaragano Empowerment Programme" for use to the provincial Department of Social Development, for social workers to use this as a guideline tool to empower poverty-stricken families affected by HIV and AIDS in rural areas.
6.2.2 Research design
A research design is a plan which includes every aspect of a proposed research study, from the conceptualisation of the problem to the dissemination of findings (Grinnell, 2005:547). This notion is further supported by Mouton (2001 :55) who
defines research design as a plan or blueprint of how one intends conducting the research.
The researcher used descriptive and explorative designs on account of qualitative nature of the study. The exploratory design mode was selected because information regarding the feasibility of the proposed support programme was stH! a new research area (Babbie, 2004:87). Grinnell (2001 :301) reiterates that the purpose of descriptive research is to obtain data about a problem. This design was chosen in order to explore and describe the strengths and survival of HIV and AIDS poverty-stricken families in rural areas, together with the causes of poverty and the impact of HIV and AIDS on these families.
The concurrent triangulation mixed-method procedure (Creswell, 2009:213; DePoy & GlIson, 2008:191) was used due to the fact that both quantitative and qualitative measuring instruments (Creswell, 2003:153-179; Patton, 2002:4) were concurrently used to collect data. According to Creswell (1994:174) the concept of triangulation is based on the assumption that any bias inherent in a particular data source, investigator and method would be neutralised when used in conjunction with other data sources, investigators and methods. Methodological triangulation suggests the use of multiple methods to study a single topic, for example combining quantitative and qualitative methods in a single study (Padgett, 1998:97).
Firstly, a needs assessment by way of a survey procedure was conducted in order to ascertain the needs of the people under investigation. In the second phase - based on the findings and recommendations of the first phase - the Tshwaragano Empowerment social group work programme was developed and implemented. During the third phase, the effectiveness of the programme was evaluated using the Personal Multi-Screening Inventory (PMSI) scale, developed by the Perspective Training College in Potchefstroom. The effectiveness of the programme was evaluated by both quantitative and qualitative measurements. The other tool used was a self-developed evaluation
questionnaire. However, the latter was completed after the programme intervention. In the fourth phase, the researcher presented the first article at an international conference.
6.2.3 Sample
According to Rubin and Babbie (2005:241), sampling is a process of selecting observations. It can also be defined as a small portion of a total set of objects, events, or persons who together comprises the subject of the study. The participants of the study were heads of households from the Heuningvlei Village in the Kgalagadi district Municipality of the Northern Cape Province. According to Bless and Higson-Smith (2000:85), a population refers to a set of elements that the research focuses upon and from which the obtained results should be generalised. A population is the totality of persons, events, organisational units, case records or other sampling units with which the research problem is concerned. The sampling size of the study was two hundred and fifty four (254) households, thus one participant per household. Unfortunately, due to the extreme weather conditions, only two hundred and thirty (230) respondents participated in the study. Given the nature of the topic under study, probability sampling was used. In probability sampling, the chances of selecting a particular individual are known and can be calculated (Gravetter & Forzano, 2003:118). This technique basically entails selecting a random sample from a list that contains the names of everyone in the population of study interest (Rubin & Babbie, 2005:244). Systematic random sampling was used to elicit data from the respondents (De Vos et af., 2005:205). The researcher included every fifth household in the row/street. The first house in the row/street served as the starting point.
6.2.4 Measuring instruments
For purposes of this study, a survey was conducted in the first phase; tl1i$ is often called a needs assessment (Royse, 2004:177). Data were collected by means of a personal completed schedule. The schedule contained closed and open-ended questions. This provides the researcher with a set of pre
determined questions that might be used as an instrument to engage the participant and designate the narrative terrain (Holstein & Gubrium, 1995:76). One comprehensive measuring instrument was used for the entire project, but for the purposes of this research, only relevant information was extracted from the data. Both qualitative and quantitative research paradigms were utilised in this part of the study. The dominant-less-dominant model was used. According to Creswell (1994:173-190), this means that the researcher presents the study within a single, dominant paradigm with one small component of the overall study drawn from the alternative paradigm.
A social group work empowerment programme with fourteen members of the Heuningvlei community was implemented. The name of the programme was 'Tswaragano Empowerment Programme'. The programme consisted of five sessions and different programme activities were employed with a view to support and empower poverty-stricken rural families affected by HIV and AIDS to enhance their social functioning. The programme was also evaluated in order to measure the effectiveness and the impact it had on the general social functioning of group members. The programme was evaluated using the Personal Multi-Screening Inventory (PMSI) scale. The measuring scale (PMSI) was handed to members before and after the programme intervention with the aim of measuring the social functioning of the members before and after the intervention programme, in order to determine the perceived effectiveness of the programme. The programme was also evaluated by means of a self-developed evaluation questionnaire.
6.2.5 Procedures
The researcher and the manager of the Tswaragano Project organised a meeting with the Chief and his tribal council in Heuningvlei, requesting permission to conduct the research. In 2006, a needs assessment by way of a survey procedure was conducted by multi disciplinary team of post graduate students in Heuningvlei community with a view to determine the needs of the community and to plan proper intervention. The respondents or participants of
the study, during the needs assessment survey, were mainly heads of the households in the Heuningvlei community. The researcher prepared the participants by explaining the nature and the rationale of the study to them. This was necessary since people in rural communities often have a poor educational background. Although the schedule was compiled in English, the interviews were conducted using the language of the respondents, namely Setswana, to allow free interaction and openness of members. The schedule was tested with people not included in the sample to maximise the level of reliability and validity of the instrument. Every household received a 2kg packet of soya meal after completing the schedule as a token of appreciation for participating in the needs assessment survey.
Based on the findings and recommendations of the needs assessment phase conducted in 2006, a social group work empowerment programme was developed with a view to support and empower poverty-stricken rural families that may be affected by HIV and AIDS in the Heuningvlei community. The researcher once again organised the meeting with the Chief and the tribal council of Heuningvlei, requesting permission to conduct a group work programme with members of the community. This meeting was held on
09107/08. The role of the Chief and his tribal council was to identify community members who were wiHing to participate in the research and who were dedicated to continue with the programme. The following specifications were used as selection criteria for community members willing to participate: 1) they had to be community members of Heuningvlei; 2) they had to be community members willing to participate, continue with the programme for sustainability and they had to give written informed consent; and 3) they had to be community members who were Setswana-speaking.
The selection of programme participants was solely based on volunteerism with the view to sustainability of the research based on the fact that the chosen participants would be leaders of the project and would continue after the researcher had departed. According to the researcher the programme participants were a fairly good representation of the whole community. All
eleven sub-areas (dikgoro) of the Heuningvlei community were represented and thus will make sure that the education will be shared within the community of Heuningvlei. The participants were informed that the development of the empowerment programme was a follow-up process of the needs assessment survey conducted in 2006. The researcher briefed the potential members about the general aim and the rationale of the programme and indicated that these were part of her study.
The programme was administered to fourteen participants in five sessions. The researcher also requested a venue for group sessions at ST Getrude Catholic Church COE, HeuningvleL Fr. Reginald Tarimo AJ wholeheartedly endorsed and approved the requisition. The programme was administered from the 1st September until the 5th September 2008 and aU the programme activities were covered during this period. The scale used by the researcher was the Personal Multi-Screening Inventory (PMSl) scale (Perspektief Training College), to fourteen members of the Tswaragano Empowerment Programme'. The measuring scale was administered before the programme intervention and after the intervention in order to determine the effectiveness of the programme. The self-developed evaluation questionnaires were also administered to programme participants during the programme termination to determine the effectiveness and impact of the programme.
Dr Retha van der Walt from the School of Environmental Sciences and Development was invited as an expert for the gardening session. She is from the North-West University (Potchefstroom Campus) and was ask to present information about the "Morogo Research Programme" in order to enable members to start their own food gardens as part of the Tswaragano Empowerment Programme". Portia and Gadifele (also from Women in Partnership against HIV and AIDS (WIPA) in Potchefstroom) were invited to teach members of the community how to make shoes for income-generating purposes with a view to empowering them as part of the programme.
6.2.6 Data analysis
The survey data were processed by the Statistical Consultation Services of the Potchefstroom Campus, North-West University. This assisted towards the validity and reliability of the research project. Qualitative data was analysed by hand into themes by the researcher. Data were transformed into statistically accessible forms by means of a counting procedure. Both qualitative and quantitative research methodologies were applied in this study. The dominant less dominant model was used were quantitative questionnaires were mostly used. According to Creswell (1994:173-190), this means that the researcher presents the study within a single, dominant paradigm with one small component of the overall study drawn from the alternative paradigm. Data from the Personal Multi-Screening Inventory (PMSI) scale were analysed by the researcher using a computer programme. The questionnaires were used before and after the programme to evaluate the growth of members in skills provided to them. The data obtained from the self-developed evaluation questionnaires were recorded by the researcher
6.2.7 Ethical aspects
The proposal for the Tswaragano project was submitted to the Ethics Committee of the North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus. Written permission was granted and the registration number of the project is as follows: Tswaragano Project number 06k07. Various authors such as Babble (2004:63), Monette et al. (2005:53-57), Neuman (2006:132) and Strydom (2005b:58-67)
regard the following ethical aspects to be of prime importance when conducting research:
Informed consent
In this study, the issue of informed consent was regarded as safient. Permission was sought from the Chief to conduct research in his vi!lage and from the research participants to complete the schedule (Rubin & Babbie, 2005:77). All members participating in the study signed a consent form provided (see Appendix 2).
During the first session, participants were informed about the goal of the programme and procedures that would be followed. It was important for them to realise that the programme was an empowerment programme that would assist the entire community.
• Confidentiality
The principle of confidentiality was honoured. All confidential information was dealt with as such. Babbie (1995:450) states in this regard that the clearest concern regarding the interest and well-being of the participants is their protection. All the information provided was treated with strict confidentiality and maintained as such. Anonymity was also emphasised, and thus no identification particulars of the respondents were required (Rubin & Babbie, 2005:78) .
., Avoidance of harm to participants
De Vos et al. (1998:25) advocate that the researcher has to protect subjects
against any form of physical discomfort which may emerge from the research project within reasonable limits. In this study, the researchers informed the respondents about the length of the group work in advance and made sure they were comfortable. The importance of confidentiality was discussed and participants were asked to support each other. In order to protect respondents against any harm, sensitivity towards emotional and physical comfort was maintained (De Vos et al., 2005: 57-66). The respondents' right to withdraw
from the programme was respected. G Violation of privacy
During the course of this study the researcher respected each respondent's right to privacy by ensuring that the schedule was not completed in their homes (De Vos et aI., 2005:61). Each participant completed a consent form, and the
o Voluntary participation
In the case of this study the participants were regarded as volunteers; they were therefore not forced to participate in the study. According to the researcher the respondents knew that they had a choice to participate and could withdraw at any stage because they were informed accordingly.
7. DESCRIPTION OF CONCEPTS
The following definitions of terms directed this study: 7.1 HIV
Human immune virus. A virus is a tiny semi-flving organism that can be seen only under a high-powered microscope. A virus is simply tissue when outside the body and alive only when it is inside the body. However, most screening and diagnostic tests carried out are based on the discovery of antibodies rather than of the virus itself.
The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is a virus that enters the body through various ways such as blood, semen and infected needles (Soul City, 2005:5; Barker, 2003:203). Once the virus is in the body, it uses the CD4 cells of the body's immune system to replicate, which eventually weakens the body's immune system and leads to AIDS (Aids Law Project, 2005; American Psychological Association, 2007:442; Barker, 2003:203; Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary, 2005:739; Soul City, 2005:5).
7.2 AIDS
Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome is a life-threatening disease that kills more people than any other disease (Barker, 2003; Zastrow & Kirst-Ashman, 2004:370). AIDS is diagnosed in a person infected with HIV when the immune system is severely damaged and cannot protect itself from various diseases (American Psychological Association, 2007:32; Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary, 2005:32; Soul City, 2005:5). The name of this syndrome explains a great deal about how it works. Acquired means that one has contracted the disease. One had to take some sort of action to get it - and one can prevent it.
Immune refers to the immune system, the part of the body that keeps one healthy by fighting sickness. Deficiency means a lack, or something that does not work properly. Immunodeficiency means an immune system that does not work properly. A syndrome is a set of problems or symptoms associated with particular illness.
7.3 FAMILY
The family is, strictly speaking, the most fundamental unit in kinship_ In its minimal or nuclear form, the family consists of a mother, father, and offspring. In its broader usage the term may be referring to an extended family, which may include grandparents, cousins and adopted children (Reber & Reber, 2001 :268). According to Zastrow (2007:380), a family is a social institution with many functions. The family should provide emotional support and nurturance needed by its members. It should also provide economic support to the children in particular and it has the responsibility of transmitting culture to children. The family should be the most intimate group to which people belong; it is regarded as the individual's source of strength, love, protection and safety.
In the context of this study, family can therefore be understood as a social institution characterised by love, care, protection and support. It is a group of people who are usually related to each other and who five together. It is the foundation on which societies are built. However in this study the majority of family units were comprised of single parents.
7.4 EMPOWERMENT
This refers to any process whereby those who are, comparatively speaking, lacking in power become or are helped to become more powerful. The acquisition of power is thought appropriate for such individuals as citizens, consumers or seNice users. There are both personal and political dimensions to the concept (Collins, 2006:189). According to Mok, et al. (2002:137): Empowerment means giving one a feeling of emotional strength, a feeling that they are not alone, that someone is walking the difficult path with them.
Empowerment also gives them a conscious and cognitive recognition of choices in continuing their daily lives.
Zimmerman (1995:590) identified three dimensions of empowerment"The value dimension refers to a belief system that leads us to identify strengths instead of cataloguing risk factors, enhance wel[ness instead of fixing problems, search for what is right in people's fives instead of focusing on what is wrong. Empowering processes are learning efforts in which individuals gain a critical understanding of the relevant social environment, access to resources, and work with others to achieve common goals and take action to influence their lives. The outcome dimension concerns assessment issues for developing valid and reliable measures".
7.5 SOCIAL GROUP WORK
Social group work can be defined as an approach that is constituted of goal directed activities in small groups, and which are aimed at accomplishing tasks and meeting their socio-emotional needs. The activity is directed towards individual members in a group and the group as a whole within a system of service delivery (Toseland & Rivas, 2005:12). In other words, social group work is a method used by the social worker to apply group processes, dynamics, mutual relationships and programme media.
7.6 POVERTY
Poverty refers to a condition in which people are inhibited from participation in society because of a serious lack of material and social resources. (Collins, 2006:411). Poverty is, furthermore, defined as 'a state of being poor, the inability to attain necessities of life, e.g. a person's income is less than what is needed to buy food, pay for a proper place to live, and the like (Longman Dictionary of Cotemporary English, 1993: 806). However, poverty means more than 'a lack of; it extends to the denial of opportunities and choices of basics to human development (Van Genugten & Perez-Bustillo, 2001 :66). Furthermore, with so many definitions of what poverty it can be asserted that the baseline
is that poverty is always closely tied to a lack of income and resources needed to meet basic daily needs.
More significantly, however, is also that poverty may be seen as the absence of one or more factors that enable individuals and families to assume basic responsibilities and to enjoy fundamental rights. In this context, poverty means more than a lack of what is necessary for material well-being. It also means the denial of opportunities and choices basic to human development. These opportunities and choices include: 'the right to lead a long, healthy and creative life and enjoy a decent standard of Hving, freedom, dignity, self-esteem and the respect of others (Van Genugten & Perez-Bustillo, 2001 :66).
In order to understand the relationship between human rights, poverty and poverty reduction, it is important first to look at the definitions of these concepts and other related terms. The starting point is to define the concept of 'poverty'. One has to begin by mentioning, however, that there is an ongoing debate over definitions of poverty with some definitions closely tied to a lack of income and basic services while others argue strongly for a multidimensional view of poverty which includes a lack of economic, social, political and environmental assets and resources (Wilson, Kanji & Braathen, 2001 :3-5).
The researcher would like to argue that poverty can be described as a factor that affects every poor individual in day to day life and which is related to, for example, education: if unskilled one is unlikely to find relief from poverty - and one is likely to keep suffering from some form of deprivation regarding water, food, shelter, and monthly income. Alleviating these should indeed the ideal and ultimate objective of all anti-poverty activities. However, to some extent this ideal is not only unrealistic but also over-ambitious and, possibly, unattainable.
7 .7 HEALTHY LIFESTYLE
This is a field of applied psychology that seeks to use health theory and knowledge to promote personal and public lifestyle. Specific focuses include problems as diverse as identifying the aetiology of illness, understanding the conditions and correlates of well-being, developing techniques for the
prevention and treatment of illness and improving health-care delivery systems (Reber & Reber, 2001 :268).
7.8 PROGRAMME
For Lombard (1991:115), every programme has procedures that must be followed and which are made up of specific activities that are arranged to meet certain goals. A programme or programme activity is "a medium through which the functioning of members can be assessed in areas such as interpersonal skills, ability to perform daily living activities, motor co-ordination, attention span and the ability to work cooperatively" (Toseland & Rivas, 2005:259).
In the context of this study, a programme can therefore be understood to be procedure of activities accompanied with time-frames with a view to achieve set goals or objectives.
8. RESEARCH LIMITATIONS
Limitations occur even in the most carefully researched studies (Fouche, 2005:118). The following limitations were experienced during this research: It During the needs assessment survey the researcher experienced extreme
weather conditions which ultimately affected the sample size of the study. • The community (Heuningvlel) under investigation is very far from the
researcher's place of residence, which denied the researcher an opportunity to complete a follow-up to the programme implemented or to clarify information with the respondents.
o Poor infrastructure such as extremely bad gravel road that give access to the
community. It was not easy to drive to the community when the need arose.
o The programme was compiled in English, therefore it was not always user
friendly since the researcher had to present it in the language of the community and had to base communication on their fairly poor educational background.
• The Personal Multi-Screening Inventory measuring scale used was very complex, lengthy and it was difficult for the respondents to contextualise and respond to the questions.
• It is also the researcher's opinion that the Personal Multi-Screening Inventory measuring scale questions did not clearly correspond or rather tally with the general aim and objectives of the study.
• It was time-consuming to administer the measuring scale to programme participants as it took a considerable amount of time to complete them.
• The same questionnaires were completed in the beginning and during termination; this exercise therefore seemed monotonous to the respondents.
9. STRUCTURE OF THE REPORT
The research report comprises the following sections: Section A
This section serves as an overall introduction to the study. The problem statement, aim, objectives, central theoretical statement, method of investigation, limitations and concept clarification are presented in this section. Section B
This section contains four articles that represent the core of the research study. The titles of the articles are as follows:
Article 1: Poverty-stricken families affected by unemployment, HIV and AIDS in the rural area of Heuningvlei.
Article 2: Poverty-stricken families affected by HIV and AIDS in the rural area of Heuningvlei
Article 3: A group work programme aimed at empowering poverty stricken families affected by HIV and AIDS: Heuningvlei.
II Article 4: An evaluation of a social group work programme aimed at the empowerment of poverty-stricken families affected by HIV and AIDS.
Section C
This section contains the summary, conclusions and recommendations regarding the study of HIV/AI DS poverty-stricken families.
Section D
This section contains all annexures used within the study.
Section E
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