Retaining interns : a survey study of the factors affecting interns' conversion intentions

Retaining Interns: a survey study of the factors affecting interns’

conversion intentions

Name: Vittorio de Franchis Student number: 11843241

Thesis supervisor: Georgios Georgakopoulos Date: June 20, 2018

Word count: 19,791

MSc Accountancy & Control, specialization Control

Statement of Originality

This document is written by student Vittorio de Franchis who declares to take full responsibility for the contents of this document.

I declare that the text and the work presented in this document is original and that no sources other than those mentioned in the text and its references have been used in creating it.

The Faculty of Economics and Business is responsible solely for the supervision of completion of the work, not for the contents.

Abstract

The purpose of this thesis was to analyze how six motivating factors (i.e. monetary compensation, perceived supervisory support, work-life balance, learning and personal development, perception of advancement opportunities and perceived organizational support) influence intern’s conversion intentions. On the basis of contemporary turnover models, I postulated that the effect of these factors on conversion intentions is mediated by a major attitudinal response (job satisfaction). The results confirmed the role of job satisfaction as mediator with regards to perceived supervisory support, work-life balance, learning and personal development and perceived organizational support. Competitive monetary compensation was also found to be directly related to conversion intentions. With regards to perception of advancement opportunities, a direct relationship with conversion intentions also seems to be present, although results are contrasting with regards to whether this relationship is actually mediated by job satisfaction.

Contents 1 Introduction ... 6 1.1 Research question ... 6 1.2 Contribution to literature ... 7 1.3 Thesis design ... 8 2 Literature Review ... 10 2.1 Theoretical framework ... 10 2.1.1 Herzberg’s theory ... 10 2.1.2 Equity theory ... 11

2.1.3 Social exchange theory ... 11

2.1.4 Expectancy theory ... 11

2.2 Conceptual model ... 12

2.2.1 Alternative model ... 13

2.3 Interns’ Conversion Intentions ... 13

2.4 Value of Internships ... 14

2.5 Millennials’ values ... 16

2.6 Motivating Factors ... 17

2.6.1 Competitive monetary compensation ... 17

2.6.2 Perceived Supervisory Support ... 19

2.6.3 Work-life balance ... 21

2.6.4 Learning and Personal Development ... 23

2.6.5 Perception of Advancement Opportunities ... 24

2.6.6 Perceived organisational support ... 26

2.7 Major attitudinal response ... 27

2.8 Literature Summary Table ... 28

3 Research Method ... 33

3.1 Data collection procedure ... 33

3.2 Sample ... 33

3.3 Measures ... 34

4 Analysis ... 36

4.1 Preliminary analysis ... 36

4.1.1 Reliability and validity testing ... 36

4.1.2 Descriptive and correlation analysis ... 37

4.1.3 Assumptions testing ... 39

4.2 Hypothesis testing and discussion ... 39

4.3 Robustness test: The Baron and Kenny procedure ... 44

4.4 Additional analysis ... 48

5 Conclusions ... 51

5.1 Limitations and suggestions for future research ... 52

References ... 53

1 Introduction

In order for a company to be successful, amongst other things, competent employees are needed. People with the right capabilities will be able to solve most of the problems that the firm may face. However, especially when the required level of expertise is high, it is often difficult to acquire individuals who not only possess the necessary set of skills, but also have values that fit with the company’s culture. By acquiring those talents externally, significant amounts of time and money would be needed to hire them as well as keep them satisfied and loyal. The solution to this problem would be to train those individuals from the beginning of their career in the unique aspects of the firm and the best way to do so would be to hire them directly from colleges and universities (Sessions 2006). In this regard, internships perfectly fit the purpose. Not only they allow the company to gain access to a large number of prospective employees at a low cost, but also to effectively test their capabilities before deciding to hire them with a full-time contract.

1.1 Research question

After having successfully acquired talented interns, however, there is still the question of whether they will accept a job offer at the end of the internship. In fact, many studies have shown that internships fail to meet interns’ expectations when it comes to several factors. This, in turn, might lead them to deciding to leave the company once their internship experience is over. This might represent a problem for firms as they spend time and money on developing new potential employees, while at the same time not being sure whether such individuals will indeed decide to become full-time employees. In particular, auditing and accounting firms in general are amongst the companies most affected by this matter (Durocher et al., 2016).

Therefore, I believe that understanding what are the reasons leading to a successful conversion of interns into full-time employees would be of high interest to both interns and companies. On one hand, the interns would be able to undergo a work experience that better fits their expectations. On the other hand, companies would be capable of creating incentive programs to better attract and retain prospective employees.

These considerations lead to my research question:

RQ: What are the factors that ultimately lead to an intern’s decision to accept a job offer at the end of the internship?

In order to develop my research question, I took inspiration from Hurst et al.’s (2012) study on conversion intentions of interns. However, in my thesis, I employ an original approach to the matter, with different theoretical background, survey participants’ country and partially different conceptual model and motivating factors. The conceptual model was developed on the basis of contemporary theories of turnover (e.g. Mobley’s (1977) intermediate linkages model), which conceive voluntary turnover as a process in which antecedents (e.g. motivating factors) affect major attitudinal responses (e.g. job satisfaction), which in turn affect interns’ intentions to leave the company (Allen et al., 2003).

In order to understand what could be the factors that are most related to job satisfaction and voluntary turnover, I reviewed previous literature (e.g. Bullen, 1985, Huang, 2011, Wilmien et al., 2015). Subsequently, I proceeded to confront what I found with researches conducted on millennials and in an internship context (e.g. Sweeney et al., 2005, D’Abate et al., 2009, Durocher et al., 2016). Through this process, I came up with six main motivational factors: competitive monetary compensation, work-life balance, learning and personal development, perceived supervisory support, perception of advancement opportunities and perceived organizational support.

From my research, it emerged that those six factors indeed lead to an increased likelihood of interns accepting a job offer at the end of the internship period. The findings also partially corroborated the conceptual model, which found job satisfaction as an important mediator variable for four out of six motivating factors (work-life balance, learning and personal development, perceived supervisory support and perceived organizational support).

1.2 Contribution to literature

My thesis contributes to the Control and Management Accounting literature in several ways. Firstly, this study answers a call for research that seeks to identify the factors that influence employee’s voluntary turnover in order to increase the likelihood of them deciding to remain in the company. Amongst others, Allen et al. (2003), Hurst et al. (2012) and Choudhury and McIntosh (2013) answered similar calls for research, with Moyes et al. (2008) stressing the importance of understanding what are the determinants of employee turnover when dealing with accounting professionals. By analyzing in detail what are the factors that ultimately incentivize interns to accept a job offer at the end of the internship, firms will be capable of designing the most appropriate incentives’ plans to best attract and retain prospective employees. While some studies employed a path analysis to understand the antecedents

affecting voluntary turnover (Allen et al. 2003, Hurst et al. 2012, Nouri and Parker 2013), none, to the best of my knowledge have done so taking into account all of the factors that I mentioned. In addition, none, to the best of my knowledge, have accomplished this in an internship context. Secondly, the majority of past studies on the matter of turnover involved employees of previous generations such as the Silent generation, Baby-boomers and Generation X (Bullen, 1985, Noor and Maad, 2008, Tuzun, 2011). Those generations are characterised by different sets of values and beliefs as compared to millennials (Gursoy et al., 2008). By understanding what job characteristics millennials value the most will shed new light on how this new generation of workers can be best motivated and retained. Thirdly, most of the research on the matter was conducted in a USA setting, Hurst et al. (2012) included. By involving European interns, I will be able to analyze whether the same principles apply also in this context. Finally, Sessions (2006) clearly states how important internships are in the accounting field. While my study will not involve merely students with an accounting or control background that found an internship in related fields, there is evidence that a majority of students, after having undergone a work experience, have the intention, while remaining in the same general industry (economics), to try different fields of work in the future (Self et al. 2016). Therefore, while those individuals may not currently have worked in an Accounting or Control field, they may do so in the future.

1.3 Thesis design

The thesis is structured as follows. Firstly, the concerning literature review is provided (section 2.0). In this section, the theoretical background supporting my thesis (section 2.1) and the conceptual model employed are provided (section 2.2). Secondly, why converting interns matter (section 2.3), what is the value of internships (section 2.4) and why millennials are relevant in the internship landscape (section 2.5) is discussed shortly. Finally, I provide the evidence, based on theories and previous research, supporting my hypotheses regarding the antecedent factors (adequate monetary compensation, work-life balance, learning and personal development, supervisory support, perceived advancement opportunities and perceived organizational support) (sections 2.6.1, 2.6.2, 2.6.3, 2.6.4, 2.6.5, 2.6.6), the major attitudinal response (job satisfaction) (section 2.7.1) and interns’ conversion intentions that characterize my conceptual model.

Secondly, the research method (section 3.0) is analyzed in detail, with explanations regarding the data collection procedure (section 3.1), the sample (3.2) and the measures utilized (section 3.3).

Thirdly, the results of the analysis are provided in section 4.0. This section is divided into a few main parts. In section 4.1, the preliminary analysis, which is composed by the reliability and validity testing (section 4.1.1), the descriptive statistics (section 4.1.2) and assumptions testing (section 4.1.3), is given. Subsequently, I presented the hypothesis testing (section 4.2), a robustness test by the means of the Baron and Kenny procedure (section 4.3) and the additional analysis (section 4.4), where “type of internship” assumes the role of control variable.

Finally, the conclusions are provided in section 5.0, as well as the limitations characterizing my thesis and suggestions for future research (section 5.1).

2 Literature Review

2.1 Theoretical framework

2.1.1 Herzberg’s theory

On the basis of a research conducted on the elements affecting satisfaction (Herzberg et al., 1959), Herzberg introduced the so-called two-factor theory. As its name suggests, the theory identifies two distinct types of factors affecting, respectively, humans’ satisfaction and dissatisfaction.

Motivator factors are those that lead to higher satisfaction and motivation to work and are a direct result of a human’s higher psychological needs. In fact, the author claims that the motivating dimension is characterized by humans’ need for actualization and self-realization. These “satisfiers” are connected to the job itself and to the rewards that an employee can obtained when he performs well. Examples of motivator factors are: advancement, recognition, responsibility, personal growth and the work itself.

Hygiene factors are those that, if absent, lead to dissatisfaction and demotivation. The dissatisfaction dimension is related to the employees’ relationship with the work environment. When the company promotes ineffective or unsuitable policies, thus leading to a less than adequate work environment, employees will react negatively. Examples of hygiene factors are: one’s relationship with his/her supervisor, salary, status and work conditions.

According to Herzberg, these two factors are not part of a continuum where one grows while the other decreases, but rather are independent from each other. Higher levels of job satisfaction are not achieved by diminishing those factors that lead to dissatisfaction. The theory suggests that in order to improve satisfaction and work performance, companies need to pay close attention to both factors.

Despite having been successfully applied in a variety of researches, Herzberg’s two-factor theory is not without its detractors. Three main criticisms have been addressed at the theory: “first, that it is methodologically bound; second, that it is based on faulty research; and third, that it is inconsistent with past evidence concerning satisfaction and motivation” (House and Wigdor, 1967: 371). In addition, the findings of many recent studies on job satisfaction seem to contradict Herzberg’s theory.

Despite these criticisms, Herzberg’s theory remains relevant up to this day and, therefore, I will test in my research whether it can be applied also in an internship context.

2.1.2 Equity theory

Equity theory, first developed by workplace and behavioural psychologist J. S. Adams in the 1960s, focuses on whether the exchanges between two parties are fair on both directions. The author suggests that employees not only expect equity when it comes to the inputs they bring to the company and the output they receive in exchange from the firm, but also when it comes to comparing their own input/output relationship to that of others. If they perceive that they got less than deserved or that their peers received more under the same conditions, then employees will believe this to be a situation of inequality, thus leading to dissatisfaction. This has potentially several implications when it comes to salary and perceived organisational support. Equity theory lies on three main assumptions when being applied in a business setting. Firstly, employees expect fair return in exchange for the work they provided (the so-called “equity norm”). Secondly, employees form the idea of what is a fair return after making comparisons with their peers. Thirdly, employees who believe that they are being treated with inequity will respond by either distorting the inputs and/or outcomes in their own minds, by directly altering inputs and/or outputs and/or by deciding to leave the company (Adams, 1963). The potential implications for the conversion intentions of interns can therefore be clearly perceived.

2.1.3 Social exchange theory

Social exchange theory was first analysed in a business context by Blau (1964). Similarly to the equity theory, it deals with the exchanges between employees and the organisation with, however, less connections to the concept of “fair”. In fact, according to the theory, every individual seeks to maximise its own wins and he/she will be satisfied when he/she believes that this outcomes is achieved. This has potential implications for my thesis especially when it comes to perceived organisational support.

2.1.4 Expectancy theory

Expectancy theory suggests that an individual’s behaviour or actions depend on the degree of motivation to behave or act in that specific way. This motivation, according to the theory, is determined from what individuals expect that will happen as a result of their behaviours or actions. To put it short, this motivation is a direct result of the degree of desirability of a

certain outcome (Oliver, 1974). In simpler terms, expectancy theory deals with the mental processes concerning individuals’ behavioural decisions and basically explains the processes that lead a person to behave or act in a certain way instead of another.

This theory is relevant for my research as it helps in understanding how individuals can be positively influenced and motivated towards accepting a job offer at the end of the internship. In addition, analyzing research conducted on the millennials generation, it emerged that millennials are characterised by very specific expectations regarding what working entails. In this thesis, expectancy theory will be therefore even more useful when it comes to understanding how the fulfilment (or unfulfillment) of these expectations affect satisfaction and conversion intentions of interns.

2.2 Conceptual model

I developed my conceptual model (Figure 1) on the basis of contemporary turnover models (e.g. Mobley’s (1977) intermediate linkages model) that conceive voluntary turnover as a process in which antecedents (e.g. organization, individual, work environment) affect major attitudinal responses (e.g. job satisfaction), which in turn affect interns’ intentions to leave the company (Allen et al., 2003). In practice, I propose that interns’ job satisfaction (JS) is influenced by competitive monetary compensation (MC), perceived supervisory support (PSS), work-life balance (WLB), learning and personal development (LPD), perceived advancement opportunities (PAO) and perceived organizational support (POS). In turn, these linkages reflect on the influence of job satisfaction on interns’ conversion intentions (CI). The linkages were developed on the basis of previous literature, which will be discussed in the next sections. A similar path model was successfully utilized by Allen et al. (2003), but they took into account only the effect of perceived organizational support. Hurst et al. (2012) also utilized a similar, yet slightly different approach, again with some different factors.

2.2.1 Alternative model

In this thesis, I hypothesize that the motivating factors have an indirect effect on interns’ conversion intentions through their effect on job satisfaction. However, there is also the possibility of alternative models which contemplate more direct paths. In fact, it is plausible that some motivating factors have a direct relationship with conversion intentions. This is in line with Mowday et al.’s (1982) model of turnover, which postulates that some antecedents have a direct relationship with turnover intentions, as well as with previous literature, which found direct links between some of the motivating factors and intentions to remain in a company (McCrory, 1999, Longenecker & Scazzero, 2003, Zopiatis and Constanti, 2007). Therefore, as part of a robustness test, I also tested for an alternative model which posits the existence of the mentioned direct relationships.

2.3 Interns’ Conversion Intentions

Retaining employees is a matter of high importance for several companies, with studies on the matter having been conducted in all kinds of fields and industries (Choudhury and McIntosh, 2013). For example, in the accounting field, characterised by high turnover rates and a shrinking market of qualified accountants, retaining workers is a relevant issue that is

often addressed by the organisations (Durocher et al., 2016). In fact, turnover represents a considerable cost for companies in terms of having to select, recruit and train new employees. Especially considering that this is a moment of economic uncertainty, rapid changes, a global environment and increasing competition (Mercurio, 2015). All of this is in addition to the fact that the young generation of workers – that is, millennials – has a tendency to quit their job and move somewhere else in the case that their expectations and desires are not met (Ng. et al., 2010). It can then be understood why attracting and then retaining prospective trainee accountants is considered necessary by all accounting firms (Durocher et al., 2016).

Converting interns into full-time employees is of fundamental interest to companies. In fact, an intern who had a successful internship experience and decides to accept a job offer at the end of the internship is more likely to experience a high sense of commitment and loyalty to the firm as compared to someone hired from outside the company (Hurst et al., 2012). While short and temporary in nature, the internship experience still allows interns to form their own opinion, and thus possibly commitment, regarding the company (Dixon et al., 2005). Despite the fact that a job offer might not follow at the end of the internship, positively affecting the interns’ intentions to remain in the company is still of high importance as several firms have often high expectations when it comes to hiring from their intern pool (Gault et al., 2000, Sessions 2006).

In order to understand how companies can increase interns’ conversion intentions, it was first necessary to understand what are the “motivational forces” that drive workers’ intentions to remain in the company or to leave it (de Vos et al., 2008). In trying to achieve this, comprehending the extent of significance attributed by employees on these factors and the degree of impact that they have on intentions to remain is therefore of primary importance. By analysing previous literature on the matter of voluntary turnover and confronting the findings with researches on millennials and interns, I came up with what I believe to be the six main motivational factors that ultimately matter in improving interns’ conversion intentions.

The relationships connecting the various motivational factors to job satisfaction and interns’ conversion intentions will be explained in detail in the subsequent sections.

2.4 Value of Internships

Several definitions of internship have been provided over the years. Taylor (1988: 393) describes them as “structured and career-relevant work experiences obtained by students

prior to graduation from an academic program” while Gault et al. (2000: 46) affirms that internships “generally refer to part-time field experiences and encompass a wide variety of academic disciplines and organizational settings”. Neither examples perfectly describe what internships are, with the first being too restrictive and the other too vague (Maertz et al., 2013), but they help in having an idea of what an internship actually entails.

Over the past years, internships have become one of the main methods of selecting new full-time employees. In fact, in a study conducted by the National Association of Colleges and Employers (NACE, 2018), more than 90 percent of the organisations involved were running an internship program. In addition, the majority of these companies used these internships as a way to evaluate and subsequently hire full-time employees.

Internships provide several benefits to both interns and companies and this topic has been the subject of several studies and researches (Maertz et al., 2013).

With regards to interns, internships will be especially useful in helping with the transition from studying to working. They help with bridging the gap between students’ expectations pertaining to their future jobs and what they will actually experience in the real world (Gault et al., 2000). They aid students in applying the knowledge obtained in the classroom in a company’s context (Busby, 2003) and thus they lead to the acquisition of fundamental practical experience. Finally, they help interns in developing a variety of skills, from soft ones such as communication skills, problem-solving and critical thinking to hard skills specifically related to the job (Zopiatis & Constanti, 2007).

To conclude, it will provide interns with an important opportunity for networking and there is the chance that a job offer will follow at the end of the experience. In fact, research has shown that prospective employees with previous work experience acquired through an internship are likely to find a job more easily as well as with a higher starting salary as compared to their counterparts who did not undertake an internship (Taylor, 1988, Coco, 2000, Gault et al., 2000). This is corroborated by a recent survey conducted by the NACE, where it emerged that the deciding factors in the hiring decision between two equally qualified candidates were, first, whether the prospective employee had already undergone an internship in the very same company and, second, if he/she had any internship experience in the related field of work (NACE, 2018). The importance placed by companies on internships can thus be clearly perceived.

With regards to the employers’ benefits, amongst others, internships provide a low-cost labour force as interns are usually paid less (or not at all) as compared to regular employees. In times of need, an organisation can acquire interns relatively quickly, with the benefit that the firm can decide to not hire the individual when the internship period ends. Finally, as already mentioned before, internships provide the opportunity of evaluating prospective employees in an almost inexpensive way, with the possibility of finding hidden talents that the organisation may find valuable and worthy of nurturing (Maertz et al., 2014; Ryan & Krapels, 1997).

2.5 Millennials’ values

Today’s workforce consists of employees from four different generations: the Silent Generation (born 1925–1945), the Baby Boomers (born 1946–1964), Generation X (born 1965–1981), and Millennials (born 1980–1999) (Durocher et al., 2016). Each generation is characterised by different sets of values and believes, with millennials sharing this feature. Unlike previous generations, millennials believe in the concept of “the more the merrier”. They are generally collaborative and great team players, whilst at the same time enjoying independence and autonomy. They consider being respected and recognised by peers and colleagues as very important and enjoy being paid attention by their supervisors. At the same time, millennials tend to be self-entitled and often question rules concerning workplace norms such as dress code, inflexibility of working hours and relationships with superiors. Their loyalty is also very low and are often characterised by a “here today and gone tomorrow” attitude (Gursoy et al., 2008). Finally, millennials have very specific expectations, especially when it comes to salary, work-life balance, advancement prospects and work environment (Ng et al., 2010). All these differences may therefore lead to dissimilar results as compared to older studies (Dunnette et al., 1967, Bullen and Flamholtz, 1985, Eisenbergh et al., 2002) when it comes to measuring the relationships between the various motivating factors, job satisfaction and voluntary turnover.

To conclude, it is safe to assume that millennials represent the great majority of individuals doing an internship. This assumption is backed by evidence, as Durocher et al. (2016) found that accounting firms today mainly recruit millennials. It can therefore be understood why companies and researchers alike are increasingly interested in knowing how to best motivate this generation, as well as how those specific features that characterise millennials translate in terms of loyalty to the organisation (Myers & Sadaghiani, 2010).

2.6 Motivating Factors

2.6.1 Competitive monetary compensation

As enunciated previously, internships represent a way for companies to obtain labour at a low cost. In fact, very often interns are either not paid at all where possible or remunerated with salaries that barely satisfy the minimum wage requirements (Chen and Shen, 2012). Employers justify this behaviour by claiming to offer an opportunity for inexperienced individuals to undergo personal growth and acquire new competences. They also claim that internships provide a value that is not financial but rather developmental (McHugh, 2017). However, it might be argued that providing interns with appropriate compensation could lead to higher motivation and performance. For example, Judge et al. (2010) found pay level to be positively correlated to both overall job satisfaction and pay satisfaction. As far as the beginning of the 20th century, Frederick Taylor’s scientific management identified pay as the single most important factor needed to motivate employees. A high wage still represents and symbolizes prestige, security and a sense of accomplishment.

Remuneration is also one of the major concerns for students (Chen and Shen, 2012). Millennials in general, characterised by a “want it all” and “want it now” mentality, have high expectations with regards to compensation (Ng et al., 2010) and in a study conducted by the Corporate Leadership Council, pay emerged as the most relevant factor when it came to motivating millennials (Corporate Leadership Council, 2004).

In a study conducted by NACE, unpaid interns had a lower likelihood of achieving high levels of job satisfaction than paid interns (NACE, 2016). In addition, it emerged that that students who experienced unpaid internships were also less likely to accept a job offer prior to graduation. Unpaid interns will also experience higher levels of unsatisfaction if they work in contact with paid co-workers and especially paid interns (Feldman and Turnley, 2004). Beebe et al. (2009) found that paid interns will generally have an higher overall job satisfaction than their unpaid counterparts.

Inadequate pay was also identified as one of the factors that lead to unsatisfaction (Kusluvan and Kusluvan, 2000), often because interns felt as if they were being exploited by their employers (Siebert and Wilson, 2003). It is relevant to note that poorly remunerated internships may lead interns to acquire a poor image of the internship company, thus lowering their job pursuing intentions with the internship firm (McHugh, 2017). McHugh (2017) also suggests that properly compensating interns would enhance the company’s ability

to retain interns for full-time positions. In addition, there is the possibility that it would have benefits on the reputational side of the firm, as interns would speak positively of the internship experience to friends and relatives, thus increasing the possibility of attracting new talents.

Somewhat in opposition to the previously enunciated results, other researches suggest that pay, amongst the factors that can lead to satisfaction with regards to interns’ work experience, ranked in a lower position when it came to the importance attributed to it. Beebe et al. (2009) found that salary, whilst being considered important, was rated by interns to be below other factors such as learning new skills, supervisory support and advancement opportunities. Smith and Galbraith (2012) also found that pay, whilst being valued by millennials, is not the only element that they search in a job, nor, very often, the most important.

Possible explanations of these results lie on the two-factor theory (Herzberg et al., 1959). In fact, Herzberg’s theory identifies pay as one of the hygiene factors, that is, those factors whose absence provoke dissatisfaction, whilst at the same time not being particularly related to motivation or satisfaction. Further, the fact that the literature identified other factors which seem to be valued more than pay is also in line with Herzberg’s two-factor theory.

Similarly, according to the equity theory, individuals do not care only about the absolute amount of remuneration they receive, but especially about the amount relative to what their peers receive (Adams, 1963). If an individual believes that, for the same amount of effort and with the same conditions, what he received was less than others, then tensions and dissatisfaction emerge.

Following the reasoning of the equity theory and Herzberg’s theory, it might be argued that for as long as the compensation is considered “fair”, then monetary compensation does not have a high impact on job satisfaction. In a study conducted by Higginbotham (1997) on technology professionals, while high remuneration was often not considered fundamental, salaries perceived as fair were strongly correlated with intention to remain in the company. This means that for as long as employees perceive compensation as adequate, financial rewards might not be the main driver of retention in companies.

As a final consideration, it must also be noted that an unpaid internship may not automatically equal unsatisfaction. In fact, it was demonstrated that unpaid interns can display high levels of satisfaction (Beebe et al., 2009, McHugh, 2017). Expectancy theory provides a possible explanation of these results (Oliver, 1974). When they accepted the job,

interns were already aware of the fact that they wouldn’t get paid. Therefore, having no unmet expectations about being paid would then translate in no effect on job satisfaction (D’Abate et al., 2009).

While there are contrasting results regarding the relationship between monetary compensation and job satisfaction, most of the literature seems to agree on the fact that a competitive pay should lead to a higher job satisfaction. This leads to my first hypothesis. H1: Competitive monetary compensation is positively related to interns’ job satisfaction. 2.6.2 Perceived Supervisory Support

Hurst et al. (2012: 507) defines perceived supervisory support as the “degree to which employees perceive their supervisors as providing direction, encouragement, and mentoring.” It plays a fundamental part in a new employee’s job experience and its importance is threefold. First, it is up to supervisors to make decisions regarding the ambiguities, conflicts and degree of structure that characterise the work experience. Secondly, it’s their task to provide formal and informal feedback regarding the employee’s behaviour and performance. Finally, they have the power to control any rewards that the employee will enjoy (Krackhardt et al., 1981).

The relationship between supervisory support and job satisfaction has been the topic of several researches. In a study by Dunnette et al. (1967), employees tended to identify a good relationship with their supervisors as one of the core factors that characterise satisfying job circumstances. They also tended to connect inhuman or incompetent supervisors to dissatisfying job circumstances. More recently, Sweeney et al. (2005) examined this relationship in an accounting setting and found that perceived supervisory actions (such as mentoring or leadership) deeply affect job satisfaction. Similarly, through correlational and path analysis, Steindhart et al. (2003) identified a positive relationship between a supervisor’s supportiveness and job satisfaction.

In a study of the Corporate Leadership Council, manager quality was rated by millennials to be the second most motivational factor (Corporate Leadership Council, 2004). In fact, millennials are characterised by a constant need for feedback and encouragements and they want their efforts to be recognised (Durocher et al., 2016, Gursoy et al., 2008). Ng et al. (2010) emphasise this fact and state that millennials seem to put much value on their relationships with supervisors as well as on the opportunities to learn from them. They also add that millennials desire a job experience where supervisors are always available for

feedback. Gursoy et al. (2008) also emphasizes that millennials want to be acknowledged and respected for the work they did and that they want personal attention from their supervisors. They also found that by providing a good amount of mentoring, millennials are more likely to feel attached to the company, thus increasing their loyalty.

Another matter worth mentioning is that supervisory support also seems relevant in terms of employee retention. Satisfaction with the amount of support received from the supervisor was identified to be amongst the factors that most affect the probability of turnover (Bullen and Flamholtz, 1985, Longenecker and Scazzero, 2003). Conversely, Vanderberghe and Bentein (2009) found that affective commitment to ones’ supervisor leads to lower turnover. Similarly, Dawley et al. (2008) determined employee satisfaction with regards to the support received by their supervisors to improve employees’ commitment to the organisation and reduce intentions to leave the company.

In the context of internships, supervisory support appears even more important (Maertz et al., 2014). Researches on the matter, while scarce, presented similar results. In this regard, a positive relationship was found between the interactions with ones’ supervisor and internship satisfaction (Rose et al., 2014, McHugh, 2017). Likewise, D’Abate et al. (2009) observed that supervisory support is one of the characteristics that best predict internship satisfaction. From Maertz et al.’s (2014) research, it clearly emerged that an actively engaged and competent supervisor is a major driver of internships’ success. The authors emphasize the need for companies to choose supervisors who have time available to spend on the interns, who are respectful, who can to provide adequate feedback and are willing to include interns in meetings and decisions when possible. Finally, Maertz et al. (2013) identified poor supervisory support as one of the main drivers of internship dissatisfaction.

Interestingly, while most researches lead to the discovery of a significant and positive correlation between supervisory support and job satisfaction, Hurst et al. (2012) found that the relationship between the two factors was not supported. They postulated that this difference in results was probably due to the fact that most previous research had dealt with regular employees and not interns. Another possible explanation would rely on Herzberg’s two factor theory, which identified supervisory support as an hygiene, rather then motivator, factor (Herzberg, 1974).

Despite these results, most of the literature on the matter seems to agree that the relationship is significant and, therefore, this leads to my second hypothesis:

H2: Perceived supervisory support is positively related to job satisfaction. 2.6.3 Work-life balance

Work-life balance can be defined as “the ability of employees to meet their work and family commitments as well as other non-work responsibilities and activities” (Parkes and Langford, 2008: 270). Work-life balance involves policies such as flexible work scheduling (e.g. part-time work, job-sharing, variable starting and quitting part-times), family leave policies to allow some time with family and childcare assistance (Dockel et al., 2006).

The impact of work-life balance on employee satisfaction and turnover intentions has been researched in a variety of studies. In the high technology sector, work-life policies are held in high regard and are positively related to intentions to remain in the company (McCrory 1999). De Vos et al. (2007) conducted a research involving different fields and found work-life balance, albeit considered less important than other factors, to be amongst the matters that most influence employees to remain in the company. In a South African context, participants of the study conducted by Wilmien et al. (2015) rated work-life balance as second in importance, behind only compensation. Choudhury and McIntosh (2013) employed a qualitative approach to analyse the factors relating to retaining students as employees in the small hospitality industry context. Five out of ten interviewees regarded flexible working hours as one of the top factors relating to their intentions to remain in the company. They claimed that it was a fundamental element for creating the good work atmosphere necessary for affecting their decisions to remain. Allowing them to arrive late now and again, giving flexibility regarding shifts as well as providing some time off from work were interpreted as the company paying attention to employees’ lives outside the firm.

On the opposite, work life balance issues such as poor working conditions, inflexible and/or long hours and no breaks from work have been demonstrated to lead to increased turnover intentions (Deery, 2008, Cho et al., 2009). These factors create in fact the basis for work-life conflicts which are defined as “…a form of inter-role conflict in which work and family demands are mutually incompatible” (Noor and Maad, 2008: 94).

Ng et al. (2010) stresses the importance attributed by millennials on adequate work-life balance. Millennials prefer “making a life over making a living” (Petroulas et al., 2010: 228) and they often prize benefits such as time off from work, subsidized education, paid parental leave and opportunity to travel (Petroulas et al., 2010). They tend to put family and friends over work and whilst still putting considerable effort at work, they are not workaholics

(Gursoy et al., 2008) In fact, they consider working 36 hours per week to be a sign of good work ethics, as compared to the 60/70 hours per week of the Baby-Boomers generation (Petroulas et al., 2010). They are also more likely than previous generations to leave the company if faced with lack of flexibility on the company’s part (Durocher et al., 2016). Durocher et al. (2016) confirms these results when dealing with the accounting sector. They analysed the website content of the Big four companies as well as the next four largest Canadian national accounting firms. They found that those companies, in order to comply with expectations of millennials and thus attract more prospective employees, often highlighted various work-life balance programs. All firm representatives mentioned the relevance of work-life balance and how they had no choice but to make concessions about it. For example, one of the Big four firms introduced what they called a “flexible calendar” in order to include flexibility as part of the audit steps: when decisions had to be made regarding how an audit process had to be carried out, employees were required to discuss about flexibility needs. Other initiatives adopted included sabbatical leaves during less busy season, parental leave and wellness/fitness programs for employees. It is relevant to mention that Durocher et al. (2016) suspect that all this emphasis placed by accounting firms on the work-life programs they offer is a way to take away attention from the heavy workload that characterises these companies. Nevertheless, they conclude that work-life balance indeed seems to play a big role in attracting and retaining employees.

Concerning the internship context, in opposition with the rest of the literature on the matter, D’Abate et al. (2009) found no relationship between work-life balance and the interns’ level of satisfaction. He posited that these surprising results were possibly due to the fact that factors such as inflexible working hours are well known to be part of the internship experience. In line with what the expectancy theory enunciates, the authors affirm that the prospective interns had no prior high expectations regarding this matter when making the decision to accept the job. The absence of prior positive expectations would thus lead the intern to not feel disappointed when faced with work-life conflicts. In addition, the authors also added that, given the short nature of internships, it may be that individuals are willing to experience discomfort for this period of time, for as long as it is not protracted in the future. Despite D’Abate et al. (2009), and based on previous findings, I expect work-life balance to be of high importance for interns with regards to job satisfaction and intentions to remain in the company. This leads to my third hypothesis.

H3: Work-life balance is positively related to job satisfaction. 2.6.4 Learning and Personal Development

Learning is a “continuous process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience” and is characterised by a cycle comprising experiences, thoughts, experimenting and conceptualisation. (Khalil 2015: 202). Companies which aim to improve their employees’ learning and development will do so by, for example, increasing emphasis on training, by improving job-related capabilities as well as other skills, by offering opportunities to acquire new knowledge and by helping them develop professionally (Gayathiri and Ramakrishnan, 2013).

Employee’s training opportunities was found to be one of the factors contributing to overall job satisfaction (Applebaum and Kamal, 2000, Chiang et al., 2005, Kraimer et al., 2011). In addition, according to Chang (1999), when the company expends effort in providing employees with training, the employees’ psychological state might be affected positively. When employees believe that the firm is providing them with adequate training, they will begin to feel as though the organisation really cares about improving their knowledge and abilities and values them, thus making them more committed to the company (Chang, 1999, Dockel et al., 2006).

These results are confirmed by Durocher et al. (2016), who discovered that accounting firms in Canada emphasize the fact that they offer training and support to their recruits in order to best attract young talents. This goes a long way in telling us how important personal development is considered by the current generation of interns. In fact, the possibility of acquiring new skills and capabilities is one of the elements that millennials most desire to acquire in a job experience. Millennials consider a work experience as meaningful when, along with other factors, it offers them the opportunity to develop at a personal level (Ng et al. 2010). This probably stems from the fact that their Baby Boomers parents taught them the importance of education in achieving success. Therefore, Petroulas et al. (2010) affirm that millennials are most devoted to companies that focus on development and training. A good example of such a firm is the so-called “learning” organisation. The approach adopted by this kind of organisation, focused on encouraging continues learning, is often able to improve employees’ satisfaction and increase their commitment to the company (Chang, 2007, Rose et al., 2009).

With regards to internships, one of the greatest, or arguably the greatest, appeals is the possibility of learning knowledge and skills that the educational training simply cannot provide (D’Abate et al., 2009). In fact, internships are actually often defined as experiential learning opportunities for students (Gault et al., 2000). What students learn in the classroom is severely lacking as compared to what they will have to experience during their jobs (Khalil 2015) and an internship covers that deficiency. Internships are often designed to provide students with the opportunity to obtain work experience whilst at the same time being enrolled in an academic course (Khalil, 2015). When students are exposed to such a learning environment, they will be able to improve their self-confidence as well as enhance their future job prospects (Zopiatis and Constanti, 2007).

In a study conducted by D’Abate et al. (2009), which involved US undergraduate Management and Business students, learning opportunities were found to be deeply correlated to job satisfaction. In line with Khalil (2015), it was also found that interns’ satisfaction was higher when they were provided opportunities to learn knowledge that could not be learnt in the classrooms. Similarly to learning opportunities, adequate training and training opportunities were also found to be part of the factors affecting interns’ overall satisfaction (Chen and Shen, 2012). Jaradat (2017) even found that student satisfaction with regards to their internship is more closely related to the capabilities they acquired than to the future job prospects. Whilst improving job prospects is one of the reasons for pursuing an internship, Jaradat (2017) suggests the importance for firms to emphasize the possibility of acquiring new skills when marketing to prospective interns. In the hospitality context, Zopiatis and Constanti (2007) state that in order to retain students as full-time employees, improving their satisfaction level is of paramount importance and that interns’ satisfaction is closely linked to the opportunities provided by the company in terms of the development of skills and capabilities. If the company fails to do so, then the students’ intentions to remain working there will be negatively affected.

The unanimous results of previous research on the matter lead to my fourth hypothesis: H4: Learning and personal development affect positively job satisfaction.

2.6.5 Perception of Advancement Opportunities

Perception of advancement opportunities can be defined as “one’s awareness or insight regarding promotion and advancement opportunities the company has to offer beyond the duration of the internship” (Hurst 2012: 508).

Previous research, as well as Herzberg’s two factor theory, indicate a relationship between career development opportunities and job satisfaction (Herzberg, 1974, Ellickson, 2002). In addition, Kochanski and Ledford (2001) found that, for technical professionals, advancement opportunities was one of the factors that most affected employee retention. In fact, there is evidence that promises regarding career opportunities appear to be the most predictive amongst the factors affecting employees’ decisions to stay in the company (de Vos et al., 2008). Similarly, perceived career opportunities were found to be negatively related to turnover (Kraimer et al., 2011). In general, career-oriented practices, and thus including increased career opportunities, seem to give employees the feeling that the organisation cares about them. By making employees feel like a resource to be developed rather than something that is simply used and thrown away, a company is capable of affecting positively employees’ commitment to the firm (Baruch, 2004). On the opposite, a lack of career prospects was found to negatively affect employees’ opinion of their company. This in turn fosters a turnover behaviour, thus affecting employees’ intentions to leave the company (Allen et al., 2003). Nouri and Parker (2013) found that employees’ perceptions of career development deeply affect their turnover intentions. Given the high levels of turnover that characterise accounting firms, the authors suggests them to especially focus on this aspect in order to improve employees’ perceptions on the matter. One way to do so, they continue, is to have frequent discussions with employees regarding the work experiences that most affect they career growth. In the research conducted by Durocher et al. (2016), it appears that accounting firms are aware of this fact. In order to attract prospective employees, along with a focus on training and work-life balance, those firms often seem to stress the fact that they offer several opportunities for career development to their new recruits.

With regards to millennials, research shows that they have high expectations when it comes to advancement opportunities and seem to often get upset if they are not promoted in a short period of time (Ng et al., 2010). This might be actually be due to the impatience to succeed that often characterises millennials. When they perceive that they will not get promoted soon enough, it is likely that they leave the company they work for in search of better opportunities (Ng et al., 2010).

While short in nature, the internship experience still allows interns to acquire knowledge with regards to the possibilities for advancing professionally (Meredith and Burkle, 2008). In this regard, very few papers analysed how advancement opportunities influence interns’ turnover intentions whilst none, to my knowledge, analysed the relationship between advancement

opportunities and job satisfaction. Dixon et al. (2005) found that when interns perceive that their internship company offers opportunities for career growth, then they are more likely to accept a job offer at the end of the internship.

Therefore, based on the findings above, I provide the 5th hypothesis:

H5: Perceptions of advancement opportunities positively affects job satisfaction. 2.6.6 Perceived organisational support

Perceived organisational support represents employees’ believes regarding the degree to which an organisation acknowledges their worth and cares about their general well-being (Eisenberg et al. 2002).

While still in the developmental phase, previous literature seems to agree on the fact that perceived organisational support is a significant predictor of employees’ intentions to stay and job satisfaction (Allen et al., 2003, Tuzun and Kalemci, 2011). For example, Cho et al. (2009) found perceived organisational support to be a significant predictor of employees’ intentions to stay. Likewise, Allen et al. (2003) found that individuals who perceive a greater organisational support will be less likely to have intentions to leave the company. Longenecker and Scazzero (2003) found employees’ intentions to leave to be deeply correlated with how the organisation treats them, in terms for example of lack of appreciation or understanding from management when it comes to getting time off of work. These relationships are also supported by the social exchange theory (Blau, 1964): by being provided support from the organisation, the individual should feel obliged to support in turn organisational goals, thus theoretically leading to lower turnover. Similarly, the norm of reciprocity states that an individual, when being helped, will feel an obligation to repay the favour. Therefore, feeling supported by the company should increase the probability of employees deciding to remain in the firm. To put all this into other words, a high level of perceived organisational support leads to lower employee turnover (Van Schalkwyk et al., 2011).

To the best of my knowledge, no studies have been conducted on the relationship between organisational support, job satisfaction and conversion intentions when it comes to the internship context. There are reasons to believe, however, that the findings concerning full-time employees, might be valid also in an internship context. In the study conducted by Choudhury and McIntosh (2013), the way working students are treated in the organisation can have a big impact on them. The authors found that being treated fairly is actually at the

top of the students’ priorities when dealing with the organisation. Amongst the things that those students valued the most when it came to fair treatment, receiving support and understanding from the organisation were often mentioned. D’Abate et al. (2009) found that satisfaction with the internship firm deeply affects internship satisfaction. The authors argue that while the actual job is important, firms should pay more attention to the broader organisational environment. Interns should feel supported by the organisation and, in order to do so, the firm should aim to expose and integrate them more to the organisation as a whole, thereby not just relegating them to a small part of the organisation.

Based on this reasoning, I provide my 6th hypothesis:

H6: Perceived organisational support is positively related to job satisfaction.

2.7 Major attitudinal response

2.7.1 Job Satisfaction

Job satisfaction has already been defined in several previous researches. Locke and Lathan (1976) define it as a positive emotional state that employees are characterised by when satisfied with their job or job experiences. More recently, Moyes et al. (2008: 65) describes it as the degree to which “an employee is pleased with his or her position of employment”. Luthans (1998) outlines three main dimensions of job satisfaction. Firstly, job satisfaction is an emotional response to the job context. Therefore, as it can only be inferred and not seen, it is quite difficult to measure for a firm. Secondly, job satisfaction is often a result of met or failed expectations of employees. If an employee feels like he got what he deserved, then he will be satisfied, with the opposite also being true. In addition, in line with the equity theory, if an employee feels like he gets treated in the same way as his peers, then he will be satisfied. Thirdly, job satisfaction is deeply connected to, and characterised by, several related factors such as pay, advancement opportunities and supervision.

Through the years, the relationship between job satisfaction and probability of turnover has been the topic of several researches in a variety of fields. For example, in the CPA firms context, Bullen and Flamholtz (1985) found overall job satisfaction to be significant in predicting probability of turnover. Similarly, Moyes et al. (2008) stresses the importance for accounting firms to maintain high and consistent job satisfaction in order to cope with the high levels of job turnover that characterise this field. Chiang et al. (2005) analysed job satisfaction of individuals employed in the hospitality industry and he found this factor to

have a positive influence on the employees’ intentions to remain in the firm. To conclude, previous research, when dealing with full-time employees, tends to agree on the fact that job satisfaction is positively related to intentions to remain in the company.

It might be argued that the internship experience is quite different from the full-time employees and somewhat more similar to that of temporary workers. Therefore, it would be normal to expect differences with regards to interns’ job satisfaction as compared to previous research on the matter. For example, Hurst et al. (2012) found no correlation between interns’ job satisfaction and conversion intentions. However, there is reason to believe that, when it comes to job satisfaction, the interns’ situation might not be so different as compared to full-time employees. Guest et al. (2006) found that job satisfaction does not change whether it is related to temporary workers or full-time employees. Schyns et al. (2007) claim that firms need to treat temporary workers as if they were full-time employees in order to maintain a high level of job satisfaction. D’Abate et al. (2009) analysed job satisfaction at the internship level and they affirm that interns’ job satisfaction is of great importance to companies as it might have a significant and positive impact on interns’ commitment to the firm as well as have the effect of lowering interns’ turnover. They also suggest that whilst differences might exist between interns and full-time employees, the general rules concerning job satisfaction should be applicable even in the internship context. Zopiatis and Constanti (2007) found that failing to achieve adequate levels of job satisfaction amongst interns leads to increased intentions to leave the company at the end of the internship. Therefore, the findings of Hurst et al. (2012) might actually have been due to other factors, such as the fact the study was conducted in a retail context and thus in a different field than previous research, rather than due to the fact that it concerned interns.

Based on the majority of previous findings, I provide my 7th hypothesis:

H7: Interns’ job satisfaction is positively related to interns’ conversion intentions.

2.8 Literature Summary Table

Several were the researches used to put together my literature review. In the Summary Table below, I provided a short analysis of those that played a key role in the process.

SUMMARY TABLE – Key literature review’s researches

Authors and year

of publication Research subject Sample data Main variables

Model / Method

of analysis Main findings Allen, D., Shore, L.

and Griffeth, R. (2003)

Identify the role of perceived organizational support (POS) in predicting voluntary turnover. The sample 1 (N = 264) consisted of US salespeople. Sample 2 (N = 442) consisted of US insurance agents. Perceptions of supportive human resources practices (participation in decision making, fairness of rewards, and growth opportunities), POS, organizational commitment and job satisfaction.

Path model. Perceptions of supportive HR practices contribute to the development of POS, and POS mediates their relationships with organizational commitment and job satisfaction.

Beebe, A., Blaylock, A. and Sweetser, K. D. (2009) Identify the satisfaction levels of interns in paid vs unpaid public relations internships. The sample (N= 290) consisted of students of a US communicatio n college who underwent an internship.

Type of work, pay, promotion opportunities, supervision, co-workers, job satisfaction. Independent samples t-test, correlation and regression analysis.

Pay is not a determining factor in an intern’s satisfaction with the internship experience, with other factors (real-world work itself and the relationship with the supervisor), being more important.

Bullen, M. L. and E. G. Flamholtz (1985)

Develop and test a model of job satisfaction and turnover in the CPA firm context. Participants (N = 125) consisted of employees from large US CPA firms. Satisfaction

dimensions, overall job satisfaction, probability of turnover, perception of job's success in accomplishing career goals. Multiple regression analysis.

Satisfaction dimensions are significant in predicting overall job satisfaction, with overall job satisfaction being significant in predicting probability of turnover.

Chen, T.L. and Shen, C.C. (2012)

Identify the factors influencing a student's intention to pursue a career in the hospitality context. The sample (N = 459) consisted of Taiwanese students who had completed an internship in the hospitality industry. Internship program planning, industry involvement, student commitment, willingness to continue working in the hospitality context. Structural equation model.

Students' intentions to remain in the hospitality industry are mostly affected by their satisfaction with regards to the internship program planning and industry involvement.

Chiang, C.F., Back, K.J. and Canter, D.D. (2005)

Investigate the link between training, job satisfaction and intentions to remain in a company. The sample (N = 204) consisted of employees and managers from US hotels.

Training quality and satisfaction, job satisfaction, intentions to remain. Conceptual model based on Servqual concept, t-test, regression analysis.

Training is positively related to job satisfaction and job satisfaction is positively related to intentions to remain in the company. Choudhury, N. and McIntosh, A. (2013) Identify strategies to retain students as employees. The sample (N = 10) consisted of managers working in the small hospitality industry. 4 main "themes": retention scenario, staffing, student labor, reasons for turnover.

Thematic analysis

Fair remuneration, a flexible work schedule, good working environment, decision making autonomy, fair treatment and meeting employee

expectations were identified as good retention strategies.

D’Abate, C. P., Youndt, M. A. and Wenzel, K. E. (2009)

Identify the role of job characteristics, work environment characteristics, and contextual factors in predicting job satisfaction. The sample (N = 111) consisted of students of a USA class of Management and Business. Job characteristics, work environment characteristics, contextual factors and job satisfaction.

Regression analysis.

Characteristics of the job (task significance and feedback) and characteristics of the work environment (learning

opportunities, supervisor support, and organizational satisfaction) are the best predictors of internship satisfaction. Dunnette, M. D., Campbell, J. P. and Hakel, M. D. (1967) Understand the factors associated with job satisfaction and dissatisfaction. The sample (N = 112) consisted of US students. Several job dimensions. Q-type factor analysis.

The main job dimensions leading to job satisfaction and dissatisfaction were identified.

Durocher, S., Bujakib, M. and Brouard F. (2016) Examine legitimacy management strategies used by accounting firms to attract employees. The authors analyzed 561 web pages of the eight largest Canadian accounting firms. Not available (qualitative study). Content analysis. Web communication is considered key by accounting firms in order to manage legitimacy and attract new employees. Gursoy, D., Maier, T. and Chi, C. (2008) Identify generational differences among employees in order to develop effective strategies to improve morale. The sample (N = 91) consisted of employees from 50 US hotels. Not available (qualitative study). Focus group discussions.

The attitude towards authority and the perceived importance of work in the individuals' lives were the main drivers of differences between the various generational groups.

Hurst, J. L., Good, L. K. and Gardner, P. (2012)

Identify how the determined variables influence interns' conversion intentions. The sample (N = 127) consisted of US individuals who had completed an internship in the retail sector. Supervisory support, psychological contract obligations, job satisfaction, perception of advancement opportunities and affective organizational commitment.

Path model. In order to improve interns' retention intentions, companies should focus on fulfilling their obligations towards those interns as well as on fulfilling the

expectations that they might have with regards to advancement opportunities and supervisory support. Jaradat G.M. (2017) Explore student's

satisfaction regarding the different aspects of an internship. The sample (N = 60) consisted of Jordanian students enrolled in an information technology and computer science program. 23 factors possibly relating to job satisfaction, job satisfaction.

Factor analysis. Internship experience, positive work environment, comfort with the work environment, new skills, communication skills and improved job prospects were found to be the factors most related to job satisfaction.

Judge, T. A., Piccolo, R. F., Podsakoff, N. P., Shaw, J. C. and Rich, B. L. (2010)

Analyze the relationship between pay and job satisfaction.

86 studies were taken into

consideration for the meta-analysis.

Pay level, pay

satisfaction, overall job satisfaction.

Meta-analysis. Compensation is only marginally related to job satisfaction.