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Cultural Reflections on Porcelain in the Seventeenth-Century Netherlands
Weststeijn, T.
Publication date
2014
Published in
Chinese and Japanese Porcelain for the Dutch Golden Age
Link to publication
Citation for published version (APA):
Weststeijn, T. (2014). Cultural Reflections on Porcelain in the Seventeenth-Century
Netherlands. In J. van Campen, & T. Eliens (Eds.), Chinese and Japanese Porcelain for the
Dutch Golden Age (pp. 213-229, 265-268). Rijksmuseum Amsterdam.
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One of the 17
thcentury’s greatest admirers of Chinese
porcelain was Willem Kalf (1619–1693), some of
whose paintings demonstrate meticulous attention to
its material and optical properties. His 1662 Still Life,
now in Madrid, features an extraordinary Chinese jar
with representations of the Eight Immortals (Fig. 1).
2Kalf, who probably had no understanding of Taoist
iconography, may have been aware that this was not
only an exotic object but also an antiquity of sorts,
dating from a few decades earlier.
3As its material
constitution was still unknown at the time, he could
also have appreciated porcelain as a curious sample of
the natural world, just like decorative tableware made
from ostrich eggs or the nautilus goblets that also
feature in his work. In this painting, moreover, the
porcelain’s refl ective sheen, rendered in meticulous
detail with a scattering of dot-like highlights, is
paired with other surfaces of various degrees of
transparency: the drinking vessels, plate and
half-peeled lemon.
Besides this very sophisticated example, porcelain
features in hundreds of still lifes painted in the
Northern and Southern Netherlands in the 17
thcentury.
4In many cases, it may have been included
as no more than a fi tting container for the fl owers
or foodstuffs that artists wanted to represent, but it
was also a subject in its own right among silverware,
glass, and other precious goods. Assuming from the
degree of connoisseurship that a work such as Kalf’s
implies, one would expect there to have been some
awareness among these paintings’ owners of the
origin, history, and cultural signifi cance of Chinese
rarities. As the present book clarifi es, uniquely for
the Dutch situation, porcelain – either the Chinese
original or a Dutch earthenware imitation that was
also known as porceleyn – was a standard domestic
good among all layers of society. Regardless of their
social background, many Dutch people saw and
handled it on a regular basis. Artists in particular
lavished attention on its singular optical qualities.
Moreover, potteries, especially in Delft, tried to
recreate porcelain’s surface, which implied an even
more accurate material knowledge; artisans then
decorated the imitations of Asian ceramics with
themes and styles that purportedly looked Chinese.
Even though – or perhaps because – porcelain
was a common presence in Dutch houses, it was
seldom discussed. In the light of the sheer volume
of the China trade and the ubiquity of
Chinese-style ceramics, references in literary sources are
remarkably rare. Before the letters by Father
François Xavier d’Entrecolles (1712–1722), a Jesuit
missionary who visited the kilns in Jingdezhen to
inspect the manufacturing process, European texts
gave scant attention to porcelain’s origin, material,
and shape, or to the decoration’s themes and styles.
It is understandable that the Delft potters who had
mastered ‘Chinese’ brushwork did not leave a written
record – their imitations had to pass for authentic.
5Yet the contrast between the abundance of visual
material and the paucity of written sources is without
parallel in Dutch 17
th-century culture, which was
highly literate and developed a vibrant tradition
of artistic theory. Oil paintings are therefore the
most eloquent testimonies to the Low Countries’
fascination with porcelain.
This observation surprises all the more in light of
porcelain’s many cultural and natural-historical
associations. The artists’ interest seems to refl ect the
insight that Dutchmen handling a piece of Chinese
ceramics would be touching a sample of the most
Fig. 1
Willem Kalf (1619–1693),
Still Life with a Chinese Bowl, a Nautilus Cup and other Objects, 1662. Oil on canvas, 79.4 x 67.3 cm. Museo Thyssen-Bornemisza, Madrid, inv. no. 203 (1962.10). © 2013, Museo Thyssen-Bornemisza/Photo SCALA, Florence.
Cultural refl ections on porcelain in the
17th-century Netherlands*
T H I J S W E S T S T E I J N
advanced chemical manufacturing that they would
ever come across. They would have admired how the
body, fashioned with extraordinary thinness, became
transparent, resulting in a seemingly impossible
combination of fragility and glittering hardness.
Modern science tells us that ordinary steel cannot cut
porcelain and that it is a great isolator of heat and
electrical current. In pre-modern Europe, by contrast,
porcelain was associated with magic and medicine.
Recreating it presented a serious challenge to
Dutch-trained artisans and natural philosophers. Porcelain
was thus an essential ingredient, and in material and
quantitative terms by far the most substantial one,
of the ‘Chinese century’ in the Low Countries: from
the fi rst baptism of a Chinese sailor in Middelburg in
1600, to the closing decades when the VOC reduced
its direct trading with the Middle Kingdom. These
exchanges impacted on various scholarly disciplines.
6But it was the reputation of Chinese medicine,
chemistry and technical inventions that provided the
main framework for the appreciation of porcelain.
EMBLEMS AND CLASSICAL SCHOLARSHIP
Art history’s standard approach for establishing the
meaning of objects, iconography, seems inadequate
to decode the cultural associations that were
connected to porcelain in the Dutch context. First
of all, rather than the objects’ imagery, it was their
material quality that attracted artists and, probably,
buyers in general. Even emblem books, which usually
tried to identify thematic symbolism, foregrounded
porcelain’s materiality, as two of the century’s most
popular authors exemplify. Jan de Brune’s (1588–
1658) engraving (Fig. 2) shows a gentleman checking
the quality of a bowl by its sound: porcelain rings
beautifully when struck, something that no European
ceramic could do.
7The material’s combined hardness
and fragility could express a characteristic contrast
in the Dutch moralists’ ideology that emphasised the
transience of visible reality; Jan Luyken (1649–1712)
described the vases in his image as without real
substance, only catering ‘to the eye’s desire’ (Fig.
3).
8In the many still lifes that depict porcelain, such
references are usually present only implicitly: perhaps
Fig. 2
Jan de Brune, ‘Wat de man
kan, wijst zijn reden an’, engraving from Emblemata
of Zinnewerck, Amsterdam, Jan Evertsen Kloppenburch, 1636, 2nd enlarged edition. Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam, inv. no. 328 L 3.
Fig. 3
Jan Luyken, ‘Het porseleyn’, engraving from Het leerzaam
huisraad, Amsterdam, wed. P. Arentz en K. van der Sys, 1711. Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam, inv. no. RP-P-OB-45.671.
when combined with fresh fl owers or fruit, such as
Pieter Claesz’s (c.1597–1660) still life featuring spots
of rot on the apples in a Wanli bowl, the association
with transience was underscored (Fig. 4). Yet often
it simply seems to have been the painter’s attraction
to porcelain’s optical qualities that motivated his
choices. When a Chinese ceramic object appeared in a
more elaborate setting, such as Abraham Bloemaert’s
(1564–1651) Lot and his Daughters (Fig. 5), Jacob
Campo Weyerman (1677–1747) explained that it was
included for its visual allure; he also highlighted its
appropriateness in amorous adventures, as a gift for a
female lover.
9Classical antiquity, which was the habitual basis
for learned discussions, likewise failed to provide
the right interpretive framework. Humanists were
obviously at a loss when approaching the foreign
objects from their erudite background. Around 1550
two renowned philologists, Hieronymus Cardanus
(1501–1576) and Julius Caesar Scaliger (1484–1558),
tried to relate porcelain to Pliny’s account of the
‘myrrhine vases’.
10In the Netherlands, Johannes
Pontanus (1571–1639) and Bernardus Paludanus
(1550–1633) took up this theme again. Pontanus,
who famously noted in Rerum et urbis Amstelodamensium
historia
(1611) that the VOC had imported so much
porcelain to Amsterdam that it seemed like an
ordinary household good, addressed the vasa myrrhina
and admitted a certain resemblance except in the
matter of colours, wherein Pliny described the beauty
and variety of hues, ‘and’, said Pontanus, ‘what Pliny
calls colours are not seen on the porcelains of our
time, which, so far as I know, have only blue mingled
with white’.
11The inadequacy of emblematics and classical
scholarship to discuss the Dutch reception of Chinese
ceramics confi rms that the materiality of porcelain,
more than the shapes or decoration, conjured up
new intellectual associations through its sheen,
translucency and hardness. To understand these
we should involve the artists’ interest in materials,
in chemistry with its medical and even alchemical
associations, and in porcelain as among the exotic
creations of the natural world.
Fig. 4
Pieter Claesz (1596/97–1660),
Still Life with Turkey Pie and a Wanli Bowl, 1627. Oil on panel, 75cm × 132 cm. Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam, inv. no. SK-A 4646.
PORCELAIN: A CREATION OF NATURE OR ART?
We may begin our analysis with Jan van Kessel’s
large series of the Four Continents (1664–1666),
which features porcelain prominently as part of an
encyclopaedic display of the world’s treasures. What
fi rst catches the eye is that Chinese ceramics do not
occur in the context of the continent of Asia, but in
relation to Africa (Figs. 6–9). The left-hand side of
this polyptych’s central panel (Fig. 8) displays a set
of related objects: a sizeable porcelain dish, a
multi-fl uted goblet in Venetian style in the foreground
and a bottle containing a bright pink liquid. The
juxtaposition of glass and porcelain may have
referenced actual European experiments in recreating
porcelain, which had initially taken place in 16
th-century Italy: most of these involved glass making.
Porcelain’s transparency made potters conclude that
sand or ground glass was an essential ingredient.
Venetian studios even produced a smoky kind of glass
called porcellana contrafatta: it imitated porcelain’s
colour and sheen but none of its hardness.
12In van
Kessel’s composition, the putto brandishing an
alembic and a barometer may furthermore have
conjured up the association with chemistry in
general.
13On the image’s right-hand side, by contrast, various
Chinese dishes are displayed among shells, gems,
and coral (Fig. 9). This ensemble seems to refer
to the etymology of the term porcelain that related
its constitution to seashells, harking back to
Marco Polo’s day when the term porcellana derived
from a type of thin white shell resembling a piglet
(porcellino).
14This contention, which was repeated in
travelogues up to the 17
thcentury, may explain why
van Kessel associated porcelain with Africa and its
beaches. Yet the inclusion of coral and gems refl ects
the much wider lexical fi eld that the term porcelain
could cover in early modern inventories, ranging from
Fig. 5
Abraham Bloemaert (1564–1651) (attr.), Lot and his
Daugthers. Oil on canvas, 167 x 233 cm. The Leiden Gallery, New York (private collection).
mother-of-pearl and crystal to any kind of valuable
ceramic.
15In fact, the fi rst contacts between Europeans
and East Asians involved a profusion of theories
about porcelain’s origin and manufacture. They
are summed up in Thomas Browne’s (1605–1682)
widely read work of popular science, Pseudodoxia
(fi rst ed. 1646), which depended on the reports of,
among others, the Dutch explorer Jan Huygen van
Linschoten (c.1563–1611).
16The book relates a number
of common erroneous assumptions about porcelain,
beginning with someone who had joined Magellan’s
circumnavigation, Duarte Barbosa (c.1480–1521):
it was supposedly made from ground seashells,
eggshells, egg white and other materials that matured
for a century underground, increasing in value with
the years. According to the humanist Guido Panciroli
(1523–1599), beaten eggs and gypsum were useful
ingredients too. For a more reliable account, however,
the Pseudodoxia referred to an envoy from Batavia to
China in 1615, who identifi ed a specifi c clay from the
region of ‘Hoang’ as essential. Although he witnessed
the production with his own eyes, he found that its
details were a secret to be passed on from father to
son: porcelain was ‘made out of earth, not laid under
ground, but hardened in the Sunne and winde, [in]
the space of fourty yeeres’. Only in 1665 were the
Dutch informed in more detail on the origin and
transport of the clay, when Johan Nieuhof’s (1618–
1672) famous travelogue appeared.
17If similar associations were indeed pertinent to
van Kessel’s image, it presented porcelain as both
a creation of artifi ce (related to glass making
and chemistry) and a creation of nature (among
shells, coral, and gems). This was not an incorrect
characterisation: porcelain was on the one hand the
result of the advanced stage of Chinese chemistry
and ceramic industry; on the other hand, its main
Fig. 6
Jan van Kessel (1626–1679),
The Four Continents: Africa, 1664. Oil on copper, 48.6 x 67.8 cm (central panel). Bayerische
Staatsgemäldesammlungen – Alte Pinakothek, Munich, inv. no. 1912. © bpk | Bayerische Staatsgemäldesammlungen.
Fig. 7
Fig. 8
Detail of Fig. 6 (central panel, detail of left-hand side).
Fig. 9
Detail of Fig. 6 (central panel, detail of right-hand side).
Fig. 10
Adriaen van Utrecht (1599– 1652), Allegory of Fire, 1636. Oil on canvas, 117 x 154 cm. Royal Museums of Fine Arts of Belgium, Brussels, inv. no. 4731. © Royal Museums of Fine Arts of Belgium, Brussels, photo : J. Geleyns / Ro scan.
ingredient, kaolin, was only found in the region
of Gaoling at the time. In Europe, collections of
curiosities expressed this dual nature, as porcelain
could feature among the artifi cialia as well as the
naturalia
, something confi rmed by its presence
in depictions of galleries.
18According to the
classifi cations of natural philosophy, porcelain might
be associated more specifi cally with the element of
fi re: one of van Kessel’s works depicted chinaware
– or another kind of ceramic that imitated its
blue-and-white aesthetic – in relation to this element,
together with gold and silver vessels; and Adriaen van
Utrecht’s (1599–1652) painting of the same theme
(Fig. 10) featured three dishes of chine de commande.
19The analogy was not without technical relevance,
as enamelling, which involved fi ring at a high
temperature, was eventually used for the decoration of
both porcelain and metalwork.
20MEDICINE
The various myths regarding the origin of porcelain
also involved expectations about its purported
curative characteristics. The hygienic quality of its
impermeable surface, its origin in an unfathomable
chemical process, and the general Asian provenance
connecting porcelain to spices and tea made the
association with medicine somewhat obvious.
21A
1665 painting from the school of Gerard ter Borch
(now in the Apothecaries’ Society, Stockholm)
demonstrates how a Dutch pharmacist would line
up his pots in a row: the white ceramic’s sheen,
refl ecting associations with chemistry and perhaps
Asia, would have constituted an adequate backdrop
for the performance of medicine.
22At least one
Amsterdam apothecary, Jan Jacobsz Swammerdam
(1606–1678), displayed a sizeable set of Chinese
porcelain that attracted visitors even from abroad.
23The Dutch had only a vague inkling of Asian medicine
at the time, but for some it seemed to suggest the
Middle Kingdom’s superiority. In 1683 the doctor
and botanist Willem ten Rhijne (1649–1700) wrote
the fi rst detailed European account of acupuncture.
24This art succeeds in ‘totally removing those pains to
which the fl esh is heir’, according to the Amsterdam
humanist, Isaac Vossius (1618–1689), whose De
artibus et scientiis Sinarum
(‘On the Arts and Sciences of the
Chinese’
, 1685) also extolled Chinese knowledge on
the circulation of blood.
25When in 1709, the Chinese
doctor Chou Mei-Yeh visited the Netherlands in the
company of a VOC offi cial, the Amsterdam mayor
Nicolaas Witsen (1641–1717) had his pulse taken.
26Witsen had a great interest in Asia: by 1670 he had
consulted another Chinese visitor for his book Noord
en Oost Tartarye
. He contacted the Chinese community
in Batavia to translate an ancient inscription from his
art collection, which in all probability also included
porcelain.
27In any account, the reputation of Chinese
medical knowledge seemed to confi rm the much
older suggestion, dating back to the Middle Ages,
that porcelain could have apotropaic qualities, in
particular that it would break upon coming into
contact with poison (cups were therefore set in metal
mounts).
28Unsurprisingly, the aforementioned Pseudodoxia
expressed scepticism about porcelain’s alleged
properties, only admitting its benefi cial value in cases
of dysentery:
the properties must be verifi ed, which by Scaliger and others are ascribed to China-dishes: That they admit no poyson, That they strike fi re, That they will grow hot no higher then the liquor in them ariseth. For such as pass amongst us, and under the name of the fi nest, will onely strike fi re, but not discover Aconite, Mercury, or Arsenick; but may be useful in dysenteries and fl uxes beyond the other.29
The author admitted that porcelain’s failure to
demonstrate medicinal qualities might have been due
to the fact that the Chinese had severely limited the
export of their fi nest dishes. By 1723, in any event,
Weyerman held the less lofty view that porcelain
contributed to the taste of the food:
All food and drink that is served in porcelain acquires a better taste and delights the eye …. Conserves appear much shinier in a porcelain dish than in a silver one, and fruit acquires a new gloss by the porcelain’s celestial blue.30
Weyerman’s writings on China were of a satirical
nature: yet his many remarks on the medicinal
properties of Chinese imports, especially tea and
ginseng, probably refl ect beliefs widely held in the
early 18
thcentury.
31CHEMISTRY
The range of associations connected with porcelain,
even though not always helpful, may have contributed
to the Dutch enthusiasm for its recreation. It was a
German prince who funded the solution of the ‘secret’
of making porcelain, but collectors and artisans in
the Netherlands had laid the groundwork. Various
scholars seem to have intuited correctly that the use
of specifi c clay was necessary. Indeed, Paludanus’s
scientifi c collection already contained kaolin, if we
may believe Duke Frederick I of Württemberg who
visited in 1592: inspecting ‘two chests of all sorts
of manufactured objects produced in India, China,
and both Indies’, he found the ‘clay from which
porcelain is made’.
32Paludanus had personally met
the Portuguese traveller Damião de Góis (1502–1574)
who had described Asian ceramics ‘made of shells
so expensive that one piece costs several slaves’, yet
the Dutchman took a critical stance and emphasised
that porcelain was merely a clay product.
33Johannes
Blaeu’s Great Atlas (1655) likewise confi rmed that, in
contrast to popular beliefs, a certain type of clay ‘very
clear and shiny like fi ne sand’ was the main ingredient
of a procedure that was otherwise kept secret.
34Yet
in their attempts to reconstruct the manufacturing
process, the Dutch failed to locate the right materials.
The VOC ultimately tried to import white clay from
South Africa, which proved inadequate;
35Weyerman,
in the early 18
thcentury, still noted that kaolin was ‘as
valuable as gold, pearls, and gems’.
36In the end, Delft
studios bought inferior materials from Britain and the
Spanish Netherlands to make the faience imitations
which, in order to mimic the brightness and sheen of
porcelain, had to be fi red at least twice: in addition
to a white tin glaze covering the brownish body, a
transparent lead glaze protected the decoration.
37Yet mastery of these operations turned Delft into the
capital of Europe’s ceramic industry. Unsurprisingly,
two Dutch potters, Gerrit van Malsem (1682–c.1733)
and his stepfather, eventually contributed to the
solution of the secret of porcelain in 1708.
38They
had been invited to Saxony to work with the young
alchemist Johann Friedrich Böttger (1682–1719)
and the scientist Ehrenfried Walter von Tschirnhaus
(1651–1708) who was himself schooled in Leiden and
on friendly terms with eminent Dutch scholars.
39Many historians have dwelled on the remarkable
story of this team’s discovery, which was both a
sophisticated feat of analytical chemistry and the
result of an alchemist’s belief in transmutation.
40To relinquish the belief that glass was an essential
ingredient, Böttger’s background was essential, in
that he believed that simply by fi ring clay he could
‘transmute’ the raw material into something as
transparent and valuable as porcelain (he intuited
correctly that all clays turn vitreous once fi red at a
suffi ciently high temperature). In fact, throughout the
18
thcentury porcelain makers continued to emphasise
that mastery of the ‘arcanum’, the procedure of
porcelain manufacture, involved the broad range of
experiments associated with alchemists’ studios.
Potters’ marks, for instance, referred to the current
symbols for chemical elements; a bowl from an
18
th-century Danish porcelain factory, inscribed with
an epigram extolling the material’s qualities, even
depicted a Faustian fi gure in his laboratory, inspecting
a distillation vessel.
41It is worth questioning to what
extent the Dutch appreciation of Chinese porcelain
was inspired by a similar interest in natural-historical
experiments. The Middle Kingdom’s reputation
for alchemy had been already discussed in the early
17
thcentury.
42By 1685, Vossius extolled Chinese
chemia
(chemistry or alchemy), which he said had
been evolving for 2,000 years if not the 4,600 that
some had claimed for it, and he highlighted that it
served the pursuit of longevity.
43In fact, one of the
most conspicuous cultural parallels between 17
th-century Europe and the Middle Kingdom was the
shared interest in alchemy. The recognition of this
parallel, however, actually hampered the exchange of
information. The Jesuits were the main agents in the
exchange of scientifi c knowledge between East and
West, and the Low Countries played an important
intermediary role by publishing and illustrating
their writings.
44Yet the missionaries gave short
shrift to chemistry, as they feared being associated
with alchemy, which they sought to eradicate rather
than promote as a superstitious practice.
45Thus
the situation arose that while Tschirnhaus’s group
frantically sought the formula for porcelain, of the
Europeans who could do so none simply asked
the Chinese. The Jesuits’ reticence, obviously, only
contributed to the far-fetched scientifi c expectations
that Europeans already tended to attach to porcelain.
It is diffi cult to establish how precisely these
associations contributed to artists’ interest in
porcelain. Delft was the obvious focus point:
according to Dirck van Bleijswijck (1639–1681),
‘nowhere in [the Netherlands] porcelain is made
in a more subtle or refi ned manner as in this city,
in which they appear to imitate the Chinese most
successfully’.
46Delftware was called porceleyn
and its dependence on Asian aesthetics was not
something to be ignored: one of the potter’s studios
was even named ‘China’.
47It is likely that this
industry impacted the wider art world. Painters and
potters shared a single guild and visited the same
glassmakers to buy cobalt glass, the basis for the blue
pigment of smalt. Johannes Vermeer (1632–1675)
himself, whose interest in the natural sciences,
especially optics, is increasingly being recognised,
had a demonstrable interest in Chinese ceramics.
48In his Girl with Pearl Necklace (1664), a large vase
decorated in blue-and-white references authentic
Fig. 11
Johannes Vermeer (1632-1675),
Girl with Pearl Necklace, 1662–65. Oil on canvas, 56.1 x 47.4 cm. Gemäldegalerie, Staatliche Museen zu Berlin. © bpk / Gemäldegalerie, SMB / Jörg P. Anders.
Fig. 12 Willem Kalf (1619–1693), 1655– 1660. Oil on canvas, 73.8 cm × 65.2 cm, Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam, inv. no. SK-A-199. Fig. 13 Juriaen van Streeck (1632–1687), . Oil on canvas, signed, 90.5 x 80 cm, formerly with art dealer Salomon Lilian, Amsterdam.
Chinese wares very convincingly and supports an
intricate play of refl ections (Fig. 11). The light falling
through the window on the left bounces off the girl’s
face and dress before hitting not just the mirror but
also the porcelain vase. The vase’s left-hand side,
furthermore, refl ects the second window of Vermeer’s
studio, which is to the left of the picture plane; the
porcelain’s mirroring qualities thus help to widen
the suggested space outside the frame, involving the
viewer more completely.
49The painting is suggestive
of the measure to which a Delft painter’s interest
in optics extended to the experiments in artisan’s
studios, attempting to recreate the refl ective qualities
of an unknown chemical substance.
One question that this association poses is whether
painters would have imitated potters in their material
experiments. One of the potters’ attempts required
mixing ground Chinese porcelain through their clays.
Replicating this procedure in oil painting would have
been at least technically possible: artists often used
silicate as a fi ller or preparatory layer. Yet this would
not have contributed to the desired optical effects, as
the refractory index of lead white (the most commonly
used white) would have been so much greater than
that of a silicate mixture. The pigment of smalt would
have presented another, perhaps more obvious,
parallel as it contained the cobalt used by both the
Chinese potters and their Delft imitators. However,
this cheap and unstable pigment seems to have been
avoided in still lifes. As Arie Wallert’s research has
revealed, depicting porcelain sometimes involved
more expensive materials. Kalf, for instance, mixed
ultramarine with verdigris to arrive at the right blue
for a Wanli bowl in one of his still lifes (the purplish
hue of the ultramarine was cooled with green) (Fig.
12). This comes as a surprise, as the cheaper azurite,
already of the desired greenish-blue colour, would
have been a logical choice.
50Kalf may therefore
have chosen ultramarine, which was made from
ground lapis lazuli, for its scientifi c associations. As
argued above, porcelain and gems were deemed to
be closely related as precious naturalia coming from
Asia. Representing porcelain by using ultramarine
would then have expressed a painter’s involvement
in the scientists’ search for the origins of the foreign
material.
51Whereas there is little doubt that porcelain’s optical
qualities attracted masters such as Vermeer and Kalf,
the association with chemistry and alchemy (which
were not separate disciplines of knowledge at the
time) is also worth considering. On a metaphorical
level, painters sometimes thought of themselves
as alchemists and of their art as ‘transmuting’
materials into precious fi gures: this had actually been
commonplace in texts about painting since Giorgio
Vasari had attributed Jan van Eyck’s invention of
oil paint to alchemical experimentation.
52Hendrik
Goltzius’s well-documented activities as an alchemist
were even part of his artistic identity.
53Perhaps the
repute of Chinese alchemy, and the idea that the
manufacture of porcelain would be the outcome of
an alchemical process, contributed to the attraction
that this foreign material exerted on painters in the
oil medium. Masters who focused on representing
intricate refl ections and surface textures, harkening
back to van Eyck’s reputation, may have looked
at porcelain with similar associations in mind.
Alchemy was by no means an out-dated ambition
by the late 17
thcentury; yet among some, including
Tschirnhaus’s patron Augustus the Strong, the desire
to make gold was gradually replaced by the desire to
make porcelain.
54CERAMICS AS EXOTICA
In van Kessel’s image, as we have seen, porcelain
was associated with Africa rather than Asia: this
may have been for stylistic as well as iconographic
reasons. Black people were not infrequently paired
with porcelain in Dutch art.
55Jurriaen van Streeck
(1632–1687), for instance, made a series of fulsome
works featuring two categories of ‘commodities’ from
the Republic’s trade: slaves, who were exported from
West Africa to the Caribbean and porcelain, which
was imported from Asia. Besides exposing the reach
of the Dutch seaborne empire, the artist seems to
have appreciated the visual contrast between the soft
darkness of the black slave’s skin and the porcelain’s
refl ective sheen (Fig. 13).
As these images suggest, the porcelain trade was a
main element of the incipient global commerce that
had one of its main hubs in the Low Countries. As
early as 1520, Albrecht Dürer acquired three pieces of
porcolana
from a Portuguese merchant in Antwerp.
56Confi rming Pontanus’s statement that porcelain
featured prominently among the goods imported by
the VOC, a satirical poem by Simon van Beaumont
(1574–1654) underscores the ubiquity of goods
from the East and West in Amsterdam, describing
a rustic visitor shopping for luxury items including
‘satin, damask, Turkish carpets, Milanese
under-stockings, beautiful porcelain’, who ended up with
Fig. 12
Willem Kalf (1619–1693),
Still Life with Silver Jug and a Wanli Bowl, 1655–1660. Oil on canvas, 73.8 cm × 65.2 cm, Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam, inv. no. SK-A-199.
some ordinary wooden crockery.
57Rembrandt himself
eventually laid hands on porcelain specimens for
his collection of ‘everything that came hither from
the world’s four continents’, to quote one of his fi rst
critics.
58There is no doubt that porcelain’s ubiquity in
the Dutch Republic resulted from the increased
interconnectivity in economic terms that came
with ‘First Globalisation’ (to use Geoffrey Gunn’s
phrase). When export porcelain was designed for
the European market and when the VOC provided
Chinese potters with detailed images, these works
were de facto products of the collaboration between
cultures, examples of the hybridity that typifi es the
cultural dimension of globalisation. It is, however,
open to question whether the 17
th-century buyers
of porcelain in the Netherlands would have been
aware of this hybridity or have evaluated it positively.
There was, after all, a prosaic reality behind the
Dutch shipments of ceramics from Asia and to the
Caribbean: crates with porcelain were included as an
adequate water-resistant, odourless ballast material.
When Dutch colonists in Suriname used tableware
in Jingdezhen style, it was probably not Chinese
civilisation that was on their minds but rather the
mercantile success of the VOC.
59Likewise, the Dutch
viewers of van Streeck’s works would have thought
of Dutch commercial virtues rather than of Chinese
aesthetics or African identities. This hypothesis is
confi rmed by the fact that there are no Dutch still lifes
that emphasise porcelain’s ‘Chineseness’ by depicting
it next to Asian calligraphy or books. Although, for
instance, various Dutch scholars collected Chinese
texts, and they found the inscrutable characters a
source of linguistic and philosophical speculation,
these objects never feature in paintings.
60Neither did Dutch paintings show Chinese applied
art, paintings, and sculptures which, as archives
reveal, were imported alongside the spices and tea.
An initial survey of inventories of Dutch households
points out that ‘Chinesen’ – Chinese fi gures on paper
or silk, or perhaps sculptures – were not unfamiliar
decorative items.
61The Antwerp city secretary Jacob
Edelheer (1597–1657) even called his cabinet of
exotica a ‘Musaeum Sinense’ (Chinese Museum); in
Amsterdam, Witsen amassed a sizeable collection of
Asian art.
62Furthermore, some of the delftware pieces
themselves that carefully imitated and sometimes
improvised on the original themes demonstrated
that the Dutch public had become sophisticated in
its taste for things Chinese.
63Delft ceramics, such as
a candlestick from the pottery De Grieksche A, were
at times decorated with fake characters.
64By the turn
of the century, the apparently widely popular taste
for Chinese calligraphy, painting, and porcelain was
ridiculed in satirical journals such as Haagse Mercurius
and Amsterdamsche Hermes.
65This data suggests
that porcelain may have conjured up more general
associations than the scientifi c ones outlined above.
We may attempt to sketch this broader outlook on
the Middle Kingdom among the lettered collectors of
Chinese art.
PORCELAIN AND THE CHINESE UTOPIA
The trade in Asian goods inspired some to develop a
highly positive view of Chinese civilisation. Among
all imports, books would have been only the tip of a
far larger pyramid that included applied art, fabrics,
ceramics, spices, and tea. Even though no one except
the odd Asian visitor was able to read these texts, the
suspicion that the Chinese had older written sources
than the Europeans proved an irresistible source of
speculation to some Dutch scholars, who engaged in
Chinese chronology.
66This topic ultimately inspired
Vossius to doubt the validity of the biblical account,
as according to the Chinese texts, their history
spanned 5,000 years, antedating the Great Flood.
Others emphasised Chinese excellence in technical
and scientifi c discoveries, such as Ten Rhijne, who
wrote that ‘among the Chinese frequent examples
are to be found of discoveries, especially in the arts,
which other nations made independently whereas the
Chinese had come upon them long before.’
67Eventually, Johannes Blaeu’s (1596–1673) work on
Europe’s fi rst detailed maps of China and Jacob
Golius’s (1596–1667) seminal attempt to print
the characters were just two expressions of an
exceptionally vivid public debate on China in the
Dutch Republic:
68thus the fi rst European translation
of Confucius was into Dutch (1675, by Pieter van
Hoorn) and the fi rst European tragedy set entirely in
China was Joost van den Vondel’s Zungchin (1667),
followed by Johannes Antonides van der Goes’s Trazil
(1685).
69It is likely that this debate on the Middle Kingdom
was grounded implicitly on the physical presence of
Chinese material culture in Dutch households. The
interplay between material culture and intellectual
discussions comes to the fore most literally in
Vossius’s Variorum observationum liber (1685). Besides
Fig. 13
Juriaen van Streeck (1632– 1687), Still Life with a Moor. Oil on canvas, signed, 90.5 x 80 cm, formerly with art dealer Salomon Lilian, Amsterdam.
his positive accounts of Chinese medicine and
chemistry, Vossius also discussed ceramics and
their decoration, the ‘small containers and vessels’,
‘pottery dishes’, and ‘simple household wares’ that
despite being rusticus (plain, for everyday use) were
outfi tted with imagery that surpassed the Western
tradition. ‘Those who say that Chinese paintings do
not represent shadows, criticise what they actually
should have praised’, Vossius contended, arguing
at length that the draughtsmanship of the Chinese
was so much more subtle than that of the West that,
even without using strong shadows, it managed to
evoke depth and atmosphere.
70This was, in fact, a
unique standpoint in a European context. Previously
Matteo Ricci (1552–1610), founder of the Jesuit
mission, had criticised Chinese brushwork for its
lack of lifelikeness and his remarks were repeated by
Nieuhof, whose artist’s sensibility should have made
him a keener judge.
71Up to the early 18
thcentury,
d’Entrecolles, who had observed the hoa pei (porcelain
painters) from close up, remained extremely
dismissive of them:
save some of them, in Europe they could only pass for apprentices of a few months. The entire knowledge of these painters, and in general of all Chinese painters, is based on no principle at all and consists only in a certain routine helped by a very limited imagination.72
When an English visitor, Sir Francis Child (1641/2–
1713), saw the factories in Delft in 1697, he even
stated that the Delft potters ‘paint better than the
Chinese’ when decorating their ‘porcelain’, failing
only in imitating the thinness of the ceramic body.
73In fact, Vossius’s positive statements about Chinese
ceramics and its decoration can be explained by
his more general utopian vision of China. Not only
did he state that the Chinese excelled in art and
music, literature and science, but also he saw their
civilisation as altogether superior: a realisation of a
Platonic Republic in which the Emperor responded to
the judgment of philosophers, who in turn responded
to the people. It was in all aspects a stark foil to the
European situation, which was riven by wars and
religious disagreements during Vossius’s lifetime.
74This Chinese Utopia, connecting ceramics to
philosophy, foreshadowed the fashion for chinoiserie
that would evolve in the 18
thcentury, up to Voltaire’s
philosophical sinophilia: by that time, the images
on applied art, representing leisurely Chinese
in paradisiacal gardens, seemed to confi rm the
idea that these people lived happier lives than the
Europeans. In the later Dutch Republic, however,
Vossius’s Chinese preferences all but disappeared
from public debate, in tandem with a general waning
of the scholarly interest in the Middle Kingdom.
When the Amsterdam philosopher Cornelis de Pauw
(1739–1799) returned to China’s claims of scientifi c,
intellectual, and political prowess, his statements on
porcelain were negative, perhaps implicitly reacting
to Vossius. De Pauw tried to debunk European
admiration for the secret of porcelain manufacture,
about which the Chinese had kept just as silent as
they had about gunpowder.
75He denied any relation
to the vasa myrrhina, contrasting the Chinese wares’
low prices with the prodigious amounts mentioned by
Pliny. Ultimately he even criticised technical aspects,
stating, for instance, that a fi ring method intended to
create patterns of craquelure (called yao-pien) reduced
the decorative process to chance rather than artistic
intention.
76De Pauw’s stance was in turn contested
by a Chinese Jesuit, Aloysius Ko (Gao Leisi, 1734–
c.
1790), who had studied physics, chemistry, and
industrial technology in France.
77One thing this fi nal controversy seems to confi rm
is the integrated nature of ideas on material culture
and on Chinese civilisation and philosophy in
general. It was only in the Dutch Republic that
imported ceramics were so ubiquitous that China
was physically present in an incontrovertible manner.
Since European reports about Chinese society could
obviously be dismissed as coloured by the translation
and transmission process, and even the images
represented on porcelain wares were distorted by the
ambition to cater to European buyers, there was but
one presence that was unmistakably Chinese: the
material itself. In Dutch households, this material
was seen and handled on a regular basis. In most
cases, this probably occurred without much thought
being given to its Asian origins; but it is nevertheless
likely that the presence of material culture must be
understood as the implicit basis for the topicality of
China in intellectual discussions. Without the many
porcelain dishes on the chimneypieces of Amsterdam,
the fi rst European translation of Confucius might well
not have been in Dutch.
Wandverkleidungen, Leipzig, 1996 (Bestandskatalog der Verwaltung der Staatl. Schlösser u. Gärten Hessen; Vol. 5), p. 72.
106. G. Riemann-Wöhlbrandt 1990 (op. cit. note 98), p. 62.
107. G. Riemann-Wöhlbrandt 1990 (op. cit. note 98), p. 61.
108. It is possible that Magdalena Wilhelmina used her links with the House of Orange to acquire porcelain. Her daughter-in-law Anna Charlotte Amalie (1710–1777) was a daughter of Prince John William Friso of Nassau-Diez.
109. R. Stratmann, ‘Wohnkultur im 18. Jahrhundert und ihr Wandel dargestellt am Beispiel des ba den-durlachischen Hofes’, Barock in
Baden-Württemberg vom Ende des dreißigjährigen Krieges bis zur Französischen Revolution, vol. 2 (cat.), Karlsruhe, 1981, pp. 277–291, 287.
110. In 1751 Charles Frederick von Baden-Durlach married Princess Caroline Louise von Hessen-Darmstadt (1723–1783).
111. R. Stratmann 1981 (op. cit. note 109), p. 287. 112. C. Bischoff, ‘Fürstliche Appartements um 1700
und ihre geschlechtsspezifi sche Nutzung’, in: M. Droste and A. Hoffmann (eds.), Wohn for men und
Lebenswelten, Frankfurt, 2004, pp. 67–79.
Chapter 11 Porcelain in the interior
1. For this chapter I am indebted to Suzanne Limburg for her MA thesis, Porcelein in het interieur
in de 17de en 18de eeuw, 2005, Leiden University, History of Art, supervised by Prof. Dr. C. W. Fock and Prof. Dr. C. J. A. Jörg. Limburg analyses a great number of inventories. We are most grateful for her permission to use her thesis for this publication.
2. For this information I am extremely grateful to Adri van der Meulen and Paul Smeele. Gemeentearchief Rotterdam, Weeskamer archive, inv. no. 364, 17 October 1597, f. 202 ff., porcelain on f. 221 (Joris Joosten de Vlaming); inv. no. 368, 12 March 1601, f. 205 ff., porcelain on f. 215 (Aeltje Cornelis); inv. no. 370, 13 May 1602, f. 211 ff., porcelain on f. 221 (Jan Jansz).
3. S. Ostkamp, ‘De introductie van porselein in de Nederlanden’, Vormen uit Vuur 180/181 (2003/1–2), pp. 17–18, and his Chapter 4 of this book. 4. S. Limburg 2005 (op. cit. note 1), p. 22.
Stadsarchief Amsterdam, entry number 1468, not inventoried.
5. S. Limburg 2005 (op. cit. note 1), inventory published in Th. H. Lunsingh Scheurleer, C. W. Fock and A. J. van Dissel, Het Rapenburg;
geschiedenis van een Leidse gracht, Leiden, 1986– 1992, Part IIIa, pp. 397–403.
6. B. Blondé, ‘Think Local, act Global? Hot drinks and the consumer culture of the 18th century
Antwerp’, contribution to Goods from the East:
Trading Eurasia 1600-1830. Conference at the Palazzo Pesaro-Papafava, Venice, 11–13 January 2013, organised by the University of Warwick. C. de Staelen, Spulletjes en hun betekenis in een
commerciële metropool; Antwerpenaren en hun materiële cultuur in de zestienden eeuw (unpublished dissertation, Antwerp University), Antwerpen, 2007. With many thanks to Prof. Dr. Bruno Blondé for making this information available.
7. Stadsarchief Amsterdam, notarial archive, notary Jan Franssen Bruyningh, inv. no. 197, 19 January 1613, fol. 436–543.
8. Th. F. Wijsenbeek-Olthuis (ed.), Het lange Voorhout;
monumenten, mensen, macht, Zwolle, 1998, p. 91. Gemeentearchief The Hague, notarial archive, notary T. van Swieten, inv. no. 309, 20 May 1663,
fol. 39–181.
9. Inventory published in A. Bredius,
Künstler-inventare, The Hague, 1915–1922, Part I, pp. 129–147. C. W. Fock, ‘Kunst en rariteiten in het Hollandse interieur’, in: E. Bergvelt and R. Kistemaker (eds.), De Wereld binnen Handbereik;
Nederlandse kunst- en rariteitenverzamelingen, 1585–1735 (exhib. cat. Amsterdams Historisch Museum), Zwolle/Amsterdam, 1992, pp. 70–91, esp. p. 79.
10. A. J. Veenendaal, Johan van Oldenbarnevelt;
bescheiden betreffende zijn staatkundig beleid en zijn familie. Third Part 1614–1620, Rijks Geschiedkundige
Publicatiën Grote Serie 121, The Hague, 1967, pp. 488–505.
11. C. W. Fock, ‘Frederik Hendrik en Amalia’s appartementen: vorstelijk vertoon naast de triomf van het porselein’, in: P. van der Ploeg and C. Vermeeren, Vorstelijk Verzameld; de kunstcollectie van
Frederik Hendrik en Amalia (exhib. cat. Mauritshuis), The Hague/ Zwolle, 1997, pp. 76–86.
12. C. Viallé, ‘“Fit for Kings and Princes”: a gift of Japanese lacquer’, in: Y. Nagazumi (ed.), Large and
Broad; the Dutch impact on early modern Asia; essays in honour of Leonard Blussé, Tokyo, 2010, pp. 188–222. 13. S. Limburg 2005 (op. cit. note 1). Inventory
published in Th. H. Lunsingh Scheurleer et al. 1986–1992, (op. cit. note 5) Part VIb, pp. 865–869. 14. The Delft examples are: Nicolaes Verburch,
Direc-tor General and Council of the VOC had, accord-ing to an inventory of 1676, a ‘small chamber or porcelain room’ (‘achterboven of porseleynkamer’); Dirck van Bleijswyck, member of the city coun-cil, also had according to his inventory of 1695 a porcelain room. See M. S. van Aken, ‘Delfts aardewerk: de “allerbeste” nabootsing van oost-ers porselein’, Vormen uit Vuur 180/181 (2003/1-2), pp. 66–77, esp. p. 68. An Amsterdam example is: Harpert Tromp, former Mayor, had according to his inventory from 1691 a porcelain room. See M. van Aken, ‘Delfts aardewerk: wel een sieraad, geen schat een verzameling waard’, in: E. Bergvelt et al. (ed.), Schatten in Delft; burgers verzamelen
1600–1750 (exhib. cat. Prinsenhof ), Zwolle/Delft, 2002, pp. 126–141, esp. p. 136.
15. S. W. A. Drossaers and Th. H. Lunsingh Scheurleer,
Inventarissen van de inboedels in de verblijven van de Oranjes en daarmee gelijk te stellen stukken 1567–1795
(RGP Grote serie 147–149), The Hague, 1974– 1976.
16. Drossaers en Lunsingh Scheurleer (op. cit. note 15), Part I, pp. 647–694 and A.M.L.E. Erkelens,
‘Delffs Porcelijn’ van koningin Mary II; ceramiek op het Loo uit de tijd van Willem III en Mary II (exhib. cat. Paleis het Loo), Zwolle, 1996.
17. M. Fitski, Kakiemon porcelain. A Handbook, Amsterdam/Leiden, 2011.
18. S. Schama, The Embarassment of Riches, New York, 1987.
19. Much has been published on this subject. Most use has been made of H. Nijboer, De fatsoenering
van het bestaan; consumptie in Leeuwarden tijdens de Gouden Eeuw (PhD thesis Groningen University), Groningen, 2007.
20. D. Defoe, Robinson Crusoe, London, 1719. Quoted in L. Weatherill, ‘Meaning of conspicuous behaviour’, in: J. Brewer and R. Porter,
Consumption and the World of Goods, London, 1993, p. 206.
21. A. Laabs, De Leidse fi jnschilders uit Dresden (exhib. cat. Museum De Lakenhal, Leiden and Staatliche Kunstsammlungen, Dresden), Zwolle etc., 2001, pp. 102–104.
22. De gedebaucheerde en betoverde koffy- en theewereld,
behelzende een meenigte van aardige voorvallen, welke zich sedert weinig tijds te Amsterdam, Rotterdam, in Den Haag, te Utrecht en de bijgelegene Plaatsen, op de Koffy- en Theegezelschapjes... hebben voorgedragen, met alle de debauches en ongeregeldheden, welke onder pretext van deeze laffe Dranken worden gepleegd: Beneevens een uitreekening van de Jaarlijkse schade, welke door dit Koffy- en Theegebruik... word veroorzaakt, enz, Amsterdam, 1701, citations respectively pp. 490/491, 483/484, 117.
23. Jan Luijken, Het leerzaam huisraad, vertoond in vyftig
konstige fi guuren, met godlyke spreuken en stichtelyke verzen, Amsterdam, 1711, pp. 118–119.
24. Jan Claus Willem van Laar, Het groot Ceremonie-boek
der beschaafde zeeden, Amsterdam, 1735, p. 415, quoted in H. Dibbits, Vertrouwd bezit, 2001, pp. 305–306.
25. K. Zandvliet, De 250 rijksten van de Gouden Eeuw;
kapitaal, macht, familie en levensstijl, Amsterdam, 2006, no. 59.
26. Estate inventory: Gemeentearchief Alkmaar, notarial archive, inv. no. 319, deed 32, 28 July 1679.
27. K. Zandvliet 2006 (op. cit. note 25), no. 145; Estate inventory: Stadsarchief Amsterdam, notarial archive, inv. no. 5329, no. 60, 17 June 1693, f. 292 ff. With thanks to Cynthia Viallé for a transcript of the estate.
28. Zandvliet 2006 (op. cit. note 25), no. 39; J. Veenendaal, ‘Het Indische huisraad van Rijklof van Goens Jr.’, in: H. L. Houtzager et al. (eds.), Delft en de Oostindische Compagnie, Amsterdam, 1987, pp. 171–188. Estate inventory: Gemeentearchief Delft, notarial archive, notary Philips de Bries, protocol no. 2329, deed 101, 1 October 1688, and Weeskamer archive, inv. no. 7567–7595, part 13, estate no. 629 III. 29. K. Zandvliet 2006 (op. cit. note 25), no. 6. 30. Inventory of the estate of Johan Cornelis
Speelman: Gemeentearchief Rotterdam, old notarial archive, access no. 01.2.061, notary Philips Basteels, inv. no. 961, 3 May 1690, pp. 518– 624. List of possessions of Cornelis Speelman, sold 20 August 1687, after his death in Batavia: Nationaal archief, VOC archive, inv. no. 1431, pp. 736–738.
31. M. S. Van Aken 2003 (op. cit. note 14), p. 67. 32. K. Zandvliet 2006 (op. cit. note 25), no. 66.
Inventory of the estate made after the death of Jacob Jacobsz Hinlopen de Jonge, husband of Hester Ranst: Stadsarchief Amsterdam, notarial archive, notary Casper Ypelaer, inv. no. 5333, 25 April 1699. For Hester Ranst in her later days: E. Tigelaar (ed.), Amoureuze en pikante geschiedenis van
het congres en de stad Utrecht; Augustinus Freschots verhaal achter de Vrede van Utrecht, Hilversum, 2013, pp. 138–140.
33. K. Zandvliet 2006 (op. cit. note 25), no. 262. Estate inventory: Utrechtsarchief, stadsarchief II (access no. 702–7), inv. no. 3146–7.
34. Gemeentearchief Delft, notarial archive, notary J. de Bries, inv. no. 2405, deed 46, 22 August 1712, fol. 242-270v.
35. It is interesting to compare quantities and diversity with the royal collections discussed by Canepa and Bischoff in Chapters 2 and 10 respectively.
Chapter 12 Cultural refl ections
* I would like to express my gratitude to the research group, ‘Art and Knowledge in Pre-Modern Europe’, Max Planck Institute for the History of Science, Berlin, which made this article possible by granting me a Fellowship in 2012.
1. The same Wanli bowl features in two of Kalf’s other works, respectively in the Gemäldegalerie, Staatliche Museen, Berlin, inv. no. 948 (1661), and the Collection of Isabel and Alfred Bader, Milwaukee/Kingston (c.1678).
2. S. Ostkamp, ‘Krekels, kikkers en een lang en voorspoedig leven. De boeddhistisch-taoïstische belevingswereld in de huiskamer van de vroegmoderne Republiek’, Vormen uit vuur 212/213, 2011, pp. 2–31. Kalf, who was an art dealer, possibly also bought and sold porcelain; in any case his still lifes, for which he selected only authentic Chinese wares, usually of a very refi ned sort, suggest that he had acquired a sophisticated taste.
3. Two overviews without any ambition to
completeness are A. I. Spriggs, ‘Oriental Porcelain in Western Paintings, 1450–1750’, Transactions of
the Oriental Ceramic Society XXXVI, 1964–66, pp. 73– 76, and N. Ottema, Chineesche ceramiek: handboek
geschreven naar aanleiding van de verzamelingen in het Museum het Princessehof te Leeuwarden, Amsterdam: De Bussy, 1946, pp. 180–184.
4. Of course, they may also have wanted to keep studio secrets for themselves.
5. T. Weststeijn, ‘The Middle Kingdom in the Low Countries: Sinology in the Seventeenth-Century Netherlands’, in: R. Bod, J. Maat & T. Weststeijn (eds.), The Making of the Humanities, Vol. II: From
Early Modern to Modern Disciplines, Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2012, pp. 209–242. 6. ‘De man, eer dat hy koopt, om niet te zijn bedrogen, /Hy
knipt aen ’t postuleyn: het mocht misschien niet dogen:/ En hoort zoo aen ’t geluyd, of ’t fi jn is naer zijn keur, / Of ’t niet te lomp en is, of ergens heeft een scheur’, J. de Brune de Oude, Emblemata of zinne-werck, Amsterdam: Kloppenburch, 1624, Emblem XXIII (Wat de man kan, wijst zijn reden an), p. 166. See also F. X. d’Entrecolles, Brieven van pater d’Entrecolles
en mededelingen over de porseleinfabricage uit oude boeken, D. F. Lunsingh Scheurleer (ed.), Alphen aan den Rijn: Canaletto, 1982, p. 355 (Letter of 1712): ‘La bonne porcelaine a un son clair comme le
verre’.
7. ‘ ’t Zyn Vaten, doch zy doen geen nut,/Om Spyze op den
Dis te draagen, ... Maar dienen enkel ’t welbehaagen,/ Tot Oogen lust en Pronkery’, J. Luyken, Het leerzaam
huisraad, Amsterdam: Arentz and Van der Sys, 1711, Fig. XXIV, p. 118.
8. ‘[E]en Man, die aan zyn beminde, het Porcelyn onthout,
ziet’er vry blaauwer uit dan een Verwers blaauwkuip vol Indigo’, J. C. Weyerman, Den Amsterdamsche Hermes,
deel 2, nr. 46 (10 August 1723), pp. 365–367. His reference may have been to Bloemaert’s Lot and
his Daughters (Fig. 5): here porcelain, alongside the oysters, may have been intended as a reference to sexual seduction, although it was far more common to use white faience in this context, as Nora Vester kindly informed me.
9. D. F. Lach, Asia in the Making of Europe, Volume II: A
Century of Wonder, Book 1: The Visual Arts, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1970, p. 105; the reference is to J. C. Scaliger, Exercitationes exotericae
de subtilitate, Paris, 1557.
10. ‘[A]engaende de Porcelleynen, en mach niet naeghelaten
zijn, dat namelick dese Oost-Indische handelinghen een groote menichte der selver inde Nederlanden ghebracht hebben .... alsoo moet men ooc van de Porcelleynen, der welcker overvloet daghelicx meer ende meer aenwast, gevoelen dat de selve eerst wt dese navigatien by de onse by na tot het gheybruyck des ghemeenen volcks ghemeyn gheworden zijn … de Porcelleynen deses tijts… alleen, mijns wetens blau met wit daer tusschen gemengt hebben’, B. Pontanus, Historische
beschrijvinghe der seer wijt beroemde coop-stadt Amsterdam … in Nederduyts overgheset door Petrum
Montanum, Amsterdam: Hondius, 1614, pp. 145– 147.
11. J. A. Page & I. Domé nech (eds.), Beyond Venice:
Glass in Venetian Style, 1500–1750, Corning and New York: Corning Museum of Glass, 2004, p. 8. 12. With thanks to Dr. Alex Marr (Cambridge
University) for identifying these objects. 13. On the etymology see in detail P. Pelliot, Notes on
Marco Polo, Vol. II, Paris: Imprimerie Nationale & Librairie Adrien-Maisonneuve, 1963, pp. 805–809. 14. Ibid., pp. 810–11; D. F. Lach 1970 (op. cit. note
9), p. 105, discusses how the term porcelain ‘was used so broadly that it included agates, precious stones, mother-of-pearl, and seashells within its meaning. In the inventory of 1611–13 of Philip II’s porcelains and other ceramics, listings may be found for “porcelains” of crystal, of agate, and of stone.’ Generally speaking, pearls and precious stones were associated with Asia (see p. 40). 15. T. Browne, Pseudo-doxia epidemica, dat is:
Beschryvinge van verscheyde algemene dwalingen des volks, transl. J. Grindal, Amsterdam: Van Goedesbergh, 1668, pp. 87-88; English original,
Pseudodoxia Epidemica: Or, Enquiries into Very Many Received Tenents, and Commonly Presumed Truths,
London: Ekins, 1656, pp. 72–73.
16. J. Nieuhof, Het gezantschap der Neêrlandtsche
Oost-Indische Compagnie, aan den grooten Tartarischen Cham ... beneffens een naukeurige beschryving der Sineesche steden, dorpen, regeering, Amsterdam: Van Meurs, 1665, pp. 90–91.
17. For some examples see Frans II Francken, An
Art Cabinet, 1636, Oil on wood, 74 x 78 cm, Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna; Cornelis de Bailleur, Gallery of a Collector, c.1635, Oil on oak, 115 x 148 cm, Residenzgalerie, Salzburg; Cornelis de Bailleur, Gallery of a Collector, 1637, Oil on wood, 93 x 123 cm, Musée du Louvre, Paris; Hieronymus Francken (attr.), An Art Cabinet, oil on panel, 68.5 x 65 cm, auctioned at Christie’s, New York, 2001-01-26, lot no. 109 (photos in RKD, The Hague).
18. Jan van Kessel (1626–1679), The Element of Fire,
c.1665, auctioned at London, Sotheby’s, 1995-07-05; The Element of Fire, dated 1670, private collection (photos in RKD, The Hague). 19. J. Needham and Lu Gwei-djen, Science and
Civilisation in China, vol. V, Part 2: Spagyrical Discovery and Invention: Magisteries of Gold and Immortality, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1974, p. 269–270.
20. P. Pelliot 1963 (op. cit. note 13), pp. 808–809. 21. Apotekarsocieteten, Stockholm (as ‘School of
Terborch’, 1665, size and support unknown). Image from D. A. Wittop Koning, ‘Van Antwerpse majolica tot Delfts aarderwerk IV’, Antiek 2/6, 1968, pp. 265–270, Fig. 41. The painting probably represents maiolica rather than Chinese wares. 22. H. J. Cook, Matters of Exchange: Commerce, Medicine,
and Science in the Dutch Golden Age, New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2007, pp. 141–2; E. Bergvelt and R. Kistemaker (eds.), De wereld binnen
handbereik, Zwolle: Waanders, 1992, p. 149. 23. W. ten Rhijne, Dissertatio de arthritide: Mantissa
schematica: de acupunctura: et orationes tres, I. de chymiæ ac botaniæ antiquitate et dignitate. II. de physiognomia. III. de monstris, London: Chiswell, & The Hague: Leers, 1683.
24. I. Vossius, ‘De artibus et scientiis Sinarum’, in:
Isaaci Vossii variarum observationum liber, London: Scott, 1685, pp. 69–85: 76. See also pp. 70–75 on the circulation of the blood, which Vossius seems
to emphasize as the greatest Chinese discovery. For the Dutch knowledge of this topic see Cook 2007 (op. cit. note 22), pp. 349–377.
25. The doctor accompanied Johan van Hoorn, Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies, to the Netherlands. See L. Blussé, ‘Doctor at Sea: Chou Mei-Yeh’s Voyage to the West (1710–1711),’ in: E. de Poorter (ed.), As the Twig is Bent ..: Essays in
Honour of Frits Vos, Amsterdam: Gieben, 1990, pp. 7–30.
26. Witsen (Amsterdam) to Vossius (London), 6 November [1670], Leiden University Library, UBL Ms Bur F11, fol. 160r; J. van der Veen 1992 (op. cit. note 22), p. 140. Witsen asked the Chinese in Batavia for a translation of the text on a mirror found in a Siberian grave; he had to wait two years for the reply: Witsen to and from Cuper, University of Amsterdam Special Collections, Bf 39, 4-11-1708; Bf 3, 20-10-1705.
27. In the Low Countries, Margaret of Austria was one of the earliest collectors of porcelain; see N. Ottema 1946 (op. cit. note 3), p. 180 (referring to Inventaire des vaiselles, joyaux… de Marguerite
d’Autriche, publié par H. Michelant, Brussels: Hayez, 1870). See also Teresa Canepa’s and Cordula Bischoff’s Chapter 2/Chapter 10 of this book. 28. T. Browne 1656 (op. cit. note 15), p. 73; 1668 (op.
cit. note 15), p. 88.
29. ‘Alle spyze en drank die opgidist [sic] word in
Porcelyn verlekkert in smaak, en verheugt het oog ... De Confi tuuren zyn veel verglaasder in een schotel van porcelyn, dan in een schotel van zilver, en het fruit krygt een nieuwe waessem door het heerlyk hemelsblaauw van het porcelyn’, J. C. Weyerman 1723 (op. cit. note 8), p. 366.
30. J. Bruggeman, ‘Literaire chinoiserie in het werk van Jacob Campo Weyerman’, Mededelingen van
de Stichting Jacob Campo Weyerman 21, 1998, pp. 25–30.
31. D. F. Lach 1970 (op. cit. note 9), pp. 20–21. 32. De Gois quoted by D. F. Lach 1970 (op. cit. note 9),
p. 105; Paludanus’ annotation in Van Linschoten’s report, see A. C. Burnell and P. A. Tiele (eds.),
The Voyage of John Huyghen van Linschoten to the East Indies: From the Old English Translation of 1598: The First Book, Containing his Description of the East (1885), London: Hakluyt Society, 1885, vol. I, p. 130.
33. D. F. Lach & E. van Kley, Asia in the Making of
Europe. Volume III: A Century of Advance, Book 4: East Asia, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993, pp. 1602–3, referring to Novus Atlas Sinensis, vol. XI of Johannes Blaeu, Le Grand atlas, Amsterdam: Blaeu, 1663, p. 5; Dutch edition, Grooten atlas,
oft werelt-beschrijving, in welcke’t aertryck, de zee, en hemel, wordt vertoond en beschreven, Amsterdam: Blaeu, 1646–1665, vol. VI, Introduction to the maps of China.
34. In 1652, Jan van Riebeeck sent samples of white-fi ring clay from the Cape to Batavia, to see whether it could be used to make porcelain. It could not.
35. ‘[E]en gebakke Aarde .... die in een gelit gaat met het
Goud, met de Paerelen, en met de edele Gesteentens’, J. C. Weyerman 1723 (op. cit. note 8), p. 365. 36. See J. D. van Dam, Delffse Porceleyne: Dutch
Delftware 1620–1850, Zwolle: Waanders, 2004, on the technical details of the production and the import of marl (clay with high lime content) from Tournai and Norwich, which the Delft potters added to their mixtures.
37. J. Berger Hochstrasser, Still Life and Trade in the
Dutch Golden Age, New Haven: Yale University Press, 2007, p. 148, also notes the seminal role