O N SKI'AKAT I ( )N- INI) I VI D P A T I ON Pli'OCF.SX hy S A N D R A F L D E R B.A., U N I V E R S I T Y O F M A N I T O B A , 1962 B. E D . , UN 1 V E R S I TV O F R EG 1N A , 1969 M . E 1 ). , UN I V !•:R S .1 T Y OI-' A L B
E
RTA, 1982 A D I S S E R T A T I O N S U B M I T T E D IN P A R T I A L F U L F I L L M E N T O F T H E R E Q U I R E M E N T S F O R T H E D E G R E E O FA C C E P T E D
D O C T O R O F PH I 1,0 SO PH YF ACU LTY
OF GRADUATE
S T U D IE Sin t.ho Faculty "oe” O A T P ---J-Y— '■ f, . . I , %?. , , ... E i i u c a t i o n W e aci;:epL t.h I s d 1 s s e r I a 1 i on aa c o n f o r m i n g to the cetjuii’ed s t a n d a r d D r . D o n a I d E n o w I es Dr. M ax Uhlernann
Dr. W il li a m Bergen, External Examiner
0 S AN D R A ELDER, 1993 U n i ve rs it y of V i c t o r i a
June 1993
All rights reserved. T his thesis may not be r e p roduced in w h o le or in part, by m i m eo gr ap h or o t he r means,
Supervisor: Dr. Donald Knowles
A B S T R A C T
W h et he r or not major c h a n g es in family s t r u c t u r e during
a do le sc e n c e have positive or n e g at iv e c on se qu en ce s for adoles c e n t s has not been e mp ir ic a l l y i n v e s t i g at ed to any extent. The
s e p a r a t i o n - in d iv id u at io n p r o c e s s is c o n si de re d to be f ac il it a t e d w h e n a do l e s c e n t s can express t h e m s e l v e s in a fa m i l y c o n t ex t
c h a r a c t e ri ze d by emotional c o n n e c t e d n e s s (Grotevant & Cooper, 1986). T h i s i n d i v i d u at io n process is not c o n c e r n e d e x c l u s i v e l y with
sep a r a t i o n or a utonomy but r a t h e r wi t h the c o n t i n u i n g e m b ed d e d n e s s of the i n d ividual in r e l a t i o n s h i p s wi t h others (Karpel, 1976;
Y o u n i s s , 1983).
The im p a c t of parental d e a t h on the p r o c e s s of s e p a r a t i o n - i n d i v i d u a t i o n in a d o l e s c e n c e was e x a m i n e d in this study. Th i r t y male and fe m a l e adolescents, ag e s 12 to 16 years, f r o m fam i l i e s in w h i c h the father had died p a r t i c i p a t e d in this study. T h e y were c om p a r e d w i t h thirty a d o l e s c e n t s of c o m pa r a b l e age from intact families. The a d o l e s c e n t s c o m p l e t e d i n s t r u m e n t s t h a t p r o v i d e d i n f o r m a t i o n a b out d e v e l o p m e n t of a u t o n o m y (Emotional A u t o n o m y Scale), a t t a c h m e n t to mother, f a t h e r and p e ers ( I n v e n t o r y of
Parent and Pe e r Attachment), and a d o l e s c e n t s ’ p e r c e p t i o n of fa m i l y f u n c t i o n i n g (Family F u n c t i o n i n g in A d o l e s c e n c e Q u e s t i o n n a i r e ) .
A d o l e s c e n t s from the f a t h e r - d e c e a s e d g roup are m o r e a u t o n o m o u s than the int a c t g roup in some o f the scales. M a l e s fr o m the
father-(ieceased gi-oup sco.-ed s i g n i f i c a n t l y ti i ghc r 1 l\an inaLcs I' rnm the JntacI: g r o u p on the e m o ti o n a l a u t o n o m y siihscn I e s .
A d o l e s c e n t s in the f a t h e r - d e c e a s e d f am il i es s h o w e d s i m i l a r a t t a c h m e n t t.o f a t h e r s a n d mo t he rs w h e n c o m p a r e d w i t h
a d o l e s c e n t s from i n t a c t fam i l i e s . A d o l e s c e n t s ’ percept, ions of t h e i r f a m i l y f u n c t i o n i n g s h o w e d s i m i l a r r e s u l t s for both the f a t h e r - d e c e a s e d a n d i n t a c t g r o u p s w i t h a d o l e s c e n t s w h o scoi'cd h i g h in family f u n c t i o n i n g iieing less a u t o n o n m s . S i m i l a r l y
a d o l e s c e n t s from the fa I her - d e c c a s e d gi'ou[> u'ho w e r e m o r e /iti.aclieil to m o t h e r s s h o w e d l e s s nnl.onotiiy .u.-coI'd i ng to t heir s c o r e s on t he E m o t i o n a l A u t o n o m y S c a l e . .Ado I e s c e n t.s ' a t t a c h m e n t to ]?ee rs w a s u n r e l a t e d to t h e i r level of ,au t o n u m y . E x a m i n e r s : Dr. D o n a l d K n o w l e s Ur. Max U h l e m u n n D r . / Hto^ F p r g u s o n
TA BL E OF C O N TENTS Page A b s t r a c t ... i i Table of C o n t e n t s ... iv List of T a b l e s ... vii List of F i g u r e s ... xi A c k n o w l e d g m e n t s ... xvi Dedication. . ... xviii C h ap te r 1: Statement of the P r o b l e m ...1 C h ap t e r 2: Lit e r a t u r e Revi e w I n t r o d u c t i o n ... 7 S e p a r a t i o n - i n d i v i d u a t i o n P r o c e s s ... 8 Impact of F a m i l y R e l a t i o n sh ip s on A d o l e s c e n t ’s D e v e l o p m e n t ... .14
Parental A t t a c h m e n t and Loss I s s u e s ... 24
E motional A u t o n o m y ... 27 R e s e a r ch Q u e s t i o n s ... S4 C h ap te r 3 : M e t h o d o l o g y O v e r v i e w ... 36 Selec t i o n of P a r t i c i p a n t s ... 36 M e a s u r e s ... 40 F am i l y F u n c t i o n i n g in A d o l e s c e n c e Q u e s t i o n n a i r e ... 41 I n v e n t o r y of Parent and P ee r A t t a c h m e n t .42 E m o t i o n a l A u t o n o m y S c a l e . . . ... 42
D e m o g r a p h i c Q u e s t i o n n a i r e ... 43
Ad o le s ce nt Life Change Event S c a l e ... 43
P r o c e d u r e ... 44 C h a pt er 4: Results and D i s c u s s i o n P r e li mi n a ry R e s u l t s ... 4 7 The Impact of P r e v i o us L o s s e s . ... 50 E m o t i o n a l A utonomy. ... . 53 A d o l e s c e n ts a tt a c h m e n t to m ot he r s and f a t h e r s ... 61 G e nd er d i f f e r e n c e s in a u tonomy to father death ...64 R e l a ti on s hi p b et we e n a u t o n o my and r e la t i o n s h i p w i t h p a r e n t s . ... .75 A t t a c h me nt s c o r e s and r e l a t i o n s h i p w ith p e e r s ... 86 C h a p t e r 5: C o n c l u si on s and I m p l i c a t i o n s ... 91 Future R e s e a r c h ... 95 L i mi ta t i o n s of the Study, ... 96 R e f e r e n c e s ... ... ... ... 98 A p p e n di xe s A p p e n d i x A: R ec r u i t m e n t S p e e c h ...107
A p p e n d i x B: I n f o rm at io n about the research s t u d y ... 108
A p p e n d i x C: M emo to all p a r t i c i p a n t s in this s t u d y ... 110 A p p e n d i x D : D e m o g r ap hi c Questionnaire; Part I Ill D e m o g r a p h i c Q u e s t ionnaire: Part I 112
A p p endix E: A d o l e s c e n t Life Change Event S c a l e . . ..113
A p p endix F: F a mily F u n c t i o n i n g in A d o l e s c e n c e Q u e s t i o n n a i r e ... 114
Appendix G: Inve n t o r y of Parent and Peer A t t a c h m e n t ... 115
Appendix H: Emotional A u t o n o m y Scale ... ....116
A p p e n d i x I: I n f ormed Con s e n t Forms Adolescents. ... ,.117
P a r e n t s ... 119
A p p e n d i x J: Add i t i o n a l T a b l e s . . . ... 121
LIST OF TABLES
Ta b l e 1
Table 2
F r e q u e n cy of A do le s c e n t Life Change E vents of the F a t h e r - D e c e as ed and
Intact G r o u p s ... ...
Page
5 1 - 5 2
Means, s t a n d a r d deviations, and P v a lues on the Emotional A u t o n o m y Scale and the I nventory of Parent
and Pee r Attachment. . ... . 54 Ta b l e 3:
Ta b l e 4
Ta b l e 5:
Ta b l e 6:
Table 7:
Means, st a n d a r d devia t i o n and P v a lues on the Emotional A u t o n o m y Scale bet w e e n the two groups by sex, Means, s t a n d a r d deviation, and P v a lues on the Inven t o r y of P a rent and P eer A tt a c h m e n t bet w e e n the two groups by s e x ... Means, s t a n d a r d deviations, and P v al u e s on the Family F u n ct i o n i n g in A d o l e s c e n c e Q u e s t i o n n a i r e b e t we e n g r o u p s ... Means, s t a n d a r d deviations, and P v a lues on the F a m i l y F u n c t i o n i n g in A d o l e s c e n c e Q u e s t i o n n a i r e between groups by s e x ... . C o r r e l a t i o n M a t r i x for the Father- D e c e a s e d G r o u p - Males and Females on the F a m i l y F un ct io n i n g in A d ol e s c e n c e Q u e s t i on na ir e and the E m o t i o n a l A u t o n o m y S c a l e ... Ta b l e 8: 65 70 76 80 82 C o r r e l a t i o n M at r i x of the Total and S u bs ca le scores on the F a mily
F u nc t i o n i n g in A d o l e s c en ce Q u e s t io nn ai re and the Total and S u b scale s co r e s on
T able 9 Table 10: Table 11 Table 12: Table 13: Table 14 Table 15 Table 16:
Means, standard deviations, and t values on the Inve n t o r y of Parent and P eer A t t ac hm en t (mother only) and the Emotional A ut o n o m y Scale by sex and level of m o t h e r a t t ac h m e n t in the
fat h e r - d e c e a s e d g r o u p . .... . 85 C o r r e l a t i o n M a t r i x for the Father-
D e c e a s e d Gr o u p - Ma l e s and Females on the I nventory of Parent and Peer A t t a c h m e n t and the Emot i o n a l A u t o n o m y
Scale for Peers o n l y ... ... 87 Means and s t a n d a r d de v i a t i o n s for
A t ta c h m e n t Scores (Armsden, 1986). P values b et w e e n scores on the Emotional A u t o n o m y Scale and the F a m i l y F u n c t i o n i n g in A d o l e s c e n c e Q u e s t i o nn ai r e for M a l es in the F-D e c e a s e d g r o u p ...
90
121
P v a lues bet w e e n s c ores on the Emotional A u t o n o m y Scale and the F a mily F unctioning in A do le sc e n c e Q u es ti o nn ai r e for F em al e s in the
F- D e c e a s e d g r o u p ... 122
P values b et we e n scores on the Emotional A u t o n o m y Scale and the F a m i l y F u n c t i o n i n g in A d o l e s c e n c e Q u e s ti on n ai re for M a le s in the Intact g r o u p ... P values b e t w e e n s c ores on the
E m ot i o n a l A u t o n o m y Scale and the F a m i l y F u n c t i o n i n g in A d o l e s c e n c e
Q u e s t i o nn ai r e for Females in the Intact g r o u p ... Anova: Emotional A u t o n o m y Scale and the I nventory of P a r e n t and Peer A t t a c hm e nt for Ma l e s in the Intact g r o u p ... ... .
123
124
Table 17 Anova: Emotional A u t o n o m y Scale and the I nventory of Parent and P eer A t ta c h m e n t for Females in the
Intact g r o u p ... ... 1 26 Table 18: Anova: Emotional A u t o n o my Scale
and the Inventory of Parent and Peer A t ta c h m e n t for Ma l e s in the
F - D ec ea s ed g r o u p ... 127 Table 19: Anova: Emotional A u t o n o m y Scale
and the Inve n t o r y of P a r e n t and Peer A t ta ch me n t for Females in the F - D e c ea se d g r o u p ... Table 20:
128 C o r r e l a t i o n Matrices: Total Group;
I nt a c t G r o u p - M a l e s only; Intact G r o u p - F e m a l e s only; F - D ec e a s e d
G r ou p - M a l e s only and the F - D eceased G r o u p - F e m a l e s only on the Inventory of P a r e n t and Peer A t t a c h m e n t scoi'es for peers w ith their scores on the E m o t i o n a l A u t o n o m y S c a l e ... . . . Table 21: C o r r e l a t i o n s between subs c a l e s of the
F a m i l y Functi o n i n g in A d o l e s c e n c e Q u e s t i o n n a i r e ... ...
129
130 Table 22: Means, standard deviations, and range
of ratings of the s u b s c a l e s of the F a m i l y F unctioning in A d o l e s ce nc e
Q u e s t i o n n a i r e ... ... 131 Table 23;
Table 24
Means, standard deviations, and t v a l u e s on the Inve n t o r y of Parent and Peer A t t a ch me nt and the Emotional A u t o n o m y Scale by g e nd er in the
fa t h er -d ec ea se d g r o u p ... 132 Data: Uni v a r i a t e A n a l y s i s Following Manova: E m o t io na l A u t on om y Scale: T o ta l Score (EAT) Subscales: I n d i v id ua ti on (EAI) P a r e n t s - a s - P e o p l e (E A P ) N o n d e p e n d e n c e (E A N ) D e i de a l i z a t i o n (EAD) 133
M a n o v a :
I nventory of Parent and Peer Attachment; M ot h e r (IPPAM)
F a ther (IPPAF) Peers (I P P A P )
134 Table 26: Data: U n i v a r i a t e A n a l y s i s Follwing
M a n o v a : F a m i l y F u n c t i o n i n g in A d o l e s c e n c e Q u e s t i o n n ai re : Total Score (FFT) Subscales: Struc t u r e (F F S ) A f f e c t (FFA) C o m mu n i c a t i o n (FFC) 135 Table 27 : A n a l y si s of V a r i a n c e for the
F a t h e r - D ec ea se d group (males and females) level of M o t h e r A t t a c h m en t scores and Total scores on the
T A BL E OF FIGURES
Figure A: D i st r i b u t i o n of the To La 1 scoi'e (EAT) on the Emotional Autonomy Scale for both groups: Intact and F - D e c e a s e d ... Figure B: D i s t ri bu t i on of the scores for
I n d i v i d u at io n (EAI) on the
Emotional A u t o n o m y Scare for both groups: Intact and F-Deceased...,, Figure C: D i s t r i bu t i on of the scores for
N o n d e p e n d e n c e (EAN) on the Emotional A u to n o m y Scale for both groups:
Intact and F - D e c e a s e d ... Figure D:
Figure E :
D i s t r i b ut io n of the scores for Parent s - a s - People (EAP) on the Emotional A u t o n o m y Scale for both
groups: Intact and F-Deceased... 5H D i st r i b u t i o n of the scores of
D e i d e a l i z a t i o n (EAD) on the
Emotional A u t o n o m y Scale for both groups: Intact and F-Deceased.... Figure F: D i s t r ib ut io n of the scores for
a tt ac h m e n t to mo t h e r (IPPAM) on the I nv e n t o r y of Par e n t and Peer A t t a c h me nt for both groups: Intact and F - D e c e a s e d ... ... Fig u r e G: D i s t r i b ut io n of the scores for
a t t ac hm e nt to father (IPPAF) on the I n v en to ry of Parent and Peer A t t ac hm e nt for both groups: Intact
and F - D e c e a s e d ... 14 3 Figure H: D i s t r i bu t io n of the scores for
a tt ac h m e n t to peers (IPPAP) on the I n v e n to ry of Parent and Peer A t ta ch me nt for both groups: Intact
Figure 1.: D.i str.ibuL.ion of the scores for att a c h m e n t to m o ther (IPPAM) on the Inventory of Parent and Peer A tt ac h m e n t for the males and females
from both groups: Intact and
F-Deceased . ... 71
Figure J: Dist r i b u t i o n of the scores for a t ta c h m e n t to father (IPPAD) on the I n v e n t o r y of Parent and Peer A t t ac h me nt for the males and females
from both groups: Intact and
F - D e c e a s e d ... 71
Figure K: D i st ri bu ti on of the scores for a t ta c h m e n t to peers (IPPA) on the Inventory of P a rent and Peer
At t ac h me nt for males and females from both groups: Intact and
F - D e c e a s e d .... .71 Figure L : Distr i b u t i o n of the scores for
a t ta c h m e n t to m o t h e r (M) on the I nventory of P a rent and Peer A t t a c h me nt or the males and
females in the Intact G r o u p . . ... ...72 Figure M: D i st ri bu ti on of the scores for
at t a c h m e n t to father (F) on the Inven t o r y of Parent and Peer A t t ac hm e nt for the males and
females in the Intact g r o u p ...72 Figure N: D i s t r i b u t i on of the scores for
a t t a c h m e n t to peers (FR) on the I nv e n t o r y of P a r e n t and Peer A t t a c hm e n t for the males and
females in the Intact g r o u p . . . ... 72 Figure O: D is t r i b u t i o n of the scores for
the Total s c ores on the Fami l y F un c t i o n i n g in A d o l e s c e n c e Q u e s t i on n a ir e for the Intact
Figure P: D i s t ri bu t i on of the scores for the Stru c t u r e subscale scores on the Family Fu n c t i o n i n g in A d ol es ce nc e Q u e s t io nn ai re for
the F - D eceased and Intact g r o u p ... 78 Figure Q: D i s t ri b ut io n of the scores for
the Affect subscale scores on the F a m i l y F u n c t i o n i n g in A d o l e s c e n c e Q u e s t i o n n a i r e
for the F - D eceased and Intact g r o u p ... 78 Figure R; D i s t r i bu ti on of the scores for
the C o m m u ni ca ti on subscale scoi'es on the Family F u n c t i o n i n g in
A d o l es ce n ce Q u e s t i o n na ir e for the
F - D eceased and Intact g r o u p ... 137 Figure S: D i s t ri bu t io n of the Total scores
on the Family Functi o n i n g in A d o l e s ce n ce Q u e s t io nn ai re for f emales and males from the Intact
g r o u p ... 1 38 Figure T: D i s t r i bu t io n of the S tructure
su b s c a l e scores on the Family F u n c t i o n i n g in A d o l e s c e n c e Q u e s t i o n n a i r e for females and
males from the Intact g r o u p ... 138 Figure U: D is t r i b u t i o n of the Affect
su b scale scores on the Family F un ct io n i n g in A d o l e s c e n c e Q u e s t i o n n a i r e for females and
males from the Intact g r o u p ...138 Figure V; D i s t r i bu t io n of the C o m m u n i c a t i o n
su b s c a l e scores on the Family Fu nc ti on i ng in A d o l e s c e n c e Q u e s t i o n n a i r e for females and
males from the Intact g r o u p ...139 Figure W: D i s t r i b u t i o n of the Total scores
on the F a mily F u n ct i o n i n g in A d o l e s c e n c e Q u e st i o n n a i r e for females and males from the
Figure X; D i s t r i b u t i o n of the S t r u c t u r e subscale scores on the Family Functi o n i n g in A d o l e s c e n c e Q u e s t i o nn ai r e for females and
males from the F-Deceased group. ... .79 Figure Y: D i s t r i bu t io n of the Affect
s u bscale scores on the Family Functi o n i n g in A d o l e s c e n c e Q u es t i o n n a i r e for females and
males from the F-Deceased g r o u p ... 79 Figure Z: D i s t r i b u t i o n of the C o m m u n i c a t i o n
s u b scale scores on the Family F un ct io n i n g in A d o l e s c e n c e Q u e s t i o nn ai r e for females and
males from the F-Deceased g r o u p . . . ... .140 Figure AA: D i s t r i b ut io n of the Total scores
on the Emotional A u t on om y Sc a l e for males and females from the
F - De c e a s e d g r o u p ... 67 Figure BB: D i s t r i b ut io n of the I nd iv i d u a t i o n
subscale scores on the E motional A u t o n om y Scale for males and
females from the F-Deceased g r o u p ... 67 Figure CO: D i s t r i b u t io n of the N o n d e p e n d e n c e
s u b s c a l e scores on the E motional A u t o n o m y Scale for males and
females from the F- D e c e a s e d g r o u p ... ..67 Figure DD: D i s t r i b u t i o n of the P a r e n t s - a s - P eo pl e
s u b scale scores on the Emotional Au t o n om y Scale for males and females
from the F-Deceased g r o u p ... .141 Figure EE: D i s t r i b u t i o n of the D e i d e a l i z a ti on
s u b s c a l e scores on the Emoti o n a l A u t o n o m y Scale for males and females
from the F - D e c e a s e d . . . ... 141 Figure FF: D i s t r i b u t i o n of the Total s c ores
on the E motional A u t o n o m y Scale for ma l e s and females from the
Figure GG: D i s t r i b u t i on of the I n dividuation subscale s c ores on the Emotional Au t o n om y Scale for males and
.J
females from the Intact g r o u p ... Figure HH: D i s t r i b ut io n of the N o n de p e n d e n c e
subscale s c ores on the Emotional Au t o n o m y Scale for males and
females from the Intact g r o u p , . . . ... Figure II; D i s t r i b u t i o n of the P a r e n t s - a s - P e o p l e
s u b s c a l e s c ores on the Emotional A u t o n o m y Scale for males and
females from the Intact g r o u p ... Figure JJ: D i s t r i b u t i o n of the Deide a l i z a t i o n
subscale s co re s on the Emotional A ut on om y S c a l e for males and females
A C K N O W L E D G M E N T S
I w o ul d like to t hank my res e a r c h c o m m i t t e e for their s u p p o r t and e nc ou r a g e m e n t t h r o u g h o u t the p r o c e s s of c o m p l e ti ng my doctoral degree. In particular, I w ould like to thank my supervisor, Dr. Don Knowles, for his c o nt i n u i n g support of m y r e s e a r c h project, his
a ss i s t a n c e in helping me to ma k e it a reality and his f r i e n d s h i p .
I w o u l d like to thank ea c h of the s ixty a d o l e s c e n t s who we r e so w i l l i n g to ass i s t me wi t h this study. T h e i r i n volvement was essential to the c o m p l e t i o n of the study and req u i r e d their time, e f f o r t and support. I w o u l d also like to extend my thanks to the teachers,
c o u n s e l l o r s and a d mi ni st ra to rs in the vari o u s schools that p a r t i c i p a t e d in ray study. T h ei r help was
invaluable and their e f f o r t s on my behalf we r e o f t e n "above and beyond the call of duty", A t hank you to the parents of the a d o l e s c e n t s who we r e involved in m y
study. T h e y were also v e r y s u p p o r t i v e and I w o u l d like to a c k n o w l e d g e their assistance. I w o u l d like to e x t e n d my a p p r e c i a t i o n to Darrell Pacini, a g r aduate from the School of C h i l d and Y o u t h C a r e (May 1992), who was m y r e search a s s i s t a n t and h e l p e d to recruit s o m e of the p a r t i c i p a n t s in this study. Finally, I w o u l d like to
a ck no w l e d g e the support and ass i s t a n c e of my secretary, Sue Fossum, who w il l i n g l y gave of her time to type the final draft on her days off.
Being a student, mother, wife, friend and private p r a c ti ti on er in the field of c ou ns el l i n g psychology has been a c h a l le ng e for me. The support of my husband, Rick, and our children, Craig and Kristine, has been a co n stant t h ro ug ho ut this proc e s s of com p l e t i n g my
doctoral degree. Th e i r love and u n d e r s t a nd in g during some v ery d i f f i cu l t times has e nc ou r a g e d me to carry on no m at te r what! My friends who are s cattered across Canada, h ave given me w o n d e r f u l support and
e n c o u ra ge m en t t h ro u g h o u t the years that it took to co mplete this d eg r e e (even t h ough it t ook longer than planned). Finally, the cli e n t s in my private practise who also e n c o ur ag ed me to co m p l e t e my degree.
DE D I CATION
I would like to d e d i c a t e this r e s earch study to two individuals who had an impact on my study:
Peter M c Cl u n g Born: May 7, 1942
Died: F e b ruary 1, 1993 Kaycee Poi r i e r Born: J a n u a r y 27, 1980
Died: M a r c h 19, 1992
Both Pe t e r and Kaycee died of cancer. P e te r was a " f a t h e r ” of two girls: Julie and Karen and Kaycee was a "child" w h o left b e hind a mother, father
and two ol d e r sisters. Pe t e r was told that I would be de d i c a t i n g my d is s e r t a t i o n to him b e fore he died. His first comm e n t after h ea r i n g this was "be sure that you spell my last n ame r i g h t " . K a ycee was also told that I w a s ded i c a t i n g my d i s s e r t a t i o n to her b ef or e she died.
Peter was a man who loved his family, his friends, his w o r k and his lei s u r e time. His f a v o r i t e p a s times wer e scuba diving, w o o d car v i n g his whales, t r a v elling
to far off places and his trips back to Regina, Saskatchewan. He loved the ocean, the p r a ir ie s and V a n co uv er Island. P e te r w a s a c o n s um ma te sup p o r t of my
research. He e n c ou r ag ed me, b e l i e v ed in me, c a j o l e d me into getting it done a n d he f r e q u e n tl y p ra i s e d my
"wise old soul" in a v e r y young body. She loved life and o f t e n tried to m ake o t hers feel happy even if she was fr u s t r a t e d w ith her illness. Kaycee will long be
r e m e m b e r e d for her p r i n c i p l e s of attitu d i n a l healing that she re-wrote for children. These p r i n c i p l e s are in the first c h a p t e r of a boo k by Dr. G e r a l d J a m p o l s k y and D i a n e C i r i n c i on e e n t i t l e d "Change Y o u r Mind, C h ange Your L i f e " . K a y c e e ’s p r i n c i p l e s are also p r i nt e d on a
b o o k m a r k that is a v a il a bl e in the U n i t e d States, Canada, A u s t r a l i a and S o v i e t Union. K a y c e e ’s last m e s s a g e to us at her funeral was the song " D o n ’t Worry, Be Happy"!
She b el i e v e d that "since love was forever, d e a t h need not be scary" (her p r i n c i p l e #11).
P e te r and Kaycee will n e ve r e ver be forgotten. T h e y have left their p r e se nc e through P e t e r ’s whale ca r v in gs that are p r e s e n t l y in the Q u es t G al le ry in V i c t o r i a and K a y c e e ’s c h i l d r e n ’s v e r s i o n of the
p ri n c i p l e s of a t ti tu d in a l healing. T h an k you Peter and K ay c e e for being in my life and having an impact on my w o r k !
Our r el at i o n s h i p s with o t hers h elp us navigate the pa s s a g e s of l i f e We r e ally c a n n o t become s e p arate and a u t o nomous u n less we have a solid dev e l o p m e n t a l foundation, w h i c h is built through our co n n e c t i o n s and a t t a c hm en ts (Ivey, 1991, p.2). C o n n e c t i o n is as vital as separation. To survive, we mus t be s i m u l t a n e o u s l y a t t a c h e d to others but also s e p a r a t e As we move to the d e v el o p m e n t a l tasks of a u t o n o m y and identity, we m ust d e fine our s e p arate b o u ndaries from our f a mily and others
(Ivey, 1991, p . 158).
A study of the factors that i nfluence adolescents* a dj ustment to s i g n i f i c a n t loss m ust also involve the d ev e l o p m e n t a l issues that a d o l e s c e n t s face. Cha n g e s in
the family stru c t u r e have a s i g n i f i c a n t e f fect on the dev e l o p m e n t a l process of adolescence. The
de v e l o p m e n t a l tasks of a d o l e s c e n c e are s u c c e s s f u l l y ac c o m p l is he d w i t h i n the con t e x t of a s u p p o r t i v e and u n de rs ta nd in g environment. W h e n the c i r c u m s t an ce s are such that the c on te x t is altered or is in a state of transition, a do le s c e n t s may e x p er ie nc e d i f f i c ul ti es in making the n ec e s s a r y d e v e l o p m e n t a l tasks (Sessa &
Steinberg, 1991).
An impo r t a n t a s p e c t of a d o l e s c e n t d e v e l o p me nt in the context of the pre s e n t r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t is the t r a ns fo rm at io n in the reciprocal p at t e r n i n g of the p a re nt -c hi ld r e l a ti on s hi p in c o n tr as t to b r e a k i n g the bond b et w e e n p a rent and child (Hill & Steinberg, 1976; Youniss, 1983). The p a re nt -c hi ld r el a t i o n s h i p is
"typical" under usual family con d i t i o n s (intact
families). The r e la ti on sh ip between a do le s c e n t s and parents is seen as an en d u r i n g bond that continues
t hr ou g h o u t the life span (Youniss, 1983); a r e l a tionship wh i c h u nd e r g o e s s i g n i f i c an t t ra ns fo r m a t i o n during
a d o l es ce nc e and young a du l t h o o d (Hill &. Steinberg, 1976; White et al, 1983) as it is r e n e gotiated from patterns of r el at i v e l y u n il a t e r a l autho r i t y towards m utuality
(Youniss, 1983). Th e s e r esearchers have emphasized the si g n i f i ca nc e of the c o n t i n u in g i nterplay between
i n d i v id ua li ty and c on ne c t e dn es s in family relationships as being important ind i c a t o r s of i n d ividual and family f u n c t i o n i n g .
W h e n both par e n t s are a vailable the process of i n di v i d u a t i o n d ur i n g a d o l e sc en ce has been charact e r i z e d in terms of autonomy, i n d e pendence and d e t a ch me nt from family m em be r s ( G r o tevant & Cooper, 1983). Detachment is t y pi ca ll y v ie w e d as an inevitable a s pect of
a d o le sc en t d ev e l o p m e n t with both p o s i t i v e and negative connotations. It may r ep r e s e n t a n e c e ss ar y step toward inde p e n d e n c e or autonomy; it may set the stage for self- reliance. Yet, d e t a c h m e n t can also r epresent loss and separation, w h e r e i n a r e l a ti ve ly d e p e nd en t p er s o n is severed from a source of guidance, affection, or
n uturance (Ryan & Lynch, 1989, p . 340).
Hill & H o l m b e c k (1986) argue that c lo s e n e s s with parents s h ould be p o s i t iv el y related to indices of a u t onomy and that the use of the term d e t a c h m e n t as a general d e s c r ip t o r of p a r e n t - c h i l d rel a t i o n s h i p s ignores the norm a t i v e c loseness of these relationships. Ryan & Lynch (1989) define d e t a ch me nt as an a bsence of the ex p e r i e n c e of at t a c h m e n t or c o h e s i o n bet w e e n p a r e n t and child. Faci l i t a t i v e p a r e n t - a d o l e s c e n t r e l a t i on sh ip s are c h ar ac t e r i z e d by a secure attachment, w h i c h will
typically be a c companied by e x p e r ie nc in g acc e p t a n c e and support for d ev el o p m e n t a l tasks such as the
s e p a r a t i o n -i n d iv id u at io n process. The i n d i v i d u a t i o n p rocess is not conce r n e d e x c l u s i v e l y with s e p ar at io n or a u t o no my but rather w ith the con t i n u i n g e m b e d d e d n e s s of the individual in r e l a t i o n s h i p s with others (Karpel, 1976; Youniss, 1983).
G r ow th in independence and au t o n o m y does not mean that a d o l es ce nt s must sever e motional ties w i t h parents or move a way from their parents' emotional support. Rather, this growth r e quires that parental support for the d ev el o p m e n t a l tasks of a d o l e s c e n c e c o n t i n u e w i t h i n a cont e x t of family c o h e si on and love. It is a t t a c h m e n t r a ther than d et ac h m e n t that o p t i mi ze s i n d iv id ua ti on
and the c a pa c i t i e s for r elatedness to self and others during a do l e s c e n c e (Ryan & Lynch, 1989). A current ps y c h o l o g i c a l view (Bretherton, 1987; Ryan & Lynch, 1989) is that the s e pa ra ti on -i n d i v i d u a t i o n process during a d o l e s c e n c e is f acilitated by att a c h m e n t not by detachment. The m ai nt en a n c e of the p a r e n t - a d o l e s c e n t r e l a t i o ns hi p p e r mi ts optimal a u t o n o my through the context of e m o t i o n a l support.
E mo t i o n a l a u t o n om y is not s om e t h i n g that happens from p ar en ts but rather with them (Ryan & Lynch, 1989). Lamborn and S te i n b e r g (1990) indic a t e d that there is little r es e a r c h on the r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n emotional
a u t o n o m y and a d o l e s c e n t adjustment. Emotional au t o n o m y is view e d as an important a s pect of individuation
(Douvan & Adelson, 1966; Bios, 1979). Because emotional au t o n o m y is a r e l a tional construct, it is d ifficult to assess its s i g n i f i c a n c e and q ua l i t i e s without making refe r e n c e to the object from w h o m the a d o lescent is b e c oming autonomous. S t e i n b e r g & Si l v e r b e r g (1986) c oncl u d e d that young people m ove thr o u g h a transitional period in the p r o g re ss io n to true self-reliance.
Initially, young a d ol es c e n t s g ain a sense of emotional a u t o n o m y from their parents that leaves them s u sceptible to pee r p ressure. "Only af t e r this tran s i t i o n a l period,
in which a d o l e s c e n t s are easily inf l u e n c e d by peers who substitute the m i s s i n g support from parents, do
a d olescents stand more solidly on their own opinions and d e c i s i o n s " (Lamborn & Steinberg, 1990, p. 4), In essence, the outcomes of the process of individ u a t i o n depend in large m ea su r e on t r a n s f o r m a t i o n in the nature of the p a r e n t - a d o l es ce n t r e la ti on sh ip (Lamborn &
Steinberg, 1990).
Since one of the d ev el o p m e n t a l tasks of a d o l e s c e n c e is forging an i d e n t i t y separate from parents, the death of a parent not only alters the f a mily u ni t y as a whole but also in f l u e n c e s the normal a d o l e s c e n t de v e l o p m e n t a l process. Raphael (1983) cons i d e r s p a r e n t al death
"likely to be the g r e at es t loss for the adolescent, esp e c i a l l y in the e ar l i e r years w h e n h e/ s h e has not c o m p l e t e d the separa t i o n " (p.145). The p e r m a n e nt loss of the parental r e la ti on sh ip may interfere with the " typical" s ep ar at i o n - i n d i v i d u a t i o n process.
The impact of father deallh on a d o l e s c e n t s ’
d e ve lo p m e n t a l pro c e s s raises the p o s s i b i l i t y of a u t o n o m y being int e r f e r e d w i t h because d e t a c h m e n t occurs
prematurely. A recent study c on d u c t e d b y Blain, T h o mp so n and W h i ff en (1993) s u g g e s t s that in or d e r for
from their families, they must have a secure base, and solid r e l a t i o n s h i p s with their parents. Even though a d o l e s c e n t s may e x h i b i t behavioural indications of
individuation, a f f e c t i v e l y they are u n able to negotiate the d e v e l o p m e n t a l task of individuating (blain et al,
1993). Of p a r t i c u l a r interest in the present study was the impact of pa r e n t a l death during a d o l e s c e n c e on the s e p a r a t i o n - i n d i v i d u a t i o n process for individuals from f a t h e r - d e c ea s ed families.
L i t e r a t u r e Review
An u n de r s t a n d i n g of the s e p a r a t i o n - i n d i v i d u a t i o n process, the issues that influence normal a d o l e s c e n t development, the impact of s i g ni fi c a n t a l t er at i o n s in
the family context, and the q u a l i t y of a d o l e s c e n t s ’ re lationships with mother, father and peers formed the basis for this research study.
Normal ad o l e s c e n t d e v e l o p m e n t involves l e a r n i n g to be p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y indepe n d e n t of o n e ’s parents,
d ev e l o p i n g re l a t i o n s h i p s outside the family unit, and seeking o n e ’s own identity. These a c h i e v em en ts cannot be a c co mp l is he d if a do le sc e n t s continue c h i l d h o o d - li ke a tt a c h m e n t s to parents nor can they be a c hieved by be c o m i n g totally d i s c o n n e c t e d from the family. The
transition to mature s e l f - r e l i a n c e is a process known as s e p a r a t i o n - i n d i v i d u a t i o n . B e c o m i n g an aut o n o m o u s
individual is not m u t u a l l y e xc l u s i v e w i t h m a i n t a i ni ng an i n t e r d e p e n d e n t relation with o n e ’s parents. T h e y are c o m p l e m e n t a r y p rocesses and p art of normal f a mily g r owth and d e v e l o p m e n t d u ring a d o l e sc e n c e (Kimmel & Weiner, 1985) .
S e p a r a t i o n - i n d i v i d u a t i o n Process
■/any a d o l e s ce n ts face the p r o c e s s of
s e p a r a t i c ! - i n d i v i d u a t i o n with great ambivalence. They v a s c i l l a t e b e tw ee n the desire for i n d e p endence and the sec u r i t y a f f o r d e d by childhood. Th e y are n e i ther adults nor c h i l d r e n {Kimmel & Weiner, 1985). The concept of s e p a r a t i o n - i n d i v i d u a t i o n can be vi e w e d as being on a c o n t i n u u m that tends to o s c i l l at e b e t ween being a child and b eing an adult. S u c cessful s e p a r a ti on -i nd iv id ua ti on means that the a d o l es ce n t has a sense of self and still remains c o n n e c t e d to the family. In contrast, an
u n s u c c e s s f ul p r o c es s means that the a do le s c e n t is
a l i e n a t e d and is c h a ra ct er iz ed by d is ru p t i v e behaviours, a r e j e c t i o n of societal and fa m i l y norms, and potential suicide. A l i e n a t e d a d o l e s c e n t s have separated not only from s o c i e t y and family, but from themselves. They have not c o m p l e t e d i n di vi d u a t i o n (Daniels, 1990: p p . 106-107).
I n d i v i d u a t i o n is c o n c e i v e d as a develo p m e n t a l p r o cess i n v o lving an i n d i v i d u a l ’s s u c cessive and p r o g r e s s i v e n e g o t i a t i o n of the b a l a n c e between
s e p a r a t e n e s s and c o n n e c t e d n e ss in r el at io ns hi p to the family of o r i g i n (Cohler & Geyer, 1982; G r o t e v a n t & Cooper, 1986; Mahler, Pine & Bergman, i975; Meyer, 1980; Staff, 1973). During a d o l e s c e n c e a shift in the level
of intercon n e c t e d n e s s with the family is necessary in order for the a d o l e sc e n t to begin the task of a s s uming adult roles and r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s {Bios, 1967). The relative success of the r e n e g o t i a t i o n of these parent and child p ositions is h y p o t h e s i z e d to be related to adolescent personal a dj us t m e n t (Sabatelli & Allison,
1988; Cooper, G r o t e v a n t & Condon, 1983). A l t e r a t i o n s in the family c on t e x t may result in some d i s r u p t i o n s that have an impact on a do le s c e n t development. Bartle, A n d erson & S abatelli (1989) assumed that i n dividuation and pare n t i n g style w ere a f f e c t e d by s u c h d i s ru p t i o n s in the family as d iv o r c e or death. W hen exami n i n g the
medi a t o r s of a d o l e s c e n t d e v e l op me nt and their
adaptations, t h ey e m p ha si ze d that future research should involve a more careful e x am in at io n of the
i nterdep e n d e n c e b e t w e e n the sex of the child, the parenting style of each parent, and a d o l e s c e n t i n d i v i d u a t i o n .
Bl o o m (1980) c on s i d e r s that the s i ngle most significant feature in d e t e r m i n i n g w h e t h e r the
s e p aration p r o c e s s will be d e s t r u c t i v e l y c o nflicting or c o n s t r u c t i v e is w h et h e r the a d o l e s c e n t feels secure con c e r n i n g p a r e n t s ’ regard for h i m or her. Since strong feelings such as ambivalence, a n ge r and guilt are always
a par t of se p a r a t i o n w h e r e rejection is seen as likely, se p a ra ti on is seen as dangerous. If the p a r e n t s are rejecting, then the i nt r o j e c t i o n and ident i f i c a t i o n p r oc e s s includes self-rejection. O f fe r & O f fe r (1975) found that a d o l e s c e n t s w h o e x p e r i e n c e d a sep a r a t i o n from a s ig ni fi c a n t ot h e r in c h i l d h o o d were mor e likely to e x p e ri en ce d if f i c u l t y w h e n separating from their
parents. In contrast, those a d o l e s c e n t s who e xperienced the sep a r a t i o n p ro ce s s mos t c o m f o r t a b l y had not
e x p er ie nc ed trau m a t i c sep a r a t i o n in their past. They had s ep ar a t i o n e x p e ri en ce s that c o r r e s po nd ed to their stage of d e v e l o pm en t suc h as going to camp, going to school and outings w i t h peers.
M a s t er so n (1972) o b s e r ve d that those parents who wer e the m s e l v e s re j e c t e d or who had poor e x p e r i e n c e s in se p ar at in g from their p ar en ts e x p ected a sim i l a r
c i rc u m s t a n c e w ith their o w n ado l e s c e n t children. To p r o t e c t t he ms e l v e s from this expected rejection, these p ar e n t s would often r ej ec t their c h i l d r e n at the first signs of independence.
B l oo m (1980) l i sted the following v ar i a b l e s as be in g i mportant to the a d o l e s ce nt -p ar en ta l sep a r a t i o n process; (a) the r e a d in es s of the individual for
of formal operat i o n a l thinking d u ring adolescence, (c) the nature of the p a r e nt -c hi ld relationship, (d) past e x p e r i e n c e s of the par e n t s and the a d o l e s c e n t in
separation, and (e) the c u l t u r a l influences on the s e p aration process.
The recu r r i n g themes in s e p a r a t i o n studies are (a) the initial r e s ponse to s e p a r a t i o n is an a ttempt to r eattach a n d a feeling of being injured, (b) a general sense of identity diffusion, a nd (c) an a pa t h e t i c
attitude t o ward new r e l a t i on sh ip s until the b e r e av em en t period is at least s o m ewhat resolved.
W hen r e a t ta c hm en t a tt e m p t s fail, the i n d ividual must g r ap p l e with the real i t y of the loss. Thi s is done by a l t e r n a t e l y embr a c i n g m e m o r i e s of the lost o b j e c t and feeling o v er wh el me d by these f e e lings and a v o i d in g the memories. W h e n the loss is i n t e l l ec tu al ly accepted, the issue b ec om es one of c om i n g to terms w i t h it on an
emotional level. T h i s o f t e n i n v olves f e e lings of de p r es si on and despair. W h e n the affect has been
confronted, the person, by the p ro c e s s of i d e nt if ic at io n and i n t er na li za ti on of his or her most i mp o r t a n t
qualities, gives up the attachment. A s y m b io ti c r e la ti on sh ip is the mos t d if f i c u l t from w h i c h to w i t h d r a w .
A d o l e s c e n t - p a r e n t a l s e p ar a t i o n is a natural part of the life cycle. It is initiated by d e v e l o pm en t in
c a pa bi li ti es for s e l f - s u fficiency, c o g n it io n and the desire for independence. It is e nc o u r a g e d by the culture, e s p e c i a l l y the p e e r g r oup that shares in the experience. Th i s s ep ar a t i o n is also d i f f er en t in that it is not the c om pl e t e d is e n g a g e m e n t of the
relationship, but is a c h a n g e from c h i l d - p a r e n t r e la ti on sh ip to a more equal or s ymmetri al
a d ul t- to - a d u l t relationship. In o r der to make this
change, m an y n ee d s that were p r e v i o u s l y fulfilled by the p a r e n t -c hi ld r e l a t i o n s h i p mu s t be w it h d r a w n before other ways of r el at in g can be established. In essence,
ce r tain e x p ectations, ways of r e s p o n d i n g and
f u lf il lm en ts mu s t die. The p ow er f u l p ar en t- ch il d
r e la ti on sh ip so n e c e s s a r y to child d e v e l o p m e n t must now die in o rd e r to a ll o w the young adult to pursue
i n de pe nd en tl y his or her future.
Fa c i n g the d e at h of the p ar e n t - c h i l d rela t i o n s h i p is a b er e a v e m e n t p r o c e s s w hi c h includes e s s e n t i a l l y the same m a j or t asks faced by all those w h o grieve. This p ro c e s s c a n be a mi l d r esponse or a po w e r f u l
o v er w h e l m i n g one; it c a n be a d e v e l o pm en ta l exp e r i e n c e or a c o n s t r i c t i n g one. F ur t h e r u nd e r s t a n d i n g of the
parent-child rela t i o n s h i p and the s e p a r a t i o n process involves expl o r i n g the v a r i a b l e s that m a y have an impact on the b e reavement p r o c e s s (Bloom, 1980, p p . 22-23), The v ariables that affect the g r i eving p r o ce s s during
s e p a r a t i o n- i n di vi d ua ti o n are control of the impulse to remain attached; c o g n i t i v e realiz a t i o n of the
s e p a r a t i o n - i n di vi d ua ti o n process; a f f e c t i v e response to the s e p a r a t i o n - i n di vi d ua ti on process and the need to make sense of this process; i d e n t if ic at io n of the important g r a t i f i c at io n s that the p a r e n t - c h i l d rela t i o n s h i p pr o v i d e s and p r o v i s i o n s of these
g r a t i f i c a t i o n s for themselves; a new i d e n t i t y and a new r e l a t i o n s h ip wit h their parents and others.
Essential to u n d e r s t a n d in g i nd iv id ua ti on is the notion that it is a process. I n d i v i d u at io n has been d efined by Karpel (1976) as:
the process by wh i c h a p e rson b e c om e s
i nc r e a s i n g l y d i f f e r e n t i a t e d from a pas t or pre s e n t r e l ational context. This p r o c e s s e n c o mp a s s e s a m u l t i t u d e of i n t r a p s y c h i c and in t e r p e r s o n a l c h a n g e s that share a c o mmon d i r e c t i o n (p.66).
e x c l u s i v e l y wi t h sep a r a t i o n or aut o n o m y but rather with the c o n t i n u i n g e m b e d d e dn es s of the individual in
r e l a t i o n s h ip s wi t h others (Karpel, 1976; Youniss, 1983). C o n c e i v i n g of the i n di vi d u a t i o n p r o cess as an extension of f a m i l y d e ve lo p m e n t r e q u i r e s that the family be
an a l y z e d as a s i g n i f i c a n t c o d e t e r m i n a n t of Individual d e v e l o p m e n t (Sabatelli & Allison, 1988; Hill &
Matessich, 1979; H o o p e r & Hooper, 1985). A recent body of r es ea rc h c on si d e r e d the nature of p ar e n t - c h i l d
i nt er ac ti on s in r e l a t i o n sh ip to a do le s c e n t individuation (Bell & Bell, 1982; G r o t e v a n t & Cooper, 1985; H a u s e r et a l , 1984; White, Spe i s m a n & Costas, 1983). T hese
s t u dies s u g gest that there is a need to examine the i nt er re l a t i o n s h i p s a m ong fa m i l y dynamics, indivi d u a t i o n and p s y c h os oc ia l development.
Impact of F a m i ly R e l a t i o n s h ip s on A d ol es ce nt s * D ev e l o p m e n t
R e l a t i o n s h i p s may be a l t ered or at least redefined d u ri ng i m p o r t a n t t ra ns it i o n s since they are an e s s e ntial as p e c t of s e l f - de fi ni ti on s (Hartup, 1987; Hinde, 1979, 1989). Since i nd i v i d u a l s facing an important life event or e x p e r i e n c i n g a life t r a n si ti on are emb e d d e d in
r el a t i o n a l systems. The d y n am ic i nt er a c t i o n s b e t ween p er so na l d ev e l o p m e n t and the cha n g i n g e c o lo gy of human
life have been i llustrated most e x t e n s iv el y in respect to the family. The study of d yn am i c p er so n - c o n t e x t relations has been e x t e n d e d into a d o l e s c e n c e and
involves the c o n s i de ra ti on of the i n t er re l a t i o n s of the family, p eer and school contexts. The fami l y is a
dynamic context, one w he r e i n a child is both t r a n s f o rm er and the transformed. The family is a s y stem of
d e v eloping individuals. As the ch i l d moves through adolescence, family mem b e r s are faced wit h the t ask of changing their r e l a t i o n s h i p in w ays t hat reflect
increasing s y m m e t r y in their c o n t r i b u t i o n s to the relationship. This r e la ti on sh ip is an e n d ur in g bond that c ontinues t h r o u g h o u t the life span (Youniss, 1983) but unde r g o e s t r a n s f o r m at io ns in a d ol es ce nc e and young adul t h o o d (Hill & Steinberg, 1976; W h i t e et a l , 1983) as it is r e n e g o t i a t e d from p a t t er ns or r e l at iv el y
u n i l ateral a u t h o r it y towards m ut u a l i t y (Youniss, 1983). The q ua l i t y of f am i l y r e l at io ns hi ps c on t i n u e s to be a major factor c o n t r i b u t i n g to the d ev e l o p m e n t of
c om pe t e n c e in adolescence. A l t h o u g h p a r e n t s co n t i n u e to monitor, guide and e v a l u a t e them, young a d o l e s c e n t s are also b eg i n n i n g to s eek p e e r - l i k e r e l a t i o n s h i p s with their p ar e n t s (Hill, 1980; Youniss, 1980). A s well,
t h e y are seeking pe e r r e l a t io n s h i p s w h ich serve as an e x ternal refer e n c e that al l o w s them to see how they are s i m i l a r and d i f f e r e nt from others. A do le sc e n c e is a "second individu a t i o n " p r o c e s s (Bios, 1979) in w h i c h the a d o l es c e n t must seek new a tt ac hm e n t s o u t side the family e n v i r o n m e n t .
E m e r g i n g formal o p e r a t i o n a l thinking allows the a d o l e sc en t to r e f lect up o n the q u e st io n of existing family n or m s and p r a c t i c e s (Elkind, 1967). From a r e la t i o n a l point of view, Y o u n i ss (1980) presented
e vi de n c e that e arly a d o l e s c en ts are first becoming aware of the two s oc ia l- n o r m a t i v e worlds in which they
s im u l t a n e o u s l y participate: (a) their c o o p e r a ti ve r e l a t i o n s h i p s wi t h peers, (b) the more unilateral r e l at io ns hi ps wi t h t h eir parents. A cri t i c a l task of a do l e s c e n c e is to a ch i e v e an integr a t i o n of these two d i s c r e p a n t wor l d s into a s y s t e m of p e rsonal values
(Emme r i c h et a l , 1971) and to attain the c a pacity to p a r t i c i p a t e in a d ult r e l a t i o n s both w i t h i n and outside the fa m i l y (White et a l , 1983; Youniss, 1980).
P r ev i o u s r e s e a rc h has tended to focus on the f ac t o r s that influ e n c e a d o l es ce nt d ev e l o p m e n t and the s e p a r a t i o n - i n d i v i d u a t i o n process. O n l y a limited p o r t i o n of this r e s e a rc h has exa m i n e d the influence of
family s tructure on this process. Changes in the family structure such as divorce, sep a r a t i o n and death may have implications for future a d a p t a t i o n of a d o l e s c e n t s to their new living arra n g e m e n t s and their successful c o mp l e t i o n of the s ep ar at i on -i n d i v i d u a t i o n process. Emery (1982) e x p lored the r e l a t i o n s h i p of marital turmoil to behavioral p r o bl em s of children. Emery
conc l u d e d that parental c o n f l i ct was d etrimental to the ado l e s c e n t d e v e l o p m e n t p r o c e s s irrespective of w h e th er the a d o l es ce nt lives in an intact or d i vorced household. Therefore, parental c o n fl ic t in a f a t h e r - deceased
h ousehold may be an a dd it i o n a l factor leading to prema t u r e and unhe a l t h y a d o l e s c e n t separation- in dividuation .
Several writers (Bios, 1967; Steinberg, 1990) have s uggested that apparent d i st ur ba nc es in re l a t i o n s h i p s may serve the p o s itive f u n c t i o n of facilitating
a d o l e s c e n t s ’ inde p e n d e n c e and d im i n i s h i n g d e p en de nc e on parents. In the process of the att a i n m e n t of
independence, parents are e x p e c t e d to be aware of the a d o l e s c e n t s ’ ind i v i d u a t i o n in order to e n able t h e m to separate yet still e ns u r e the con f i d e n c e that t hey can turn to their parents in time of nee d (Grotevant & Cooper, 1986). A study by S hu lm an & Klein (1982)
indicated that family p a tterns that lacked closeness or s upport for a d o l e s c e n t s ’ independent strivings were common in a sample of m a l ad ju st ed 12 to 18 year olds. Family intera c t i o n patterns that foster both
in d i v i d u a t i o n and c o n n e c t e d n e s s in relatio n s h i p s have been found to be a s s o c i a t e d with a d o l e s c e n t s ’ improved status on m e a s u r e s of identity exploration, role-taking skills and ego d e v e l o p me nt (Grotevant & Cooper, 1985, 1986; H a u s e r et a l , 1984). During late a dolescence the p e r c e p t i o n s of a low level of parental acceptance may be less salient, because the late a d o l e s c e n t may have
e s t a b l i s h e d s u p p o r t r e l a t i o n s h i p s outs i d e the family which will serve further d e v e l o p m e n t (Johnson et a l , 1991).
Joh n s o n et al (1991) posed a s i g n i f i c a n t q u e stion as to w h e t he r or not incong r u e n t p arenting patterns between m o t h e r s and fathers a f f e c t psychosocial d e v e l o p m e n t in adolescence. These diffe r e n c e s in p a r e n t i n g p a t t e r n s may crea t e d y s f u n c t i o n a l systemic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s that can impair psyc h o s o c i a l
development. These p a r e n t i n g pa t t e r n s were often linked to p s y c h o s o c i a l o u t comes in the areas of self-esteem, school a d a p t a t i o n and school achievements. These results are c o n s i st e nt w i t h other findings indicating
that a combi n a t i o n of ac c e p t a n c e and the structure of the family system provides the most supportive
e n vironment for psyc h o s o c i a l d e v e l o p m e n t
(Shulman, S e l f f g e -K r en ke & Samet, 1987; Hill, 1987). H e t h e r i n g t o n , Cox & Cox (1982) d is c u s s e d the impact of the presence of a more stable parent, in c o n trast to an e m o t i o n a l l y u n s t a b l e or i ncompetent parent, on the
developing adolescent.
The influence of family struc t u r e on the
devel o p m e n t of a u t o n o m y during a d o l e s c e n c e was examined by Sessa & Stei n b e r g (1991). T h e y p r o p o s e d that
changes in family structure which occur prior to a dolescence may a f f e c t the d e v e l o p m e n t of autonomy during a d o l es c e n c e in two ways: (a) t hey trigger the autonomy process; and (b) they can t r a n s f o r m the con t e x t
in which the d e v e lo p me nt a l tasks of a d o l e s ce nc e take place. A dj u s t m e n t to the loss of a p a r e n t as a result of divorce, or the a d d i t i o n of a p a rent thr o u g h remarriage,
creates newly ali g n e d family r e l a t i o n s that differ from those in intact, two - p a r e n t families. Consequently, a ccording to Sessa & S teinberg the d e v e lo pm en t of autonomy and the related t r a n s f o r m a t io ns in parent- ado l e s c e n t r e l a t i o n s h i p s in r e s t r uc tu re d families may follow a d i f f er en t d i r e ct io n than in intact families.
P r e vious research which focused on c h i l d r e n ’s a d ju s t m e n t to familial change led to inferences about ne g a t i v e effects on c h i l d r e n and adoles c e n t s (Ganony & Coleman, 1987: H e t h e r in gt on et al, 1989). Sessa & S t e i nb er g (1991) attem p t e d to provide a theoretical
fo u n d a t i o n for u n d e r s t a n d i n g the influence of changes in fa mily structure on the develo p m e n t of autonomy. They suggested that these a l t e r at i o n s in the family structure m od i f y the normative process of autonomy, though not n ec e s s a r i l y in an u nd es ir a b l e way.
On l y one publi s h e d study, that of Anderson, H e t h e r in gt on &. C l i n ge mp ee l (1989) has spec i f i c a l l y
ex a m in ed the relations bet w e e n d e velopmental transitions and family structure. In this study, the nature of the d ev e l o pm e n ta l t r a ns fo r ma ti on s of early a do le s c e n t family r el a t i on s h ip s v a ried as a function of h o u s e h o l d
composition. D e v el o pm en t appeared to follow a different course in n o n t r a d i t i on al homes than in traditional
homes. The d y n a m i c s w i t h i n the p a r e n t - a d o l es ce nt dyads d i f f e r e d acco r d i n g to the gender of both the child or a d o l es c e nt and parent, and a ccording to the type of m ar i t a l change.
M a n y of the most i mp o r t a n t issues inherent in family t r a n s i t i o n s involve the r e n e g o t i a t i o n of the
interpersonal r e l ationships (Emery, 1988). This
realignment of family relations is con s i d e r e d to be a hallmark of the d e v e l o p m e n t of au t o n o m y (Steinberg, 1990) .
In the process of red e f i n i n g these family
relationships, there are t em p o r a r y d i s t u r b a n c e s in the p a re nt - a d o l e s c e n t r e l a t i o n s h i p (Collins, 1990; Hill, 1980; Steinberg, 1990). Both internal and external processes introduce the instab i l i t y n e c e ss ar y for initiating or f a c i litating the d e v el o p m e n t a l tasks of adolescence. The internal proce s s e s include cha n g e s within the a d o l escent such as intrapsychic, c o g n i t i v e and b i o l ogical changes; and the external p r o c e s s e s
include changes in the a d o l e s c e n t ’s e n v i r o n m e n t such as i nterpersonal relationships, role responsibilities, family c o m p o s i t i o n and financial stress. W h e n the c o nflict created by these internal and e x t ernal
p roce s s e s occurs w i t h i n p a r e n t - a d o l e s c e n t r e l a t i o n s h i p s that are warm, e m o t i o n a l l y a c ce pt in g and s u p p or ti ve of i nde p e n d e n c e and individuality, h e a l t h y a u t o n o m o u s
d e v e l o p m e n t is promoted (Campbell, Adams &. Dobson, 1984; Hill 8l Holrabeck, 1986; Steinberg, 1990).
The a c c u m u l a t i o n of m u l t i p l e life c h a n g e s greatly i ncreases the d i s r u p t i o n of p s y c h o l o g i c a l p r o c es se s
{Hetherington, 1981) and the risk of p s ychiatric p ro b l e m s (Rutter, 1980). Divorce cre a t e s a highly chaotic, s tressful e n v i r o n m e n t in w h i c h multiple life c hanges are o c c u r r i n g (Emery, 1988). The intensity of the tension a s s o c i a t e d with c h a n g i n g percep t i o n s of parents, inc r e a s i n g inde p e n d e n c e and sel f - r e l i a n c e and r e n e g o t i a t i n g family r e l a t i o n s h i p s may be mul t i p l i e d by marital c h ange and can m ake the dev e l o p m e n t a l process of s e p a r a t i o n - i n d i v i d u a t i o n a more d i f f i c u l t change.
However, the c o - o c c u r r e n c e of marital c h ange and the c h a l l e n g e s p o s e d by the in d i v i d u a t i o n process may not increase the inten s i t y of this d e v e l o p m e n t task. It may act as a b u f f e r from the c o n f l i c t frequently ass o c i a t e d with d i v o r c e (H e t h e r i n g t o n & Anderson, 1987).
I n d i v i d u a t i o n issues a p pear to be m ore d ifficult for girls t han boys due to mothers' s t r onger
i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h their d au g h t e r s (Chodorow, 1978). C u s t o d i a l m o t h e r s ’ i d e n t i f i c a t i o n wit h their daugh t e r s may be i n t e n s i f i e d by the s o c i o e m o t i o n a l c o n s e q u e n c e s of divorce, m a k i n g a d o l e s ce nt s ep ar a t i o n and individuation more difficult. A c c o r d i n g to W a l l e rs te in & Kelly
(1980), d i v o r c e d m o t h e r s ’ sense of isolation can lead them to s eek s u p p o r t from and a lly mor e c l o s e l y with d a u g h t e r s .
