The relationships between motor skills, perceptions of competence, and participation in active recreation and physical activities

The relationships between motor skills, perceptions of competence, and participation in active recreation and physical activities

by Elnaz Mirjafari

B.Sc, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, 2011 A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment

of the Requirements for the Degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE

in the School of Exercise Science, Physical and Health Education

 Elnaz Mirjafari, 2015 University of Victoria

All rights reserved. This thesis may not be reproduced in whole or in part, by photocopy or other means, without the permission of the author.

ii Supervisory Committee

The relationship between motor skills, perceptions of competence, and participation in active recreation and physical activities

by Elnaz Mirjafari

B.Sc, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, 2011

Supervisory Committee

Dr. Viviene Temple, School of Exercise Science, Physical and Health Education

Supervisor

Dr. Patti-Jean Naylor, School of Exercise Science, Physical and Health Education

iii Abstract

Supervisory Committee

Dr. Viviene Temple, School of Exercise Science, Physical and Health Education

Supervisor

Dr. Patti-Jean Naylor, School of Exercise Science, Physical and Health Education

Departmental Member

There is growing interest in determining the nature of children’s activity profiles. Recreational activities are considered to be a vital part of the development of children (King et al., 2003). Participation in recreation positively influences the development of skills and competences, social relationships, and long-term physical health (Law et al., 2006). Recently, the importance of fundamental motor skills and perceived physical competence towards lifetime participation in movement and physical activity has gained increased attention (Robinson, 2011). Stodden et al. (2008) proposed a model in which the reciprocal and dynamic relationship between motor skill competence and physical activity was central. Stodden and colleagues’ posited that in middle-childhood motor skill proficiency directly influences participation and also indirectly influences participation via perceptions of physical competence. The aim of this study was to examine the relationship between motor skill proficiency (MS), perceptions of physical competence (PPC) and participation in active recreation and physical activities by boys and girls in grade 2. Participants were 398 grade 2 children (mean age= 7 years 8 months, girls = 201) from eight elementary schools. Locomotor skills (LM) and object control skills (OC) were assessed in physical education using the Test of Gross Motor Development-2 (TGMD-2). Participation in recreation and physical activities was assessed using the Children's Assessment of Participation and Enjoyment (CAPE). Perceptions of physical competence were assessed using the Pictorial Scale of Perceived Competence and Social Acceptance (PSPCSA). Descriptive statistics were calculated for five dimensions (diversity, intensity, with whom, where, and enjoyment) of participation, PPC, OC, and LM; and analyses of variance (ANOVA) were used to examine differences between boys and girls for all variables. Pearson product moment correlation coefficients were computed to examine the relationships between motor skills, perceptions of physical competence, and participation in CAPE activity categories of all

iv children and boys and girls separately. Linear regression was used to predict the participation from motor skills and PPC. Overall children participated in more recreational activities and social activities than active recreational pastimes and organized sports. There were no differences between the rate of boys’ and girls’ participation in recreational activities, physical activities, organized sport, and active physical recreation. Girls participated in social activities, skill-based activities, and self-improvement activities more than boys. Girls’ locomotor proficiency and PPC were significantly higher than boys, while boys’ object control proficiency was significantly higher than girls. The relationships between motor skills and participation in CAPE activity categories was consistent and notable for boys, particularly between object control skills and the more active categories of participation. Whereas, there were only two significant relationships between motor skills and participation for girls; object control skills was significantly associated with participation in physical activities and active physical recreation. For boys, PPC was positively associated with all CAPE activity categories except for engagement in self-improvement activities. For girls, PPC was positively associated with participation in social activities, skill-based activities, and active physical recreation. Regression analysis revealed that PPC accounted for 4% of the shared variance in girls’ participation in active physical recreation. For boys, PPC and object control skills accounted for 12.3% of the shared variance in participation in active physical recreation, and object control skills accounted for 5% of the variance in organized sport. These findings illustrate that children participated most often in less physically active recreational activities. There were notable sex-based differences in the relationships between MS, PPC, and participation in CAPE activities. For girls there were few significant relationships between motor skills, perceptions of physical competence and CAPE activity categories. In this study findings suggest that for grade 2 boys, participation in leisure activities is affected by motor skills directly. But this model was not significant for girls. For girls, only perceptions of physical competence predicted active physical recreation. However, findings of the present study suggest that childhood object control proficiency and perceptions of physical competence predicted subsequent time spent in leisure activities, at least for boys. In relation to the Stodden et al. model of developmental mechanisms influencing physical activity trajectories, this study suggests that object control skills may be playing both a direct and indirect role in boys’ participation in active physical recreation and

v a direct role in their participation in organized sport. For girls in grade 2, the influence of motor skill proficiency is less evident, but their perceptions of competence may play somewhat of a role in their participation in active physical recreation.

vi Table of Contents Supervisory Committee ... ii Abstract ... iii Table of Contents ... vi List of Tables ... ix List of Figures ... x Acknowledgement ... xi Dedication ... xiii Chapter 1 ... 1

Introduction and Rationale ... 1

1.1) Perceptions of physical competence ... 3

1.2) The influence of gender ... 4

1.3) Purpose ... 5

1.4) Questions ... 5

1.5) Operational Definition ... 6

1.5.1) Participation ... 6

1.5.2) Perceptions of competence ... 7

1.5.3) Fundamental motor skills ... 7

1.6) Assumption ... 7

1.7) Limitations ... 7

Chapter 2 ... 9

Literature Review... 9

2.1) Children's participation in active recreation and leisure activities ... 10

vii

2.2.1) Gender differences in participation in active recreation ... 13

2.3) Gross motor skill development ... 14

2.3.1) Measurement of Fundamental Motor Skills ... 16

2.3.2) Gender differences in fundamental movement skills ... 18

2.4) Perceptions of physical competence ... 19

2.4.1) Measurement of perceptions of competence ... 21

2.4.2) Gender differences in perceptions of physical competence ... 22

2.5) The relationship between motor skill proficiency, perceptions of competence and recreation participation ... 22

2.6) Summary ... 25

Chapter 3 ... 28

Method ... 28

Study design and sampling frame ... 28

Participants ... 29

Measures ... 29

Test of Gross Motor Development- second edition (TGMD-2) ... 29

The Children's Assessment of Participation and Enjoyment (CAPE) ... 31

Pictorial Scale of Perceived Competence and Social Acceptance ... 33

Procedure ... 35

Administration of the TGMD-2, CAPE, and PPC ... 35

The Children's Assessment of Participation and Enjoyment (CAPE) ... 38

Pictorial Scale of Physical Competence (PPC) ... 41

Data analysis ... 41

Results ... 43

viii

Patterns of participation in physically active recreation of boys and girls ... 43

Chapter 5 ... 58

Discussion ... 58

Patterns of participation in physically active recreation of boys and girls ... 58

Implications of patterns of participation ... 64

Motor skill proficiency, perceptions of physical competence and sex-based differences ... 66

The relationship between motor skill proficiency, perceptions of physical competence, and recreation participation ... 69

Limitations ... 73

Conclusion and implications and future directions ... 73

Appendix A ... 85

Appendix B ... 86

CAPE, Item descriptions and distribution ... 86

Appendix C ... 88

Pictorial Scale of Perceived Competence and Social Acceptance ... 88

Appendix D Consent forms ... 89

Appendix E ... 93

Notes for test administration ... 93

Appendix F... 96

ix List of Tables Table 1 ... 39 Table 2 ... 40 Table 3 ... 44 Table 4 ... 45 Table 5 ... 48 Table 6 ... 49 Table 7 ... 52 Table 8 ... 53 Table 9 ... 55 Table 10 ... 56 Table 11 ... 57 Table 12 ... 67

x List of Figures

Figure 1. Extract of a model developed by Stodden et al. (2008; 2013) illustrating developmental mechanisms influencing physical activity trajectories of children. ... 2 Figure 2:The proportion of children participating in each category in the previous 4 months. . 44 Figure 3: Mean and 95% confidence intervals of the interaction between gender and

xi Acknowledgement

Success is more than arriving. It is also attempting; more than realizing. It is also reaching. Success is a wicked difficult climb. The road to success is not straight. Special thanks to my lovely parents (Mina Makoulati and Ali Mirjafari), who have made this road so smooth for me. I am thankful for all the things that you have given me. Thanks for your great supports emotionally and financially. If I did not have your great support I would not be where I am now. You are very precious to me. You have made a lot of efforts and tolerated all difficulties to see your children’s success. I am proud of you. I hope I get the chance to give back all your kindness. I consider myself so lucky to have parents who share such a good chemistry of love, happiness, care, and respect. Thank you MOM and DAD for making my life’s journey so precious.

Special thanks to my supervisor Dr. Viviene Temple who has helped in the preparation and completion of this thesis. Thanks for your insight, guidance, support, and helping to make this enjoyable. Thanks for being patient and taking my hand to pass this challenging road. All help that you have given me is completely appreciated.

Special thanks to my lovely sister (Parissa Mirjafari), who has given me a lot of help. Having a sister is like having a best friend forever. I am so lucky to have such a kind, patient, and lovely sister. Thanks for being beside me on this challenging road. Thanks for sharing your time. You had a great role in my success. Thanks for everything.

Thanks to Dr. Patti-Jean Naylor for your expertise in research methods.

Thanks to Jeff Crane, Veronica Planella, Chris Lim, and Anne Cirillo for your great support, guidance, and help. Thanks for all the help that you have given me. Thanks for being such a nice and helpful friend.

Special thanks to Kamran Karimi (My brother in law) for his great support. Thank you so much for being such a kind and supportive friend.

Special Thanks to my aunt (Maryam Makoulati) and my uncles (Mohammad Mirjafari and Asghar Makoulati) for your kind support.

xii Last but not least, thanks to Buffy-Lynne Williams for your help to collect the data. Thanks to all people who had a great role in completion of this thesis.

xiii Dedication

To my family for their endless love, support and encouragement.

1 Chapter 1

Introduction and Rationale

The proportion of Canadian children who meet the Canadian Physical Activity Guidelines remains alarmingly low (Colley et al., 2013). These guidelines indicate that children aged 5 - 11 years should accumulate at least 60 minutes of moderate-to vigorous-intensity physical activity daily (Tremblay et al., 2011). Unfortunately, only seven percent of children five to eleven years of age meet that guideline (Colley et al., 2013). In part, children accumulate moderate-vigorous physical activity through recreational and leisure activities. Participation in recreational and leisure activities are a vital part of children's development and well-being (King et al., 2003; Larson, 2000) and helps children develop skills and competencies, form relationships and friendships, optimize mental and physical health, express creativity, develop a self-identity, and determine meaning and purpose in life (King et al., 2007). Therefore, ensuring that children have opportunities to participate in recreation and leisure is an important goal.

Children’s participation in physically active recreation and leisure is influenced by factors that are proximal to the individual, such as the child’s own interest, whether their family can afford the activity, and support from parents and siblings; as well as factors that are more distal to the individual such as the children's fitness tax credit, increased use of technology, and the influence of the media (Crane & Temple, 2015; Ferreira et al., 2007; Laizzo-Mourey & McGinnis, 2003; Sallis, Prochaska, & Taylor, 2000). This study focuses on person-level (i.e. proximal) factors. Specifically, this study focuses on the influence of gender, motor skill proficiency, and the children’s perceptions of their physical competence on participation in physically active recreational activities.

Children move and engage in physically active recreational activities through the execution of fundamental motor skills (FMS). Fundamental motor skills are considered the building blocks for more advanced movement and sports-specific skills (Clark & Metcalfe, 2002; Robinson & Goodway, 2009). FMS enable children to apply basic motor skills to participate in sports and games that require more advanced movements during the school-age years and throughout the lifespan (Clark, 1994). Fundamental motor skills are often broken down into three categories: locomotor skills that involve moving the body through space (i.e. run, jump, hop, leap, slide, gallop), object control skills that entail using the hands and feet to manipulate and/or project

2 objects (i.e. throw, catch, kick, dribble, roll, strike and catch) and non-locomotor skills that involve axial movements and movements of balance executed with minimal or no movement of the base of support (i.e. bending, twisting, and swaying; Haywood & Getchell, 2009). It is essential for young children to achieve basic competence in motor skills in order to break through a hypothetical 'proficiency barrier' (Seefeldt, 1980) that will lead to successful engagement in various forms of movement, sport, recreation and physical activities (Clark & Metcalfe, 2002). Thus motor skills provide the tools for children to be active. This direct relationship between motor skill proficiency and participation in physical activities has also been modeled by Stodden and colleagues (2008, see Figure 1).

Figure 1. Extract of a model developed by Stodden et al. (2008; 2013) illustrating

developmental mechanisms influencing physical activity trajectories of children.

Consistent with the ‘proficiency barrier’ hypothesized by Seedfelt (1980), Stodden and colleagues’ (2008) model shows that in middle childhood (MC) there is a direct relationship between motor competence and physical activity, with those with better gross motor proficiency being more active and children with less proficient motor skills engaging in less physical activity. Stodden et al. (2008) explain that the latter creates a "negative spiral of engagement" (p. 297) in children with low levels of fundamental movement skills. Better motor skill proficiency is associated with greater sport participation (Ulrich, 1987) and higher levels of physical activity

Actual motor proficiency Physical activities Perceptions of motor competence Early childhood Middle childhood

3 behaviour (Crane et al., 2015; Wrotniak et al., 2006) in children. The Stodden et al. (2008) model also shows that motor skill proficiency can influence participation in physical activity during middle childhood indirectly via perceptions of motor competence.

1.1) Perceptions of physical competence

Perceptions of competence as Harter (1982) defined them are an individuals' belief about their ability in an achievement domain, such as physical activity or sports. Perceived physical competence along with fundamental movement skills play an essential role in children’s motivation to learn and their engagement in current and future motor behaviours (Robinson et al., 2009; Valentini & Rudisill, 2004). A child’s perceptions of his/her motor competence is a developmental phenomenon that changes across developmental time (Harter, 1999). Young children demonstrate limited accuracy in perceiving their motor skill competence (Harter, 1999; Harter & Pike, 1984) and tend to evaluate themselves very positively and even unrealistically (Weiss, 2004). By middle childhood, children have higher levels of cognitive development than in early childhood and begin to more accurately compare themselves to their peers. Consequently, the perceived motor skill competence of children in middle childhood should theoretically more closely approximate their actual motor skill competence (Harter, 1999). In middle and late childhood (aged 8-11 years), children tend to exhibit more realistic evaluation of the self (Weiss, 2004) and have the ability to “see” or perceive differentiation between subdomains (e.g. scholastic, physical, social) in regard to their relational competencies (Harter, 1986). A major cognitive-developmental advance at this age is the realization that one’s self-attributes can be both positive and negative (Harter, 2012).

The shift from early childhood to middle childhood marks the beginning of a period of vulnerability during which children who have lower actual motor skill competence will demonstrate lower perceived motor skill competence and are less physically active (Stodden et al., 2008). Children with high perceived competence exhibit higher self-esteem, exert greater effort and select tasks that challenge their ability (Weiss & Amorose, 2005). Perceived competence is closely related to motivational indicators, such as choosing to participate and continuing interest in an activity (Babic et al., 2014). Children who perceive themselves as being able to deal adequately with task demands within a physical activity environment are more likely to continue their participation, while children who perceive themselves as having lower

4 competence are more likely to withdrawal or avoid initial participation (Weiss & Amorose, 2005). This indirect relationship between motor skill competence and participation in physical activity (i.e. via perceptions of competence) is a second way in which motor proficiency influences participation. There is some evidence that this indirect relationship is important among older children and adolescents (Barnett et al., 2008). Also, as would be expected, this indirect relationship is not evident in early childhood when children’s perceptions of physical competence tend to be unrealistic (Crane et al., 2015).

1.2) The influence of gender

The Stodden et al. (2008) model does not consider the influence of gender. However, gender differences in participation in physical activity, recreational choices, motor skill proficiency, and perceptions of physical competence have been demonstrated in the literature. In childhood and adolescence, boys are generally more proficient than girls in object control skill performance such as throwing, kicking, and catching (Barnett et al., 2008; LeGear et al., 2012). However, some of the studies revealed that boys’ locomotor proficiency has been reported as lower than girls (Barnett et al., 2008; Barnett et al., 2002) and some studies found no differences between boys and girls in locomotor skill performance in either childhood or adolescence (Barnett et al., 2010; Hume et al., 2008). Gender differences in motor proficiency can be explained by environmental influences, biological factors, or their interaction. Before puberty, the physical characteristics of boys and girls are similar, and environmental influences are more likely to explain gender differences in motor proficiency (Thomas et al., 1985). The type of sports and games that boys and girls are drawn to participate in, gives them more opportunity to practice and refine their motor skills and may contribute to gender differences. For example, Temple and colleagues (2014) found that sex-based differences between children in kindergarten (average age = 5 years and 11 months) were evident for types of activities, specific activities, object control skills, and static balance. In their study girls participated in significantly more social activities such as having friends over to play and skill-based activities such as learning to dance and gymnastics. Girls’ static balance was better than boys’, but boys’ object control skills scores were significantly higher than girls’. There is also a gender-related link between perceived physical competence and physical activity. This association seems to be related to boys being more physically active and perceiving themselves to have greater strength and sport competence than their female counterparts (Crocker et al., 2000).

5 In summary, there are two mechanisms related to motor skill proficiency that may explain higher or lower levels of participation in physical activities. The first is the direct influence of motor skills on participation, where motor skills are the tools for participation. In middle and later childhood, higher levels of motor skill competence offer a greater motor repertoire to engage in various physical activities, sports and games. The second mechanism is indirect, via perceptions of physical competence. Among older children (8 and 12 years) studies demonstrate an association between perceived physical competence and physical activity participation. For example, Carroll and Loumidis (2001) found that children who reported high perceived physical competence also demonstrated higher physical activity frequency and intensity compared with those with low perceived physical competence. Research also shows that poor motor skills are associated with low perceptions of physical competence (Lubans et al., 2010). Stodden and colleagues (2008) argue that moderately to highly skilled children will self-select higher levels of physical activity, whereas children with less-proficient levels of motor skill competence will engage in lower levels of physical activity because of how they perceive their motor competence. This relationship between motor skills proficiency, perceptions of competence, and participation in active recreation and physical activities appeared to be gender specific. For example, Barnett and colleagues (2008) found that boys who had a higher level of object control proficiency were more active and had higher level of perceptions of their sport competence than girls. This study will examine grade 2 boys’ and girls’ motor skill proficiency, perceptions of physical competence, and participation in physically active recreational activities; and whether the relationships between these factors are influenced by gender.

1.3) Purpose

The aim of this study is to examine the relationships between participation in active recreation, motor skills, and perceptions of physical competence in grade 2 children. In this study sex-based differences are also going to be examined.

1.4) Questions

The following questions will be considered:

1) What are the patterns of participation in physically active recreation of boys and girls in grade 2?

6 2) What are the motor skill proficiency and perceptions of physical competence of grade 2 boys and girls?

3) Are there any relationships between participation in CAPE (Children’s Assessment of Participation and Enjoyment) activity categories, motor skill proficiency, and perceptions of physical competence among children in grade 2?

4) To what extent do gender, motor skill proficiency, and perceptions of physical competence predict participation in active recreation?

1.5) Operational Definition 1.5.1) Participation

Participation is defined as a child's involvement in day-to-day active recreation and leisure activities outside of mandated school activities (King et al., 2004). Leisure activities are defined as ‘freely chosen activities performed when not involved in self-care or (school) work (King et al., 2003). Leisure activities are divided to two parts: 1) Structured activities include lessons, participation in competitive sports (including practice time), and participation in organizations. 2) Unstructured activities include: active noncompetitive sports, playing games, outdoor activities, passive leisure (including watching television), music and arts, socializing and attending events, shopping for personal items, working on hobbies, and miscellaneous. Organized sport can be defined as a subset of physical activity that is structured, goal-oriented, competitive, and contest-based (McPherson et al., 1989). In this study, ‘participation’ will be defined as organized sport and active physical recreation as measured by the Children's Assessment of Participation and Enjoyment & Preferences for Activities of Children (CAPE; King et al., 2004; see Appendix B and Tables 1 and 2). In the CAPE, Organized Sport is one of the formal domain categories and includes six items (questions 16 - 21) in order: doing martial arts, swimming, doing gymnastics, horseback riding, racing or track and field, and doing team sports. Also according to CAPE definition of active physical activities, it is one of the informal domain categories and includes seven items (questions 31 - 41) which include dancing, going for a walk or hike, bicycling, in-line skating, or skateboarding, doing water sports, doing snow sports, playing on equipment, playing games, gardening, fishing, doing individual physical activities, and playing non-team sports.

7 1.5.2) Perceptions of competence

The construct of perceived competence refers to individuals' beliefs about their ability in an achievement domain, such as physical activity or sports (Harter, 1982). Perceived competence is closely related to motivational indicators, such as choosing to participate and continuing interest in an activity (Babic et al., 2014).

1.5.3) Fundamental motor skills

Fundamental motor skills (FMS), are common motor activities (e.g. run, walk, and jump) (Gabbard, 2011), and the building blocks for the development of higher context-specific skills (Malina & Bouchard & Bar-Or, 2004; Clark & Metcalfe, 2002) and are essential to determine sport and physical activity participation (Clark & Metcalfe, 2002; Stodden et al., 2008). FMS form the foundation for more advanced and specific movement activities (Gabbard, 2011). FMS are composed of object control, locomotor, and non-locomotor skills. In this research, only object control and locomotor skills, two subtests of the Test of Gross Motor Development – 2 (TGMD-2), which measures gross motor abilities that develop early in life and assesses the gross motor functioning in children 3 through 10 years of age (Ulrich, 2000), will be considered. Object control skill, which entails using the hands and feet to manipulate and/or project objects (Haywood & Getchell, 2009), is composed of six skills (dribble, catch, throw, strike, overhand throw, and underhand roll). Locomotor skills are composed of six skills (run, gallop, hop, slide, jump, and leap) that involve moving the body through space. Object control and locomotor skills enable individuals to move and actively engage in their environment.

1.6) Assumption

In this research we presumed that children in grade 2 will try their best during the TGMD-2 test. Also that they will try to provide accurate responses to the questions contained in the pictorial scale of perceived competence and social acceptance (PPC), and children's assessment of participation and enjoyment and preferences for activities of children (CAPE).

1.7) Limitations

In this research, in the first year, eight schools were included whereas in the second year, only two of those schools participated. These two schools were the ones with the largest number of participants. Therefore the final sample is more representative of those two schools because they had the greatest number of grade 2 students and because they were included twice.

8 The CAPE assesses participation over a four-month retrospective period, therefore we do not capture all of the children's recreation that is outside that time frame; therefore some seasonal activities would have been missed. In addition, the CAPE captures children’s participation in 55 specific activities and is not open-ended. Therefore children’s participation in activities outside of the 55 activities in not assessed.

9 Chapter 2

Literature Review

Only 7% of Canadian children five to eleven years of age meet Canada's physical activity guidelines for children (Colley et al., 2013). The 2013 Active Healthy Kids Canada Report Card on Physical Activity for Children and Youth (Active Healthy Kids Canada, 2013) points to the need for most Canadian children and youth to make important changes to their physical activity patterns, including increasing active play and participation in organized sport. Research suggests that motor skill competence and how children feel about their skills is the key to understanding participation in physical activity. Developmental theorists suggest these relationships change from early childhood to middle childhood (Stodden et al., 2008).

Further, sex-based differences might be evident among motor skills, perceptions of physical competence, and participation in active recreation and leisure activities. For example, Temple and colleagues (2014) in a study examining recreational activities and motor skills of children in kindergarten indicated that there are notable sex-based differences in the relationships between participation and motor skill proficiency, and in the same cohort LeGear et al. (2012) found that boys with greater proficiency had higher perceptions of their physical competence, and girls' perceptions of physical competence were related to their locomotor skill proficiency, but not to their proficiency with object control skills. These results point to a need to consider how gender is related to motor skills, perceptions, and participation in active recreation and physical activity. This review of literature is presented in the following sections: (a) children's recreation patterns, (b) gross motor skill development, in particular, focusing on how motor skills influence physical activity, (c) perceptions of physical competence, with an emphasis on its effect on participating in active recreation (d) the relationship between motor skills, perceptions of physical competence, and participation in active recreation and physical activity, and (e) conclusion. In this study sex-based differences in participation in active recreation, perceptions of physical competence, and motor skill proficiency are presented within each section.

The aim of this cross-sectional research, which was a part of a larger longitudinal research project, was to describe the relationships between motor skills, perceptions of physical activity, and participation in active recreation and physical activity, among grade 2 boys and girls. In this study we wanted to see whether children's actual gross motor competence, or the children’s

10 perceptions of their competence, influence their participation in recreation and physical activity in Grade 2, also whether these relationships differ between boys and girls in grade 2.

2.1) Children's participation in active recreation and leisure activities

Participation in challenging and intrinsically motivating recreation and leisure activities is considered to be a vital part of the development of children and youth (Larson, 2000). Children's participation in recreation and leisure activities is associated with their development and well-being (King et al., 2003). Leisure or play activities provide school-age children with opportunities for enjoyment, relaxation, recreation, self-enrichment, and goal achievement. Moreover, leisure is of central importance for building children’s competence, self-determination, and identity as well as for social and personality development (Coastsworth et al., 2005; Shikako-Thomas et al., 2012). A variety of positive developmental processes and related outcomes result from participation in different types of activities, including improved school outcomes (Masten & Coatsworth, 1998) and better social adjustment (Simpkins et al., 2005). Preference for type of physical activities could be one of the key factors in participation patterns. McMullan and colleagues (2012) found that student’ preferences in grade six and eight were more informal activities than formal activities. In the other study, Engel-Yeger and Hanna Kasis (2010) found that children with lower levels of self-efficacy in regard to school/productivity activities and leisure activities have shown lower preference to participate in self-improvement activities and in informal activities. However, lower preference in turn leads to lower participation. Studies show that children with lower preference for physical activities when they are eight participate less in these activities when they are sixteen (Bult et al., 2014).

A recent study by Temple and colleagues (2014) used the Children’s Assessment of Participation and Enjoyment (CAPE; King et al., 2004) to examine five types of activities (including: recreational activities, social activities, self-improvement activities, skill-based activities, and physical activities), organized sports (which is one of the formal domain categories) and active physical recreation (which is one of the informal domain categories) that children in kindergarten participated in for examining the recreational activities and motor skills of children in kindergarten. The study found that boys and girls participation is different in activity types and found that girls participated in significantly more social activities than boys and participation in skill-based activities as well as formal and informal dance was higher than boys. They found that

11 boys significantly participated in team sports to a greater extent than girls. However, they found that locomotor and object control skills were associated with the type of activities the children participated in. For example, they found that locomotor skill proficiency was predicted by taking part in physical activities whereas object control skills were predicted by participation in organized sport. Similarly, King and colleagues (2010) in a study used the CAPE to examine multiple dimensions of participation (e.g. enjoyment, intensity, diversity, and location), the nature of particular activities for differentiating children with and without disability, participation in active physical, skill-based, and self-improvement activities in a study for examining developmental comparison of the out-of-school recreation and leisure activity participation of boys and girls with and without disabilities found that girls participated more intensely in social, skill-based, and self-improvement activities and found these activities more enjoyable than boys, whereas boys participated more intensely in active physical activities than girls. Also these authors found that boys with or without disabilities engaged more in going for a walk or hike and bicycling, in-line skating, or skateboarding than girls without disabilities. In their study children without disabilities participated in more active physical activities, social activities, and skill-based activities and took part more intensely in these activities in comparison with children with disabilities.

Age-related differences might be one of the key factors in participation patterns. King and colleagues (2010) found that in comparison with older children, younger children (aged 6 - 8 years) engaged in active physical, skill-based, and self-improvement activities closer to home, and were less likely to participate in self-improvement activities alone. Consistent with this finding, McMullan and colleagues (2012) found that grade eight students participated in fewer recreational and active-physical activities, and with less intensity than students in grade six. Similarly, King et al.'s (2009b) longitudinal study found that intensity of participation in recreational, active-physical and to a lesser extent, social activities decreased over a three year period among children aged 6 - 14 years.

2.2) Measurement of children’s participation

The international classification of functioning, disability and health (ICF; World Health Organization, 2001), defines 'participation' as the involvement of the person in life situations, and 'context' as those personal factors and environmental characteristics that facilitate or impede

12 participation. Recreation refers to active pursuits that are refreshing or diverting, whereas leisure activities are more passive (Shikako-Thomas et al., 2008). This study focuses on children's participation in recreation, which includes sports, outdoor pursuits, arts and crafts, volunteering, dance, outings, electronic activities, music, dance (King et al., 2007), and leisure activities that are not required for school. In this study, participation is defined as a child's involvement in day-to-day formal and informal activities outside of mandated school activities (King et al., 2004). Formal and informal activities are thought to have different effects on youth's physical, social, emotional, and civic development (Beauvais, 2001). Formal activities refer to structured activities that include rules or goals and have a formally designated coach, leader, or instructor (e.g. organized sports, clubs, groups, and organizations). Informal activities have little or no prior planning and are often initiated by the child. Preferences for activities are a result of the beliefs and values of the people in the social environment of the child, success of earlier experiences of children and the level of enjoyment the child encountered during activities (e.g. active physical activities, social activities, hobbies, crafts, and games; Simpkins et al., 2005).

Different measures are used to determine a child’s participation in physical activities (Pagels, Boldemann, & Raustorp, 2011). Pedometers and accelerometers are motion sensors that can be used for determining the physical activity of children (Pagels, Boldemann, & Raustorp, 2011). For example, pedometers are cost-effective, valid and reliable, providing summary output of ambulatory activity throughout the day, which is useful for screening, intervention, guiding surveillance and evaluation. But they do not yield information on what the children are participating in.

Therefore in this study, Children’s Assessment of Participation and Enjoyment & Preferences for Activities of Children (CAPE; King et al., 2004) was used to measure a children's participation in day-to-day active recreation and leisure activities outside of mandated school activities. The CAPE has been used to examine kindergarten children's participation (Temple et al., 2014) and the participation of Canadian children aged 6 – 8 years, 9 to 11 years, and 12 to 14 years with and without disabilities (King et al., 2010).

The, CAPE is based on two classifications of leisure and recreational participation: a) formal and informal domains b) types of activities. It also measures six dimensions of participation including: diversity, intensity, enjoyment, with whom and where activities take place, and

13 preferences for activities, for providing information about different categories of activity participation. The CAPE has utility as a research tool because it is comprehensive in assessing activity patterns and can be used to examine changes in children’s participation or the effectiveness of interventions over time. The CAPE was designed to be a direct measure of participation. It documents what a child chose, not the child’s competence in performing an activity or the degree of support the child requires to take part. The CAPE was developed to capture the multidimensional nature of participation and focus on participation in formal and informal leisure activities that children engage in outside of mandated school time. The CAPE was designed as discriminatory tools that enable comparisons to be made between individuals (King et al., 2006).

2.2.1) Gender differences in participation in active recreation

Numerous definitions of sex and gender have been used in the literature. For example,

Muehlenhard and Peterson (2011) found that different authors have offered numerous definitions of sex and gender and there are some consistencies among them. All of the definitions construed sex and gender as somehow related to people that society labels as female or male. Most construed gender as more related to cultural influences and sex as more related to biology. Gender, as Denmark and colleagues (2005) noted, "is actually comprised of traits, interests, and behaviours that societies place on or ascribe to each sex" (p. 4).

The literature on children/youth indicates that gender is a major predictor of patterns of recreation participation diversity and intensity (Simpkins et al., 2005). The aim of Simpkins and colleagues' (2005) study was to examine the predictors of participation in recreation and leisure activities (e.g. age, sex, and socio-economic status). Simpkins and colleagues found that a higher number of girls participated in art/lessons than boys in both the childhood and beyond (CAB) and New Hope studies. Also they found greater participation in sports for boys at seven, eight, and eleven years of age in both CAB and New Hope studies. These researchers found that boys (ages seven - nine in CAB and age nine in New Hope) spent more time in sports than girls. Girls and boys also engage in different patterns of activities. Boys’ participation in team sports were significantly higher than girls, whose participation in formal, informal dance, more social activities, and skill-based activities were significantly higher than boys (Temple et al., 2014).

14 Related to patterns of participation, research has also shown that preferences for activities differ as a result of gender (Simpkins et al., 2005). Van Rheenen (2012) in a study examining a century (between 1898 and 1998) of historical change in the game preferences of American children, found that late nineteenth - century boys and girls preferred quite different games with boys preferring to play computer games most frequently while computer games were the second most frequently played activity among girls. Also they found that, in the late 20th - century, basketball and video games were the second and third activity played among boys while swimming and cards were the first and third activity played among girls. By the end of the twentieth - century boys preferred heightened activity - games characterized by enhanced speed, aggression, and role specialization while girls preferred more organized and active games. Also research has shown that boys and girls exhibit differential behaviours during leisure times. For example, boys tend to prefer sports and gaming activities whereas girls prefer more social and skill-based activities (Cherney & London, 2006). However, little is known about the reasons behind these sex-based differences.

2.3) Gross motor skill development

Fundamental movement skills are the building blocks of more complex movements (Payne & Isaacs, 2012). Fundamental movement skills are considered the foundation of the specific skills used in popular forms of adult physical activity (Payne & Isaacs, 2012). A fundamental movement skill is a common motor activity (e.g., walk, run, jump, and throw) that has specific movement patterns (Gabbard, 2012). Fundamental movement behaviours can be classified into three general motor skill groups: locomotor, nonlocomotor, and manipulative. Locomotor skills are movements that transport an individual through space from one place to another (e.g. walking, running, and sliding). Nonlocomotor skills involve axial movements and movements of balance that are performed with minimal or no movement of the base of support (e.g. bending, twisting, and swaying). Manipulative skills are fine motor manual movements and gross motor skills that use hand and feet for the control of objects (e.g throwing, catching, and dribbling). These fundamental motor skills are considered building blocks for more advanced physical activity and sport skills and even essential to determine sport and physical activity participation (Clark & Metcalfe, 2002; Stodden et al., 2008, Gallahue et al., 2012). The models of motor development have emphasized the importance of fundamental movement skills in later physical activity (Clark & Metcalfe, 2002; Stodden et al., 2008, Gallahue et al., 2012). For example,

15 Gallahue’s motor development model (Gallahue et al., 2012) has four phases of motor development specifically the: reflexive movement phase, rudimentary movement phase, fundamental movement phase (which is the focus of this study), and the specialized movement phase. All these phases are affected by heredity and environmental influences. In the fundamental movement phase, boys and girls are acquiring the entire host of basic movement skills (e.g. running, hopping, jumping, throwing, catching, and kicking). In this phase, for developing fundamental movement skills the condition of environment, opportunities for practice, encouragement, instructions, and the ecology (context) of the environment play essential roles. These conditions are crucial to help individuals through each of the stages within the fundamental movement phase (Gallahue et al., 2012). It is thought that children automatically learn how to perform the fundamental movement skills; however this is a misunderstanding. Therefore, in order to help children to successfully learn the fundamental movement skills, teachers have to be able to recognize and analyze the tasks that are required to perform a fundamental movement skill. For example for hitting a pitched ball the perceptual requirements are more sophisticated than those required for striking a stationary ball. Successful performance of the mechanics of movement in the specialized movement skill phase depends on mature fundamental movements, and it results in gaining and maintaining motor control and movement competence and having a lifelong recreational and daily living (Gallahue et al., 2012). The mastery of fundamental movement skills has been believed to contribute to children's physical, cognitive and social development and is thought to provide the foundation for an active lifestyle (Hume et al., 2008). Children who have established a base of fundamental movement skills have the tools to be physically active (Gabbard, 2012).

Although physical activity in early childhood increases fundamental motor skills, however Crane and colleagues (2015) found it was reciprocal. From early to middle childhood, children who have intermediate to high levels of motor skill competence, which will result to being more physically active, should demonstrate higher performance of motor skills scores. In middle and late childhood, Stodden and colleagues hypothesize that the relationship between physical activity levels and measures of motor skill competence will strengthen. In middle and late childhood, children with high levels of motor competence will participate in more physical activities and demonstrate more consistent improvement in motor skills and be more successful. In middle and later childhood, higher levels of motor skill competence will offer a greater motor

16 repertoire to engage in various physical activities, sports, and games. In fact, children with low levels of motor skill competence will not be physically active into middle and later childhood. Although children may naturally develop a rudimentary form of fundamental movement patterns, a mature form of fundamental movement skills proficiency can be achieved with appropriate practice, encouragement, feedback, and instruction (Gallahue et al., 2012). Motor competence refers to the degree of being proficient in both object control skills and locomotor skills (Stodden et al., 2008). In cross-sectional research "motor proficiency" has been positively associated with sport participation (Temple et al., 2014), total physical activity (Wrotniak et al., 2006), moderate-to-vigorous activity (Wrotniak et al., 2006), and organized physical activity (Okely et al., 2001) in children and adolescents.

Without competence in locomotor skills and object control skills, children are less likely to access the range of physical activity options available to establish an active lifestyle (Stodden et al., 2008). Stodden and colleagues suggested that young children's physical activity might drive their development of motor skill competence. Gallahue’s motor development model (Gallahue et al., 2012), which is consistent with the Stodden and colleagues' model, demonstrated that successful performance of the mechanics of movement in the specialized movement skill phase depends on mature fundamental movements. Studies of children revealed that if they are more proficient with fundamental motor skills, they spend less time being sedentary (Hume et al., 2008; Houwen et al., 2009). Children that are relatively skillful tend to use those skills in an active lifestyle. Barnett et al. (2009) found that fundamental motor skill proficiency in elementary school, particularly object control proficiency, predicted adolescent physical activity behaviour. They found that object control proficiency in childhood was associated with time spent in organized activity in adolescence. They also found that object control proficiency in childhood did not increase the probability of participating in any organized activity in adolescence. Also these researchers found that being able to perform object control skills competently in childhood may be a significant predictive factor in subsequent engagement in later adolescent physical activity.

2.3.1) Measurement of Fundamental Motor Skills

Evaluation is the process of making decision with regards to the value or worth of collected information (Gabbard, 2012). Evaluation judgments are based on the two most widely used

17 standards: norm-referenced and criterion-referenced standards. Norm-referenced standards involve the hierarchical ordering of individuals. Assessment instruments that use this form of evaluation are basically quantitative evaluations designed to compare an individual's characteristics with those of other persons of similar sex, age, and socioeconomic group. Criterion-referenced standards are concerned with the degree to which an individual achieves a specified level of development, motor performance, or physical status. In contrast, process-oriented assessment includes the measurement and evaluation of characteristics of process, or form, such as those used in rudimentary actions and fundamental movement patterns. These types of data are most often qualitative rather than quantitative. Although product-oriented data can be used with either norm-referenced or criterion-referenced standards, they are commonly associated with population norms (Gabbard, 2012).

The possibilities of assessing the various aspects of physical growth, development, and motor behaviour are numerous. To select the best test, the researcher has to review all available tests that assess the variables in question (Gabbard, 2012). Some types of assessments for assessing motor behaviour of school-age populations are: The Movement Assessment Battery for Children (Movement ABC-2; Henderson et al., 1992), Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency (BOT-2; Bruininks, 1978), fundamental movement pattern assessment instrument (process oriented assessment instrument) and test of gross motor development (TGMD-2; process oriented assessment instrument; Ulrich, 2000). These assessments have found to have an acceptable level of validity and reliability. Ultimately the researcher has to decide which test instrument best meets his/her needs. The researcher has to consider that acceptable test instruments should be valid, reliable, and objective (Gabbard, 2012).

As mentioned above, there are different kinds of gross motor development tests. However they do not provide researchers with specific information about the children’s motor skill behaviour. For example, BOT-2 was a clinical and research tool used for assessing fine and gross motor movement skill development in individuals aged 4-21 years, and the Movement ABC-2 was designed for identifying children and adolescents aged three to sixteen years with developmental coordination disorder and screening motor problems in typically developing children. It assesses five fundamental movement skills including: running, throwing, catching, horizontal jumping, and kicking. Owing to the fact that most children by 7 years acquire some features of the mature

18 movement pattern (Gabbard, 2012), and since in this study examining object control skills and locomotor skills of children in grade 2 were targeted, therefore, TGMD-2 (one type of gross motor development test) was the best measure of object control skills and locomotor skills of children in grade 2.

The Test of Gross Motor Development-2 (TGMD-2, Ulrich, 2000), which was the main measurement in this research, is one of the best examples to date, of a practical, easily administered instrument developed for examining the sequence and qualitative aspects of motor skill behaviour. It is a norm-referenced and criterion-referenced test, designed for use with children 3-11 years of age, and assessing 12 fundamental movement skills including object control (strike, catch, dribble, kick, overhand throw, and underhand throw) and locomotor skills (run, hop, gallop, horizontal jump, slide, and leap), which are considered as TGMD-2 subscales. Each fundamental movement skill in the TGMD-2 has between 3 to 5 performance criteria, and children are evaluated on whether they meet the performance criteria or do not meet the criteria. The TGMD-2 is considered quite comprehensive in the number and diversity of the motor skills that it assesses, it can also be administered with a minimum amount of special training and takes only about 15 minutes to complete per child. Another attractive characteristic is that it provides both norm-referenced and criterion-referenced interpretations. The instrument has documented reliability and validity (Gabbard, 2012; Gallahue et al., 2012).

2.3.2) Gender differences in fundamental movement skills

As with patterns of physical activity, motor skill proficiency differs between boys and girls. Gender differences in motor development appear during the whole of the child's development process and are explained by environmental and biological factors or their interaction. Gender differences in fundamental movement patterns are usually examined on the basis of movement kinematics. For example, Wrotniak and colleagues (2006) reported boys had significantly faster running speed and agility and threw a ball at a target more successfully.

Higher levels of object control skill proficiency among boys’ are consistent with the majority of studies of young children (Robinson, 2011; Barnett et al., 2008; LeGear et al., 2012). Barnett and colleagues (2010) reported that in childhood, girls performed object control skills (catching, kicking, and throwing) with less proficiency than boys. To support this finding, Hume and colleagues (2008) found boys had higher mean object control proficiency scores than girls.

19 However, Barnett and colleagues found no sex-based differences in locomotor skill performance in either childhood or adolescence. Similarly, Temple and colleagues (2014) reported no sex-based differences among kindergarten children in locomotor skills, which is consistent with the study on children aged 9 - 12 by Hume and colleagues that found no differences between boys and girls in locomotor skills. One outcome of generally higher levels of object control skills among boys and higher levels of locomotor skills among girls, is that when object control and locomotor skills are combined to provide a total skills score, there tends to be no gender differences (LeGear et al., 2012; Temple et al., 2014).

However, differences in fundamental motor skills might also influence participation patterns. Vedul-Kjelsås and colleagues (2013) found a significant sex-based difference in ball skills, with boys' performance exceeding that of girls, and they seem to have higher involvement in ball games, such as basketball and soccer (Harrell et al., 2003). Due to the fact that motor competence is associated with participation in physical activity (Barnett et a., 2010), Vedul-Kjelsås and colleagues (2013) demonstrated that the differences in ball skills might be attributed to the different kind of games that the two genders play. The types of sports and games in which boys and girls choose to participate offer different opportunities for developing motor competence and may contribute to gender differences (Wrotniak et al., 2006).

2.4) Perceptions of physical competence

Perceived competence is without doubt the most widely studied construct within the competence motivation model proposed by Harter (1978, 1981). This makes sense as a child's beliefs about his or her ability in domains such as sports, is a powerful determinant of emotional responses and motivational outcomes (effort, intensity, achievement) (Weiss, 2004). Thus, the understanding of the structure, content, and processes associated with perceived competence is a worthwhile endeavour.

The term perceived competence is defined "as individuals' perceptions of their competencies or abilities in specific domains" (Weiss, 2004). Harter stated that individuals' need to feel competent is fulfilled through mastery, which results in positive feelings and subsequent motivation toward further achievement. Therefore, an individual will likely participate in those activities in which he or she feels competent. Perceived competence is described by Fox (1989)

20 as an assessment of ability that generalizes across a particular domain. Level of perceived competence is usually assessed by how high or low people rate their abilities.

According to Harter's (1978) competence motivation theory, in which self-worth mediates the relationship between antecedents (perceived competence/adequacy, and perceived social support or regard) and outcomes (positive and negative affect, and motivation), people are motivated to achieve competence in a number of achievement areas such as academia, athletics, and social relationships. Young people, in particular, are motivated by perceptions of mastery in these areas and, in turn, perceived mastery will stimulate them in continued effort investment in an attempt to improve their skills or competency. Fox and Corbin (1989) demonstrated that physical self-worth affects the global self-esteem, which is composed of different aspects such as: social, physical, and cognitive, of an individual.

Perceived competence is an important determinant of achievement-related behaviours and actions (Babic et al., 2014). Harter's model proposes that actual competence precedes perceived competence with perceived competence more directly effecting motivation than actual competence (Harter, 1978). Harter's competence motivation and global self-worth theories (1978) predict that children with high perceptions of competence will select challenging tasks, enjoy the learning process, exhibit higher self-esteem, exert greater effort to master skills, and persist in the face of difficulty. Consistent with Harter's competence motivation and global self-worth theories (1978), Weiss and Amorose (2005) demonstrated that children who perceive themselves to be highly competent at a skill or task will demonstrate persistence and attempt to master a skill, while those with low actual competence will not persist and lose interest in the task. However, Stodden and colleagues' (2008) model (Figure 1), shows that the effect of perceived motor competence in physical activity in middle to late childhood is primarily based on the actual level of motor skill competence. This is supported by Robinson and colleagues (2009) who demonstrated that perceived physical competence along with fundamental motor skills, play an essential role in children's motivation to learn and to engage in current and future motor behaviours.

Children’s beliefs about their physical competence tend to be unrealistically high during early childhood but typically decline during the elementary school years as they begin to compare themselves with their peers and as they become more sensitive to success and failure experiences

21 (Jacobs et al., 2002). Young children tend to have unrealistically high perceptions of competence that overestimate their abilities because they are not able to differentiate their actual and real self-concept, take the perspective of others, nor engage in social comparisons (Harter, 2012). Young children's perceptions tend to stay high as they do not internalize information that would suggest they are not as competent as their peers. By middle childhood (7-12 years), children have shifted to higher levels of cognitive development and have a more sophisticated cognitive capacity to more accurately compare themselves to their peers (Stodden et al., 2008). In middle to late childhood, children show greater differentiation between sub-domains of self-concept (e.g. scholastics, and athletic, Weiss, 2004; Harter, 2012). Also during this age range, children tend to be very concrete in the self-evaluation process (Weiss, 2004). As a result, their perceived motor skill competence more closely approximates their actual motor skill competence (Harter, 1999). That is, less-skilled children will have lower perceived competence and perceive many tasks as more difficult and challenging. Therefore, more-skilled children will have higher perceived competence, perceive tasks as less difficult, and engage in more frequent mastery attempts.

2.4.1) Measurement of perceptions of competence

The Pictorial Scale of Perceived Competence and Social Acceptance for Young Children (PSPCSA; Harter & Pike, 1984) is a measure that was designed intentionally to assess young children's perceptions of their abilities and social acceptance. It is designed for children and adolescents between the ages of 8 and 18. It is one of the most psychometrically-adequate instruments for measuring multiple dimensions of self-concept for young children (Byrne, 1996; Wylie, 1991). The scale is based on the assumption that children are able, on self-report measures, to make reliable judgments about their competence if they are couched in terms of concrete observable behaviours, and if pictorial stimuli depicting concrete manifestations of the relevant behaviours are presented (Harter, 1983). The Pictorial Scale of Perceived Competence and Social Acceptance for Young Children provides a domain specific frame work for assessing children's self-perceptions rather than treating self-perceptions as a global entity. This framework is based on the assumption that children distinguish their competencies across various domains. Harter and Pike (1984) identified competence and social acceptance as primary domains for young children through this theoretical framework. The Pictorial Scale of Perceived Competence and Social Acceptance for Young Children represents an attempt to construct a developmentally

22 appropriate method for assessing self-perceptions in young children. A key feature of this instrument is its pictorial format (Harter & Pike, 1984).

2.4.2) Gender differences in perceptions of physical competence

Some models such as Bandura's self-efficacy theory (1986) showed that individuals’ interpretation of their achievement outcomes influence achievement behaviour, persistence, and choice of achievement activities more than do individuals’ objective performance histories. Several researchers have reported gender differences in children’s beliefs about their own competence in various movement and sport activities, and these differences must be considered in studies of ability-related perceptions (Harter, 1982). Boys consistently report higher perceptions of their overall physical competence and are more positive than girls about their ability in most traditional sport activities (Harter, 1982).

Barnett et al. (2008) demonstrated that positive perceptions of sports competence was a key predictor of physical activity and was influenced by motor skill proficiency as a child. They found that children's and adolescent's physical self-perceptions differs according to sex. They demonstrated that boys had higher perceptions of their sport competence than girls. Similarly, LeGear et al. (2012) found a modest, but significant, relationship between perceptions of physical competence and motor proficiency, and they demonstrated that kindergarten boys with greater proficiency had higher perceptions of their physical competence than kindergarten girls. They found that girl's perceptions of physical competence were related to their locomotor skill proficiency, but not to their proficiency with object control skills.

2.5) The relationship between motor skill proficiency, perceptions of competence and recreation participation

Fundamental motor skills are an important prerequisite to participate in sport and physical activity participation (Stodden et al., 2008). According to Stodden and colleague’s (2008) model, participation in physical activity is associated with greater proficiency in motor skills (Stodden et al., 2008). The Gallahue motor development model (Gallahue et al., 2012), specialized movement skill phase, in which proficiency in fundamental motor skills is applied across a variety of complex movement activities for daily living, recreation, and sports, depends on gaining and maintaining motor control and movement competence (i.e. mature fundamental movements). For example, fundamental movements of jumping might be applied to perform