MASTER THESIS
Run like Zombies are Chasing You:
An Empirical Analysis of Narrative Aesthetics in Mobile Exergames
by
Daniela Diewock, 10849548
University of Amsterdam Supervisor: Dr. Jan Simons
Abstract
The world is confronted with the dilemma of engagement while the number of recreational activities is rising steadily. As part of this development, the gaming industry is continuing to boom, keeping its audience consumed for hours, days and even weeks. When playing a game, people forget about their immediate needs of life and convey meaning to the act of play. The idea of using game design elements in non-game contexts in order to keep people as engaged has found great deployment in interaction design and digital marketing. The approach, which is generally referred to as “gamification”, splits games into elements and applies them into human computer interactions – ranging across productivity, finance, education, health and fitness. This thesis is concerned with the latter subject area, the so-called exergames. In this sense, the research discusses how narrative aesthetics can be used to create a hybrid experience while exercising and analyses in what way such hybrid experience influences user behaviour. The mobile exergame of Zombies, Run! is taken as an appropriate object of study as it combines the characteristics of a mobile exergames with narrative rhetoric, opening up the opportunity for immersion and engagement through the application’s hybrid nature. Qualitative research is being conducted with the designer, as well as with potential users of Zombies, Run! in order to investigate the narrative facets and their influence on the users’ running behaviour empirically – both occurring within the context of outlined theoretical concepts. The findings reveal varying impacts on differing levels of participation, not all in accordance with what the app’s creators originally aimed for. The outcome of this research will not only help to express the inherently mixed nature of applications, such as Zombies, Run!, it will also serve as a contribution to research done within the field of gamification, or more precisely, it is an attempt to provide an understanding of how narrative can be used as a potential to diversify and improve respective area of study.
Keywords
Table of Contents
1.Introduction ... 6
2. Theoretical Framework ... 8
2.1 Let the Games begin! ... 8
2.1.1 Building a Game Layer on Top of the World ... 10
2.1.2 Exergames - A more pleasurable Workout? ... 12
2.1.3 Toward the Rhetoric of Mobile Exergames ... 14
2.2 It’s complicated: Games & Narrative ... 17
2.2.1 Narrative as Rhetoric in Games ... 18
2.2.2 Narrative Immersion ... 20
2.2.3 Hybrid Experiences ... 21
3. Context ... 24
3.1 Zombies, Run!: Get Fit. Escape Zombies. Become a Hero. ... 24
3.2. Zombies, Run! vs. conventional Mobile Running Exergames ... 27
3.3 Narrative in Zombies, Run! ... 30
4. Methodology ... 32
4.1 Methodological Approach ... 32
4.1.1 Conceptual Framework ... 33
4.1.2 External Variables ... 34
4.2 Research Method ... 35
4.2.1 Interview Design and Sample Selection ... 36
4.2.2 Data Collection ... 38
4.2.3 Analysis ... 39
5. Discussion ... 44
6. Conclusion and Outlook: Running the Future ... 47
Bibliography ... 50
Table of Figures
Fig. 1 Mixed Reality Continuum………23
Fig. 2 Aarseth vs. Benford………..23
Fig. 3 Screenshots Zombies, Run! (Missions & Base Builder)………..27
Fig. 4 Overview Mission Structure Zombies, Run!...28
Fig. 5 Comparison Mobile Running Exergames……….29
Fig. 6 Story Running RunTastic………..30
Fig. 7 Conceptual Framework……….34
"Man only plays when in the full meaning of the world he is a man, and he is only completely a man when he plays."
1.Introduction
A recent survey by Deloitte on human capital trends in 2015 revealed that global organisations face a looming crisis in engagement and retention of employees (Deloitte, 2015). Even though the survey is focussing on working environments, it is still mirroring a general tendency: The world is confronted with the dilemma of engagement while the number of recreational activities is rising steadily. As part of this development, the gaming industry is continuing to boom, keeping its audience consumed for hours, days and even weeks. This thesis focuses on the potential of games to let people forget about their immediate needs of life and convey meaning to the act of play. More specifically, the research will discuss the genre of exergames, which promote physical activity and create exercise adherence. The idea of using game design elements in non-game contexts in order to keep people as engaged has found great deployment in interaction design and digital marketing. The approach, which is generally referred to as “gamification”, splits games into elements and applies them into human computer interactions – ranging across productivity, finance, education, health and fitness. Although gamification has risen in popularity and developed into an omnipresent buzz word lately, the number of critics is constantly growing. While the US-based analysts Gartner predicted in 2011, that within the upcoming few years, 70% of the top 2000 globally operating companies will have included gamification in their daily business (Gartner, 2011), they released another study soon after, which argues “gamification is currently driven by novelty and hype” (Gartner, 2012). By 2015, 80% of the adopted gamification applications will have failed to deliver because of their “poor design” (Gartner, 2012). The main criticism centres on the fact that gamification is usually applied by simply adding a scoring layer to an existing activity - which, apparently, does not turn the entire activity into an engaging experience.
The current potential to “gamify” life has aroused a debate on whether the implementation of game-based systems produces playful, immersing realities or manipulated societies run by corporations and advertisers. Gamification advocates, however, share the opinion that games can be used to solve real-world problems. Given the cultural significance and influence of play, the argument seems reasonable and provides explanation why gamification has already been implemented in the health and fitness sector extensively, in what is now called “exergames”. The concept aims at bridging game dynamics with workout activities, turning exercising into a fun activity. Yet, to accomplish the aim, exercising needs to be turned into an engaging experience, which leads back to initial point of critique in the concept of gamification. As a consequence, researchers and practitioners increasingly call on to enlarge upon the field of gamification by including dynamics such as an explicit narrative. Even though storytelling has already been applied largely in the gaming industry, the power of narrative remains widely unused within the context of gamification (Langer et al., 2013).
The notion of narrative becomes especially interesting when considering the increasing coverage and mobility of digital network technologies that have given rise to the emergent market of the mobile version of exergames, opening up the possibility to merge physical and virtual worlds. Narrative in mobile exergames, thus, could contribute to the creation of a hybrid space and might be capable of reinforcing the act of exercise as a hybrid experience. While existing studies often emphasize games’ motivators and behaviour steering elements such as competitiveness, extrinsic rewards and social sharing options, they fail to address the potential narrative offers to provide immersive aesthetics and its respective influence on people’s behaviour. The question of whether narrative represents an appropriate way to overcome current drawbacks in gamification is too broad to be answered regarding the scope of the thesis, still, it needs to be considered as the holistic approach this research is willing to contribute to. To limit the focus of inquiry, proposed issue will be investigated by using the example of the mobile exergame “Zombies, Run!”. The application is based upon a story on a zombie apocalypse that shall persuade its users to exercise. However, doing so, it continually mixes diverse spaces creating a new form of interactive experience, which challenges existing conventions and paradigms in the world of mobile exergames - if not in the world of games in general. The thesis is willing to build a comprehension of such complex structures and to pinpoint methods used to foster engaging and immersive facets. Therefore, following research question is proposed:
How can narrative aesthetics be used to create a hybrid experience in mobile exergames and to what extent does a hybrid reality influence a player’s running behaviour?
To answer the question, a theoretical framework of narrative in games, or more specifically, narrative in mobile exergames will be created. The research develops a new theoretical scheme that can serve to explain how narrative in mobile exergames is designed, account for how it is experienced and will relate developments in this new field to other fields and existing bodies of knowledge. Through the course of the thesis, it is to realise that the interdisciplinary nature of the research offers contributions to several areas of study, such as human computer interaction, game and application design, behavioural science and psychology. Therefore, the approach needs to be considered as significant since it faces an issue that affects varying fields of research. On the one hand, the theoretical part of the thesis, will present an introduction to games in general and exergames in particular, on the other hand, it will situate games within the context of narrative and provides an understanding of the resulting consequences. The theoretical framework is then used as a basis for the conduction of a field study concerned with Zombies, Run!. The application is introduced in detail within chapter 3. Besides contrasting Zombies, Run! with conventional mobile exergames, there will be an analysis of how narrative aesthetics are being used
within the application. Hereby, it is possible to build a comprehension of the conceptual framework proposed in chapter 4. In order to be able justify relations made within the framework, qualitative research will be applied in the form of interviews with the designer, as well as with potential users of Zombies, Run!. To validate “interview” as an appropriate research method, pervasive insights into research design and conduction are provided within chapter 4.2. Findings will be discussed and linked to theoretical outlines within chapter 5. The last part of the study consists of the conclusion and provides recommendations for future research.
2. Theoretical Framework
2.1 Let the Games begin!
Already in 1938, the Dutch historian and cultural theorist, Johan Huizinga, discussed the significance of play as a cultural phenomenon. Since his book “Homo Ludens” is an important part of the history of games studies and had great influence on later scholars of play such as Roger Caillois, it serves as good starting point for introducing play in all its cultural richness. According to Huizinga, games are an integral part of all cultures and represent one of the oldest forms of human social interaction (Huizinga, 1949). He suggests that play is primary to and a necessary (though not sufficient) condition of the creation of culture. That is, all abilities of an individual are gained via the action of play and by experiencing play the individual eventually creates his own personality. Putting the concept into a single phrase: Mankind needs play to gain quest for meaning. Like many other researchers in psychology (including Siegmund Freud, Carl Gustav Jung and Jean Piaget), Huizinga’s idea of play must be seen as endemic to society. But what other characteristics does the idea of play consist of, or in other words, how can play be defined? In the past, there has been an extensive amount of attempts to bring forth a definition of play. However, researchers have come to agree on that it is impossible to obtain a full understanding of the phenomenon of play (Brown, 2008; Sutton-Smith, 2001), or as Jean Piaget puts it, "the many theories of play expounded in the past are clear proof that the phenomenon is difficult to understand" (1). Rather than providing a universal definition of play, this thesis shall offer a taxonomy - a way to think of it. Commonly, play is associated with recreation and pleasure by combing a variety of intrinsically motivated activities (Garvey, 1990). In his book, Huizinga specifies the formal characteristics of play as a free and frivolous activity, which absorbs the player “intensely and utterly” (13). At the same time, play "proceeds within its own proper boundaries of time and space according to fixed rules and in an orderly manner” (Huizinga, 13).
The Homo Ludens (“the playing man”) is thus concerned with amusements, humor and leisure. Such concept stands in opposition to Homo Faber (“the working man”), a term first introduced by Max
Scheler in the early 19th century, which refers to humans as controlling their environment through tools (1928). Following the play scholars Siegbert Warwitz and Anita Rudolf, Homo Ludens and Homo Faber can both be seen as approaches towards the world through games (2014), while games need to be considered as formalized expressions of play. However, a Homo Ludens gains meaning in self-sufficient and purposeless play. He is intrinsically motivated and achieves knowledge of the world en passant (e.g. when children play). On the contrary, a Homo Faber systematically uses play in order to gain experience to achieve a certain goal (Warwitz & Rudolf, 2014). In other words, he instrumentalizes play to accomplish a goal that lies outside the actual game (e.g. at school). “Play” in this sense is not experienced as play anymore, but rather as work - Homo Faber, the working man.
Returning to Huizinga, he also states that play is not part of ordinary life, it stands “outside the immediate satisfaction of wants and appetites, indeed it interrupts the appetitive process” (9). This notion becomes very clear when diving into the earliest history of games. According to the ancient Greek historian Herodotus such history needs to be told as follows: Games, particularly dice games, were invented in the kingdom of Lydia during a time of famine. These games were used as a resource against the famine. Doing so, a kingdom-wide policy was set up: On one day, people would play games, and on the next day, they were ceased from their games and allowed to eat. Believing Heredotus, 18 years passed this way; 18 years of feeling the want for food only every second day. Apparently, this was possible, because people were so immersed in playing the dice games, and thus became so engaged in a satisfying blissful productivity, that they were able to ignore the fact of being hungry (Strassler, 2008). For many researchers “escaping ordinary life” still constitutes the main reason for people to play in contemporary times. Games offer the possibility to breakout from everything that is not satisfying within reality and provide an opportunity for people to become a better version of themselves within the virtual world (McGonigal, 2011). The possibility to achieve “freedom” combined with the rapid technological progress during the last decades, has led to a present amount of gamers unparalleled in human history. Collectively, mankind is now spending more than 3 billion hours a week gaming - “we are starving and our games are feeding us” (MacGonigal, 6). It is possible to say that the term “Homo Ludens” has become ever more applicable.
The first researcher to address a definition of games was Ludwig Wittgenstein. When play is seen as the principal characteristic of a game, it is not surprising, that, again, difficulties in pinpointing a definite meaning were to be encountered. Wittgenstein uses what he calls ‘family resemblance’ to target words, which do not have a single essence that includes their definition (1953). He uses the word 'game' as an example, because, to him, the elements of a game, such as play and rules, fail to adequately define what games are (Wittgenstein, 1953). Most games are based on varying structures, while some are played for fun, others out of professional reasons and again others due to addiction. Wittgenstein refers to family
resemblance since the relationship between the uses of the word ‘game’ is what develops an understanding of such (1953). This represents an interesting implication when considering the aim of classifying the mobile exergame of Zombies, Run! in the further course of the research. Even though a number of contemporary philosophers disagree with Wittgenstein and put forward their own understanding of games, such as “the voluntary attempt to overcome unnecessary obstacles” (Suits, 55), this thesis is still willing to build upon Wittgenstein’s notion, as it provides an adequate approach to demarcate Zombies, Run! from other games.
By tapping into people’s primal response patterns, games clearly influence and manipulate behaviour (Kim, 2010). Well-designed games even bring forth modes of behaviour that seem to be absurd: People are repetitively trying to complete a challenge even though they have been failing already countless times. In other words, games are able to bring forth addictive behaviour (Mehwash & Griffiths, 2010). This is important to keep in mind when considering the adaptation of gamified elements to other contexts, which will be discussed within the next chapter. However, among game researchers, the conventional sentiment is that video games represent a new form of skills valued by the new economy1, as well as that they embody excellent learning principles (Hung, 2011). The keyword responsible for this phenomenon is “engagement”. Games motivate people to perform their activities wholeheartedly, meaning that they become “self-motivated, self-directed, intensely interested and genuinely enthusiastic” (MacGonigal, 125). The idea of using game design elements in non-game contexts in order to keep people as engaged has found great deployment in interaction design and digital marketing over the last few years. The approach, which is generally referred to as “gamification”, splits games into elements and applies them into web interactions (Deterding et al., 2011). In the following section, gamification will be discussed in further detail and it will be analysed why such game layer has already generated much criticism.
2.1.1 Building a Game Layer on Top of the World
Besides gamification’s growing adoption during the past 5 years and its omnipresence in the areas of media and marketing, the concept is undergoing extensive debates while receiving significant criticism by those who study games (Nicholson, 2012). To comprehend such criticism, as well as in order to develop this research’s own understanding of the concept, it is not only necessary introduce a definition of gamification, but also to analyse the approach from both opposing points of view - supporters and critics.
Interface designer and researcher Sebastian Deterding considers gamification as an “umbrella term for the use of video game elements to improve user experience and user engagement in non-game
1 The new economy is the result of the transition from a manufacturing-based economy to a service-based economy.
services and applications” (Deterding et al., 2011). The most general as well as the most widely used definition of gamification is “the use of game elements in non-game environments” (Deterding et al., 2011). As stated before, such elements, which are often called game dynamics or game mechanics, are used to increase user engagement, which eventually influences user behaviour, loyalty and consumption. A common implementation of gamification is to take scoring elements of video games, such as points, levels, and achievements, and apply them to another context. While the term “gamification” is relatively new, the basic concept has been around for several years through loyalty systems like coupon cards, airline mile programs and credit card schemes. These programs have been applied in order to boost the use of a particular service. Customers change their behaviour respectively to receive external rewards in the form of points, badges, etc. (Zichermann & Cunningham, 2011). This observation invites the first point of criticism: In his much discussed article “Gamification is Bullshit” Ian Bogost suggests to call games used in marketing "exploitationware", since they are designed to capitalize on what is culturally so valuable (2011). The capability of games to influence behaviour, or even to turn behaviour into addiction, leaves room for abuse in order to make profit. Corporate interests would thus prevail over those of ordinary people (Chaplin, 2011).
Still, gamification advocates like Zichermann and MacGonigal state that the concept can be used to fix real world issues. To Zichermann, gamification is “the process of game-thinking and game mechanics to engage users and solve problems” (1). This way of understanding gamification is both powerful and flexible as it can be applied to any problem that can be solved through influencing human behaviour. Nevertheless, it remains questionable whether such concept is advocating real change or rather just a change in people’s perception. This represents an important sentiment for the purpose of this thesis: In order to be able to draw conclusions on whether gamification solves real-world problems, it is necessary to define the targeted problem in the first place. In the context of this research, this will be done by interviewing the creators of Zombies, Run! (the transcripted interview can be found within appendix number 1). The novelty of gamification is that it is increasingly applied to people’s most mundane activities: to shop, to travel, to run, etc. (Schell, 2010). The novelty of gamification is hence certainly not gamification itself, but the gamification of the personal, everyday life.
Besides the danger of exploitation and the question of change, critics also see a problem in the word “gamification” itself (Nicholson, 2012) and the expectations associated therewith. The term gamification is obviously derived from the word “game”, which implies that the entire activity will become an engaging experience, when, in reality, gamification is typically only using one particular game mechanic (the scoring system as stated before). Scholars even suggest to deploy the term “pointification” as a label for systems that use nothing more than a respective game mechanic (Robertson, 2010). Considering the definition provided by Maroney, that games are “a form of play with goals and structure”
(n.p.), it becomes apparent that point-based gamification is using only the goals of games but leaves the actual play behind. In his TED talk, Seth Priebatsch CEO of SCVNGR, captured the issue in a nutshell “there are [...] all these loyalty schemes that actually do use game dynamics and actually are building the game layer: they just suck” (TED). Priebatsch calls out for the conscious construction of what he labels as the “game framework”. Doing so, a number of true game mechanics need to be applied that have been excluded so far - such as storytelling and experiences (Robertson, 2010). However, the notion assumes that storytelling, and hence narrative, need to be considered as game mechanics. This point of view has caused extensive debates in the past, which will be discussed in chapter 2.2. Nevertheless, since this thesis is concerned with the use of narrative in exergames, it is interesting to acknowledge that narration has remained rather unused within the context of gamification. The mobile exergame Zombies, Run! represents one of the few examples, where narrative builds the core of the application. But what actually is an exergame and why do people use them? These questions will be answered in the following chapter.
2.1.2 Exergames - A more pleasurable Workout?
Returning to Zichermann’s definition, gamification can be used to solve real-world problems, it seems reasonable that people have not been deterred to apply the concept in order to cope with health and fitness matters. It is a well-known fact that physical activity on a regular basis will reduce the probability of health concerns such as obesity, type II diabetes and depression (Warburton et al., 2006). Adults are therefore advised to workout a minimum of 30-minutes, 5 days per week at a moderate intensity (Warburton et al., 2006). However, for many adults it seems to be impossible to embed physical activity in their daily routine, resulting in obesity as being an increased epidemic in the modern Western world. Even though, the use of computers has been considered to be related to a rather sedentary lifestyle in the past, exergames, and mobile exergames in particular, add new dimensions to the promotion of physical activity by playing fun and addictive games.
Originally, the term “exergaming” was used to name video games, which also provide exercise (Yang et al., 2008) or as Ian Bogost puts it, exergames are “games that combine play and exercise” (2005). Bogost sees the very beginnings of exergames already in the 1970s, when playing any game – from Pac Man to Pole Position – meant standing up at a cabinet and putting significant body language into the play experience (2005). Whether or not such activity can be called exercise remains questionable, however, it does suggest an intimate relationship between physical movements and gameplay itself. Today, what is generally understood as exergame can be divided into two subdivisions: On the one hand, there are exergames that are specifically designed to use exercise as input, on the other hand, there are those that use a generic game to provide exercise (Wylie & Coulton, 2009). To illustrate, the Nintendo Wii Fit is a well known example for the former group, whereas Activsion’s Guitar Hero exemplifies the
latter. The Wii Fit includes a series of games, which are used to provide players with an estimate on their current fitness level, as well as a variety of mechanism to improve it. Guitar Hero, on the contrary, requires a high level of physical interaction in order to play a successful game (Wylie & Coulton, 2009).
Even though console based exergames have recently gained a lot in popularity in the video game industry (Song et al., 2011), they still have one substantial disadvantage: They are not portable and users are confined to a fixed location standing in front of a screen. However, with the emergence of smartphones, a new field of mobile exergames2 appeared, which has already impacted the health and
exergame market in a significant way. The increasing power of mobile phones has enabled the development, as well as the deployment of mobile health promoting applications, which are low priced (in contrast to consoles) and available to an ever growing community (Wylie & Coulton, 2009). Mobile exergames use smartphones’ in-built GPS to detect a user’s current location within the real world. The location will then be mapped to the character (or avatar) a user is embodying within the virtual game world. Thus, the user has to walk or run in order to be able to move the avatar in the virtual world. The digital world turns into a mirror of the physical creating a so-called virtual or hybrid reality.
This is when the notion of the quantified self comes into play, which shall not be the focus of this thesis, nevertheless, it represents an important outcome of such new technological developments and clearly influences the way in which mobile exergames are designed. After all, the most flagship examples of self-tracking platforms can be found within the fields of health and fitness (Hay, 2013). In simple terms, quantified self is self-knowledge through self-tracking using technology. Smartphones enable an ever more detailed measurement and monitoring of the body and everyday life in real time, as well as the possibility to analyse and share this data (Lupton, 2014). These new opportunities have changed the human-machine relationship and interaction. Burrowing the words of McLuhan who sees media as the “extension of men” and who states that “men at once become fascinated by any extension of themselves in any material other than themselves” (1964), it can be said that people have extended themselves through new massively-scaled modes of interaction within a so-far unknown space where the physical and virtual worlds meet. One product of this emergent space are mobile exergames. The main limitation of these games is that the GPS will only detect a user’s physical movement if it is a few meters in distance at minimum (Buddharaju & Pamidi, 2013). Thus, they are mainly aimed at running as physical activity, since these games cannot respond to subtle movements such as jumping in the air or walking just a few steps. So far, available mobile exergames did not take advantage of the fact that contemporary smartphones include advanced sensors, which would be able to detect subtle movements, such as in-built motion sensors like accelerometers and gyroscopes (technology used in Wii controller) and in-built
cameras (technology used in Xbox Kinect and Playstation Move controllers) (Buddharaju & Pamidi, 2013).
Nevertheless, for the course of this research, outlined limitation is irrelevant, as the thesis is focussing on mobile running exergames where physical movement is significant enough to be detected. Besides using physical movement as a game mechanic, which is a rather obvious concept, the application in the forthcoming research makes use of the creation of an immersive experience while moving through space. Therefore, the following section will explore the rhetorics of mobile exergames and how they create immersive aesthetics in order to influence user behaviour.
2.1.3 Toward the Rhetoric of Mobile Exergames
After elaborating on games in general and mobile exergames in particular, it is still to question how meaning is created. In order to understand the way in which mobile exergames, such as Zombies, Run! possess a persuasive quality, it is necessary to address the concept of persuasion and immersion from a theoretical point of view, before empirically analysing how user behaviour is influenced. Doing so, the concept of digital rhetoric needs to be introduced and combined with the discourse of play. This thesis aims at proposing an own understanding of the rhetoric of mobile exergames, even though there has been a potential previous attempt. Yet, as discussed within this chapter, it is considered to be insufficient for the purpose of the research, which forces the establishment of an own approach.
Traditionally, rhetoric has been associated with discourse, that is performed through speaking and writing persuasively. Already Aristotle defined rhetoric as “the faculty of observing in any given case the available means of persuasion”. Contemporary interpretations, however, have tried to move beyond regarding rhetoric exclusively as a verbally or written form of discourse. That is, the meaning of rhetoric has changed, developing with the changes of technology. For the purpose of this thesis, the concept of digital rhetoric presents a relevant approach, as it helps to explain how traditional rhetorical strategies of persuasion function and are being rearranged according to the settings of digital space (Zappen, 2005). To Zappen, digital rhetoric unfolds over computers, digital texts and interfaces (2005). New technological developments offer more opportunities for persuasion through innovative, creative and interactive means. Thus, digital rhetoric is a collaboration of different forms of media and mediums along with the collaboration of people. Given the number of technological possibilities, of course, there are countless areas to consider in digital rhetoric but the focus of this reading will remain on the way content is delivered in mobile exergames. Generally speaking, delivery is the way in which a form of information is conveyed to a particular audience or group of people (Burton, 2014). In digital terms, these ideas of delivery can include and combine a persuasive visual piece, using audio as a form of interpretation or embedding a malleable digital text - all designed to make an argument or convey meaning. Thus, this
thesis expands Aristotle’s definition of rhetoric in terms of the importance of content delivery in digital environments.
Returning to the notion of games, a pioneer in connecting rhetoric with play is Brian Sutton-Smith, who used the concept in order to argue the ambiguity of play (2001). He defines rhetoric as a “persuasive discourse, or an implicit narrative, wittingly or unwittingly adopted by members of a particular affiliation to persuade others of the veracity and worthwhileness of their beliefs” (Sutton-Smith, 302). Thus, to him there are seven rhetorics that constitute the act of play, which, at the same time, make play too ambiguous to be truly defined. These are the rhetorics or persuasive discourses of play as progress, as fate, as power, as identity, as the imaginary, as self and as frivolous (Sutton-Smith, 2001). It is not necessary to explain each of the rhetorics, however, by listing them, the extent of persuasive dimensions involved within the act of play become clear. The dimensions help to bring order to the chaotic nature of play, however, and yet more relevant to this research, Sutton-Smith fails to explain how these are being used to turn play into a persuasive activity. The same is argued by Frasca, who states that Sutton-Smith excludes the processes and techniques through which play conveys meaning - that, per definition, should be the focus of the rhetoric of play as a discipline (Frasca, 2007).
To find an answer to the question of how meaning is created in play, it is necessary to move on to the field of game studies. This research puts forward the notion of the game theorist Ian Bogost, who mainly focuses on video games in his analyses. In his sense, to convey meaning is equal to transfer a rhetorical message from the game designer to the player (Bogost, 2008). This is an important implication for the methodological approach of this research as it implies that both designers and players need to be incorporated in order to answer the proposed research question adequately. In contrast to Sutton-Smith, Bogost is interested in the function of procedural representation and rhetoric used for persuasion. For instance, he considers video games as persuasive visual pieces, that are used in the form of procedural expression. In other words, video games make use of procedural rhetoric which is “the practice of using processes persuasively” (Bogost, 125). Through the interaction between game and player the basis is set for meaningful persuasion - “greater interactivity is often considered especially engaging, or immersive” (Bogost, 45). Bogost states that vividness is a result of abstraction rather than immersion, assuming that the closer the game is to a real experience, the better. However, he also emphasizes that, in video games, meaning is not conveyed through a simulation of the real world, but by replicating certain elements of that world (Bogost, 2008). Hence, persuasive video games make argument through process, which is only possible due to game’s normative elements (rules). Persuasion is then accomplished through (partial) reinforcement of player’s actions in the desired direction or into modifying their ideas.
Moving further toward an understanding of the rhetoric of mobile exergames, it is worth considering Bogost again - and in particular, his article “The Rhetoric of Exergames” (2005). In the
introductory part of that essay, Bogost states that he aims to “understand the ways that [exergames] motivate their players to engage in physical activity” (2005). Even though he is clearly looking at rhetoric as a mode of persuasion and engagement, his arguments remain mainly descriptive. He proposes five types of ‘rhetoric’ within a variety of different exergames, categorising them as the rhetoric of running, agility, reflex, training, and impulsion. However, he is only considering the formal properties of such exergames (hardware, logistics, etc.) and does not reflect on the impact they have on players. He justifies the lack of research by referring to the general issue in the study of exergames that there have not been enough studies conducted to make meaningful statements on how rhetoric and design of exergames influences players. Fast technological development during the last ten years is causing this thesis to consider Bogost’s essay as outdated. Formal properties of exergames have changed, making the field of mobile exergames more relevant than ever. Since this study aims at providing a framework for the rhetoric of mobile exergames, the following is an attempt to apply outlined concepts to the respective field of study. Doing so, a two-part approach is proposed, divided into the creation of meaning and the way players get persuaded.
It was stated that meaning in video games can be conveyed through the usage of real world elements: They can be seen in features such as GPS tracking, real-time update and sharing possibilities, as well as in general user and workout data. Since mobile exergames are targeted at the improvement of players’ personal fitness and health and can only function with exercise as input, a certain meaning to themselves is automatically created. Persuasion, however, represents a more complex factor. It has been argued that persuasion is gained through the reinforcement of players. Yet, there are no explicit rules in mobile exergames. It is possible to say that normative structures exist, such as, if players work out more frequently or for a longer duration, they earn more badges or get closer to their personal goals. Nevertheless, it has also been outlined that the adoption of scoring systems is not sufficient in order to gain the user’s commitment. Persuading individuals into engaging in physical activity has been the subject of study of designers and researchers alike (Gao et al., 2012). Existing literature suggests some factors contributing positively to persuasion such as societal features (peer pressure) (Whitehead et al., 2010). This research will concentrate on the way content is delivered, or more specifically, how narration can be used as a digital rhetoric in mobile exergames to create persuasion and lead to immersion, eventually. Therefore, the following chapter will engage in the relation of games and narrative, as well as how narrative can be applied as a rhetoric in mobile exergames to create a hybrid experience while exercising.
2.2 It’s complicated: Games & Narrative
Narrative has always been essential to the way people understand and create meaning (Langer et al., 2013). This way, experiences can be combined with contexts and emotions, while creating assemblages of cause and effect. As stated in the introduction, the power of narration has been used within the gaming industry largely. Indeed, some theorists claim that any application with a strong narrative component is a type of game, or rather that it has been gamified (Langer et al., 2013). Narrative in games is used in order to engage the player through fantasy, adventure and suspense. In this sense, stories facilitate a player's understanding of the importance of the activity to himself (Langer et al., 2013). Thus, using a thorough narrative aesthetic within a mobile exergame could increase and simplifies players’ state of being persuaded and influence exercising in a positive way.
However, what seems rather reasonable at a first glance, has caused extensive theoretical debates in the past. The most distinct and well-known is the “narratology vs. ludology” debate, which was mainly held in the field of game studies. To understand the reason for the debate it is necessary to go back to its origin: The starting point can be seen in the approaches proposed by some literature and media scholars, who applied concepts of traditional narrative theory on games (Murray, 2005). In the course of this, they claimed that games are a form of narrative and therefore also follow respective legitimacies. While play may be ambiguous, narrativists share a common understanding of narrative as games. In this sense, they do not necessarily mean a plot or the conventions of a drama, narrative rather needs to be understood as a holistic concept in communication - a universal instrument in the construction of meaning (Kelly, 2012). Hence, according to this paradigm, also movies and plays, as well as games like chess can be considered as a form of narration. It is this grander interpretation of the narrative idea that permits the inclusion of many other aspects of games as a part of the narrative experience. As a counter-reaction, game studies scholars refused to attribute narrative as part of a game and argued that narrative theory no longer holds for new forms of media (Simons, 2007). These scholars have been labelled as “ludologists”3, stating
“computer games are not narratives” (Juul, n.p.) because of the “direct, immediate conflict between the demands of a story and the demands of a game” (Costikyan, n.p.). To illustrate, ludologists consider games rather as a form of simulation that is the “hermeneutic Other of narratives; the alternative mode of discourse, bottom up and emergent where stories are top-down and preplanned” (Aarseth, 52). Thus, in games, players gain knowledge and experience along with their own actions and strategies, while those are only recreated by writers in novels or movies (Aarseth, 2004).
The intensity of the debate can be seen as a result of the confrontation of two opposing ideological positions when trying to substantiate the phenomenon of play. Today, however, the debate has subsided and this thesis is not attempting to rekindle the discourse. Theorists have come to agree on
simulation as a basic principle of play, yet acknowledging traditional narrative theory as part of the analysis of games in case they include originary narrative elements (excluding games such as Tetris and Chess) (Aarseth, 2012). For this research, it is not to question whether games are narrative or whether narrative theory can be applied on play. Instead, the following chapters aim at demonstrating that games are cross-media packages, which can use narrative as key in persuading players to exercise by immersing them into a hybrid reality. Incorporating narratology into game design can be useful to develop and diversify the field. Hence, “if some games tell stories, they are unlikely to tell them in the same ways that other media tell stories” (Jenkins, 120). This notion leads to the next subsection, which examines narrative as rhetoric in games.
2.2.1 Narrative as Rhetoric in Games
It has been stated earlier, that rhetoric in the context of this thesis needs to be understood as the faculty of persuasion in all possible means - including the way content is delivered in digital environments. This notion needs to be kept in mind when willing to identify narrative as rhetoric in games. There are a number of techniques that have been applied to make games “tell stories” with varying degrees of success (Aarseth, 2012). Since such narrative games differ in their designs notably from each other, there must be several modes of narrativity in games. If one is willing to explore these modes, it is first necessary to note that there is no general agreement on what counts as narrative. Theorists, however, share the opinion that narrative is the representation of a series or sequence of events, which are causally and chronologically connected (Genette, 1982; Scholes, 1981; Prince, 1982; Onega et al., 1996). According to this understanding a text such as "first you wash and drain a cup of rice and place it in a heavy kettle with three cups of cold water; then you boil for five minutes; then you reduce the heat and cook covered for eighteen minutes; then you remove from heat, let stand for a few more minutes, and enjoy!" is not considered as narrative because it lacks narrativity (Prince, 43). Building on the work of Marie-Laure Ryan, for whom narrativity arises in a network of relations between the different parts of a narrative (2006), Prince argues that the concept of narrativity has to do with the dynamics of "general narrative configuration" (48). Hence, alongside with representing events, the concept of narrativity also involves the structural interrelation between the various parts of the narrative whole. Yet, narratologists also agree on the fact that the sequence of events evolves around a problem or conflict that needs to be solved. This notion has caused other theorists, such as Greimas, to argue that recipes, like the one above, do have a narrative structure, since there is a problem (boiling rice), which can be solved through the causally and chronologically linked sequence of events. For Greimas, narrativity is the core of the organisation of meaning (1987). By defining structural relationships, narrative is responsible for the creation of meaning in almost any text (Greimas, 1987). This understanding of narrative offers room to refer back to section
2.1.3, where Bogost’s procedural rhetoric was introduced. According to Bogost, video games make use of procedural expressions to set the basis for meaningful persuasion. Games open up the unique possibility to achieve true procedural rhetoric as no other form allows receiving messages experimentally through the iterating interaction process between player and system in real time. This is exactly where the main difference between narratives and games lies: Narratives always relate retrospectively to a series of events, answering the question of 'what has happened' and how the problem was solved. It is possible to say that the end is prefigured in the beginning (Frasca, 2003). In contrast, games are always oriented towards a yet unknown and undecided future (Frasca, 2003). Even though, both forms vary in their perspectives, it does not necessarily mean that they are experienced differently – quite the contrary: a player characterises probably to the same level with his avatar like a reader does with the protagonist (Simons, 2007). Furthermore, both worlds, game world as well as narrative space, unfold during the interaction process. That is, while a reader is living the plot according to his very own pace, the player experiences a ‘game plot’ in real time, simultaneously with the actual play. In both cases, a person is aware that the experience will eventually come to an end.
Now, when narrative and games meet, it can be claimed that narrative provides the potential to reinforce the procedural representation of events, and hence, to increase persuasion, however, it is necessary that the narrative structure adapts to the formalized properties of the game. This is important to understand when moving closer toward a comprehension of the designspace of narrative games. An approach has been put forward by Aarseth, in which he defines four elements that exist across both dimensions (game and narrative): events, things, places and characters. The elements are ordered by play, and narratives structure the game (Aarseth, 2012). Since this research will build on these elements when designing the conceptual framework, they need to be discussed in further detail. With “things” Aarseth is referring to objects, which can either be used or built during gameplay (such as weapons), as well as non-interactable elements like buildings. Because of the freedom to use, create or modify such objects, Aarseth also considers them to be determining the degree of player agency and narrative control. Gameworlds, or places, are the structures that limit the play to a certain topology. More precisely, it is necessary to differentiate between two types of gameworlds: the playable space of the game and the surrounding area. The extent of the playable space varies from game to game and must be considered as a crucial strategy in game design in order to convey story material. Hence, the story unfolds respectively while the player discovers the playable space. The events that take place within the playable gameworld can be categorized from a scale of fully-plotted (pure story) to pure game (e.g. chess). Furthermore, the player is confronted with either linear or non-linear events depending on the extent of possible discourse and influence. The fourth element in Aarseth’s concept is “character”. The character or avatar can be identified according to its depth and its ability to be controlled by players. Depth in this sense can be seen
as either flat or round characters - flat characters stay the same throughout the game and round ones develop with the progress of the story (Forster, 1927). According to Aarseth, avatars present the most important dimension for storytelling in games, which also turns into the most relevant aspect when designing a narrative game - creating rich and deep characters.
The four elements introduced, in which narrative rhetoric in games unfolds, will serve as a foundation for the empirical part of the study. However, since the aim of the research is to uncover the influence of narrative on players of Zombies, Run!, such impact needs to be discussed as part of the theoretical framework as well. Therefore, before introducing the context of this research, the following two subchapters will analyse the matters of narrative immersion and hybrid experience.
2.2.2 Narrative Immersion
By experiencing a good story well told, immersive environments are automatically created. Long before computers, oral storytellers constantly established new virtual and immersive worlds. Suddenly, people are able to smell certain scents, to hear excitement in voices or to imagine zombies chasing them. Indeed, it is possible to claim that narrative immersion in games constitutes of the same properties as it does in books or movies. A player thus gets immersed in a narrative when he starts to be curious about the course of the story or when he starts caring about the characters. In her book Hamlet on the Holodeck, Janet Murray refers to immersion as the following: “we seed the same feeling from a psychologically immersive experience that we do from a plunge in the ocean or swimming pool: the sensation of being surrounded by a completely other reality, as different as water is from air, that takes over all of our attention, our whole perceptual apparatus” (98). The difficulty in designing games for or around a certain narrative is to know whether a player already feels immersed. It is to question to what extent the user already identifies with the characters and how much he allows himself to fall into and be lead by narrative structures. Generally, games can be designed more efficiently if the player’s likelihood to identify with the sequence of narrative events would be known in advance (Brooks, 2005).
As this thesis is focusing on mobile exergames which are able to create a hybrid reality, it shall be noted that well designed and coordinated sounds and visuals enhance the feeling of immersion in particular - a feeling where the mind follows the senses (Brooks, 2005). Belief, or at least the suspension of some disbelief, follows what is sensed. If something can be seen, heard and manipulated, if not also felt, then it can be believed (Brooks, 2005). To be immersed means that the mind is an active participant in the narrative event, whether or not there is any physical indication of such engagement like body movements. People’s desire to experience immersion makes them focus their attention on the unfolding world. They actively create belief instead of questioning the reality of the experience (Murray, 1997). This way, the real is turned into a virtual reality. When full narrative immersion happens (someone is
completely drawn into a story) very often, time appears to slow and sometimes stop. In psychology this is also called “flow”, which is the mental state of operation, where full immersion into a certain activity occurs (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990). For a period, the story world becomes reality, and when that happens, time in the outside world seems to stop. The awareness of surroundings disappears and people are losing track of personal concerns. To be immersed means to be engaged, not just physically but also mentally and perhaps also emotionally. The flexibility of narrative time provides the space (or rhythm) within which the participant’s mind can be fully occupied. In a sense, narrative experiences (reading, listening, watching) are merely catalysts for a mental activity that is also called narrative.
Through the delivery of appropriate visuals and sounds by immersive media (see chapter 2.1.3 rhetoric of delivery) a strong belief in what is experienced can be developed on both levels, on the intuitive as well as on the cognitive (Brooks, 2005). Therefore, theorists suggest that instead of focussing only on narrative sequences in games, it is more beneficial to concentrate on narration as a whole, or rather the way the story is told (Clark & Mitchell, 2001). As a consequence, a particular message can be communicated to the players. In terms of mobile exergames, the message would be, simply put, to make people run. Thus, the application is aiming at the player’s participation. By presenting a narrative context in an inviting way, reason for participation can be created (Brooks, 2005). However, in order to reach the highest level of participation, it is important not to violate the player’s established belief in the narrative context. It will be shown later on, that discontinuity in the experience is the main reason for losing a player’s trust and hence his reason for participation.
At this point of the thesis, it has been stated that there are certain elements in which narrative in games can unfold, and furthermore, that the unfolding of narrative can lead to immersion. Now, it is to specify even further, as the state of immersion occurs within a hybrid space when it comes to mobile exergames. Therefore, it is not enough to focus on the impact of narrative as rhetoric exclusively, but also to situate it in the context of a hybrid system. In this research, Benford’s four core facets of hybrid realities that form the overall experience will be used to complete the conceptual framework. Those facets play critical roles in virtual storytelling within mobile exergames and provide valuable models for hybrid experiences.
2.2.3 Hybrid Experiences
In the book “Performing Mixed Reality” (2011), Benford and Giannchi refer to what is so-called virtual continuum4 - a continuous scale ranging between many environments of different nature (the real-environment, augmented reality, augmented virtuality and virtual environment):
Fig. 1 - Mixed Reality Contiuum
The reality-virtuality continuum therefore encompasses all possible variations and compositions of real and virtual objects. The area between the two extremes, where both the real and the virtual are mixed, is the so-called mixed reality. This in turn is said to consist of both augmented reality, where the virtual augments the real, and augmented virtuality, where the real augments the virtual. This research will draw on the concept in order to create an understanding of the complex system it is about to empirically investigate. To approach this, Benford puts forward four core facets that create the overall experience of hybrid systems - or, in context of this thesis, attributes that form the experience of a mobile exergame. Those four attributes to be considered are space, time, role and interface. There is a definite similarity to Aarseth’s concept of narrative rhetoric in games introduced in chapter 2.2.1. By opposing the dimensions of each concept, the resemblance becomes especially obvious:
Fig. 2 - Aarseth vs. Benford
However, it is important to remember that while Aarseth is concerned with locating narrative in games, Benford aims at creating an understanding of the experience of hybrid systems such as mobile exergames. Thus, this thesis considers Benford’s approach as based on Aarseth’s, but instead of remaining at the surface, it reaches deeper into detecting the impact on players.
Space
The spatial structure, in which the hybrid reality performance takes place, is one of the most essential parts of user experience. What Aarseth referred to as “playable gameworld”, must now be seen as a connection of physical and virtual locations. Doing so, the connection can occur in different ways: Either both locations are experienced at the same time (overlaid), there is communication happening between
each connection (remote, but connected) or the connection can only be experienced sequentially (adjacent).
Roles
The main role is the participant (player), who is central target of the experience. Additionally, there are two more important roles involved within mobile exergames, which Benford calls “the actor” and “the operator”. This research considers the actor as equal to the avatar and the operator as the one, who guides through the experience within the exergame.
Time
A hybrid experience is very complex, especially in terms of its temporal nature combining multiple timeframes. While Aarseth states that events in games either happen linear or non-linear, the temporal structure in a hybrid performance consists of five key layers - story time, plot time, schedule time, interaction time and perceived time. Interactions between these layers may naturally lead to episodic modes of engagement with an experience.
Interface
Technological interfaces blend together structures of previously outlined facets (space, roles and time). Even though Benford discusses a variety of differing interfaces, for the purpose of this thesis the only relevant is the participant’s (player), which equals a smartphone and more specifically the interface of the application Zombies, Run!.
In order to be able to make connections from the real to the virtual, the player needs to pass through certain transition phases. Transitions are the moments where the continuity of the experience can be broken. It has been argued before that these are essential in order to keep the player in a state of immersion and hence to provide reason for his participation. Outlined aspects will serve as components of the conceptual framework, which is tested within the empirical part of this thesis. After having build the theoretical scheme including the cultural significance of play, the rhetoric of mobile exergames, how narrative can be used to create immersion leading to hybrid experiences in mobile exergames, the following chapter will now introduce the object of study, Zombies, Run!. The application will serve as the context in which the empirical study is placed. Zombies, Run! is unique in its design and therefore represents an expedient object of study, that is capable of combining the issues of mobile exergame, narrative rhetoric, immersion and hybrid experience. The chapter benefits from insights gained through an interview with the creator of the app (the interview transcript can be found in appendix number 1).
Together with further reviews on the application, the interview enables the justification of why Zombies, Run! is designed the way it is. This part also consists of the differentiation of Zombies, Run! from conventional mobile running exergames, as well as the analysis of how narrative is built into the app.
3. Context
3.1 Zombies, Run!: Get Fit. Escape Zombies. Become a Hero.
Zombies, Run! is a mobile running exergame, which, metaphorically speaking, represents a combination of “RunKeeper”, in the world of “The Walking Dead” while adding the gameplay of “SimCity”. This unique combination turns the app into an immersive running game and audio adventure, which, at the same time, makes it one of a kind. It was developed by the London-based game developer and entertainment company Six to Start in cooperation with the author Naomi Aldermann. Since its success in a Kickstarter campaign in 2011, Zombies, Run! has turned into a phenomenon in the world of mobile exergames, selling over a million copies in the last few years. On Six to Start’s website the app is presented as “the most successful smartphone fitness game ever”.5 In contrast to its competitors, such as Nike+ or RunKeeper, that mainly make use of the scoring system as a single game dynamic (see section 3.2 for a more detailed distinction), Zombies, Run! was build upon a strong narrative in order to motivate its players. The story is used to turn the act of running into an immersive experience, that, by looking at current statistics, has already led players to run a total of 20.000.000 km on a global scale.6
Six to Start has adopted a rather uncommon business model, which is the combination of storytelling and new technology in order to create a unique game experience. It is possible to say, that the company practically implements what has been discussed in theory during previous chapters of this thesis. For the purpose of the research an extensive interview was conducted with the CEO and founder of Six to Start, Adrian Hon. Insights gained within the interview play an important role during the upcoming part of the thesis and add great value to statements made. In order to answer the research question an additional field study was executed, in which 10 participants were asked to use the app for two weeks. Open-ended semi-structured interviews were conducted after the two-week period, which are structurally based on Benford’s four dimensions of performing mixed reality. Before this research will introduce the data collection and analysis, it will first provide insights into the design of Zombies, Run!.
A natural first question when introducing Zombies, Run! is: How does the app work and what is it that makes the game persuade its players to exercise? Zombies, Run! provides a fictional setting that situates the player (will be called “runner” hereafter) right in the centre of a zombie apocalypse in a
5 http://www.sixtostart.com/about/
virtual town called Abel Township. The runner equals the main character of the story, which is told as a first-person narrative directed to the protagonist (“Runner5”). When the app is in use, the runner is supposed to listen to the story via headphones while exercising. This way, the story can be told without distracting from the physical activity and contradicts previously discussed and outdated critique of Bogost, who claims that technical limitations stand in the way of exergame play. Each running session is designed as a “mission”. During each mission a number of short narrative segments unfold in between a customised playlist through a series of dynamic radio messages and voice recordings. The short segments tell not only the story of each mission, but also the broader narrative that ties all missions together. Each mission lasts either 30 or 60 minutes, however, for experienced runners who are willing to run for a longer duration, the mission automatically shifts to radio mode. Thus, the runner can still listen to radio broadcast and collect items (will be explained in the further course) even though the mission has already finished. To founder Hon, this is a very important feature, since the app is supposed to be suitable for both beginners and experienced runners.
There are a number of missions to complete and their completion will advance the story. Also, during listening to each mission the runner automatically “collects” a variety of items. “Collecting” in this sense does not mean that he actually has to collect them, but rather that they get credited to his account as supplies essential for surviving. These objects can be used to improve the runner’s virtual base in the Zombies, Run! application. It is not until a runner finishes exercising until such ‘video game’ element comes into its own.
Fig. 3 - Screenshots Zombies, Run! (Missions & Base Builder)
The runner is invited to rebuild Abel Township any way he likes, constructing hospitals, housing and recreation areas, etc. Hence, the more missions a runner completes, the more he is able to improve his base. In addition, there is the possibility to turn on the “Zombie Chase” feature. This feature enables occasional one-minute sprinting sequences, in which the runner is “escaping” from “zombies”. In order to be able to escape the zombies, an increase in speed by 20% is necessary. However, it is impossible to die, which, again, is due to the reason, that the app shall be convenient for runners no matter their experience. Also, the chases do not affect the overall narrative in a significant way. Nevertheless, when running too slow, the runner loses collected items. During a 30-minute mission two to three chases occur. To summarize, the following illustration depicts how missions are designed and what elements they consist of:
Fig. 4 Overview Mission Structure Zombie, Run! (image courtesy of Six to Start)
3.2. Zombies, Run! vs. conventional Mobile Running Exergames
Referring back to Wittgenstein’s family resemblance, introduced at the beginning of the thesis, it could be argued that the genre of mobile running exergames represents a family within the overall world of games. The comparison will thus allow to move closer towards a definition of Zombies, Run!, as the way in which the family members of mobile running exergames resemble each other is not through a particular feature but through a variety of features, which are shared by some, but not by all members of respective family.
There is a number of mobile running exergames next to Zombies, Run!. According to the amount of downloads, the five most successful of them are RunKeeper (13M), Nike+ (12M), RunTastic (4,6M), Strava (4,3M) and Endomondo (3,5M).7 For the purpose of this research all of them were downloaded
and tested regarding their features. The results of the comparison are presented within the following table:
Fig. 5 - Comparison Mobile Running Exergames (see appendix 4 for a larger view)
It is important to realize, that the way in which they are designed is very similar and they generally consist of the same elements - with a few exceptions. As stated within the chapter on exergames (2.1.2), the main functionality of such apps is the tracking of physical movement via GPS. In addition, they provide statistics on burned calories, pace and duration of the exercise. Besides setting personal goals and workout plans and sharing runs with your friends, these apps function as a utility instead of a game. Indeed, it is questionable why those apps are showcased as “posterboys” of gamification (Robertson, 2010). While analysing the characteristics of those five apps, there was, however, one thing that needs to be considered as valuable evidence for the further course of this thesis: RunTastic’s “Story Running”. Story Running was added as a new feature just last year and can be seen as attempt to enter competition with Zombies, Run!. To illustrate, the app now includes an additional category, in which the user is offered several different stories to listen to while running. Like in Zombies, Run! the story is directed at the runner in order to become “fully immersed” (see screenshots below):
Fig. 6 - Story Running RunTastic
Also, the stories are produced by professional actors and directors just like in Zombies, Run!. However, RunTastic offers a variety of different stories to choose from serving a broader audience, and, even more important, they are pure narratives. Story Running is added as an additional layer and not included in the actual dynamic of the app. This way, the designers of RunTastic can be certain, that they will not interfere with existing and well-known features, yet, it evokes previously outlined critique of gamification: Adding one particular game dynamic will not turn the entire activity into a more engaging experience, while it is also problematic to call a plain story a game dynamic.
The designers of Zombies, Run! are willing to move beyond using latest technology merely for body monitoring and data tracking purposes. The belief that quantifying oneself is key to a healthier and happier society might be a misleading one and ignores the role of how such content is delivered. Hence, the conversion of data and metrics into emotions that actually persuade people and lead to engagement remains disregarded in “mobile exergames” that function only as a utility. Yet, apps such as Nike+ and RunTastic serve a greater market than Zombies, Run!. This is not only recognizable by the number of sold copies (Nike+12M vs. Zombies, Run! 1M), but also by considering the apps’ properties as such. Furthermore, it needs to be noted that Zombies, Run! is a chargeable app (3,99€), while those conventional mobile exergames listed are available for free. The barrier to start using Zombies, Run! is thus much higher as costs may discourage potential users from buying the app. The argument gains in
