Instagram Imperfections: Self-objectification, Self-esteem, Body positivity and Cosmetic surgery among Young Women
Nerinne Croes 12275263 Master’s Thesis
Graduate School of Communication Master’s programme Communication Science
Entertainment communication Supervisor: Dr. Isabel Rodriguez de Dios
14th of February, 2020
Abstract
Since Instagram is one of the most popular high-appearance social media platform including the idealistic beauty standards for women today, previous studies have investigated Instagram’s various correlations and have found that long hours spent on Instagram has led to increased objectification behaviours as well as decreased self-esteem. It has also been found that Instagram has encouraged positive attitudes towards cosmetic surgery among young women, particularly young women with low self-esteem. Correspondingly, previous studies have found that body positivity movement is indeed challenging these mainstream beauty ideals and has led to increased body satisfaction and improved mood for the young women. This master research aimed at investigating if there were any correlations between daily Instagram usage with self-objectification, self-esteem, body positivity and cosmetic surgery among young women. After conducting an online survey among a sample of 165 young women, it has been found that there was a significant relationship between Instagram use and cosmetic surgery, as well as a
significant relationship between self-esteem and cosmetic surgery. A new finding has further been found concerning a significant correlation between body positivity and attitudes towards cosmetic surgery. Body positivity has also been found to be significantly correlated with different levels of education. However, there were no significant correlations found between daily Instagram use with self-objectification behaviour, self-esteem and body positivity content. All in all, Instagram use does indeed stimulate positive attitudes towards considering cosmetic surgery in the future to an extent, when young women experience low self-esteem. It may be that self-objectification is not that relevant for young women today, due to more female
empowerment on Instagram, where it can serve as a powerful tool for both promoting and educating about body diversity.
Key words: social networking sites, self-objectification, Instagram, internalization, social comparison, body positivity, cosmetic surgery, appearance comparison, tripartite influence model
Introduction
The young women of the 21st century are daily bombarded with idealistic standards of beauty
due to the international growth as well as the increasing popularity of Instagram. Instagram has around 800 million global users who share approximately 95 million photos and videos on a daily basis (Cohen, Fardouly, Newton-John & Slater, 2019). Due to Instagram’s primary use concerns sharing images, Instagram has become one of the most important online environments where beauty ideals are being redefined and shaped (Fardouly, Willburger & Vartanian, 2018; Hu, 2018; Wiederhold, 2019). These beauty ideals’ exposures have encouraged
self-objectification trends among women which may be harmful to their body image and self-esteem (Cohen, Newton-John & Slater, 2017; Fardouly et al., 2018; Hu, 2018). Instagram has thus possibly contributed to a societal pressure among young women to share their most aesthetic photographs and/or videos (Ahadzadeh, Pahlevan Sharif & Ong, 2017; Feltman & Szymanski, 2018; Hu, 2018). Ahadzadeh et al. (2017) further added that they display their best photos concerning their appearance, by editing their photos and only sharing content that portrays a happy and successful existence, in order to impress others and to receive approval (Strubel, Petrie & Pookulangara, 2018). According to Butkowski, Dixon and Weeks (2019), Instagram users receive feedback in the form of likes and comments from their peers, which is a way of seeking social acceptance and validation.
Naturally, after being exposed to such perfect images and positive feedback on Instagram, young women have a higher tendency to engage in appearance comparison and to alter something about their physical appearance if they are not satisfied with it, such as opting for cosmetic surgery (Hu, 2018; Walker, Krumhuber, Dayan & Furnham, 2019). In addition, the
higher the frequency of Instagram use, the higher the desire to undergo cosmetic surgery (Arab, Barasain, Altaweel, Alkhayyal, Alshiha, Barasain, Alessa & Alshaalan, 2019; Chen, Ishii, Bater, Darrach, Liao, Huynh, Reh, Nellis, Kumar & Ishii, 2019; de Vries, Peter, Nikken & de Graaf, 2014). The desire of undergoing cosmetic surgery can further be explained by body
dissatisfaction. Prior studies have shown a strong relationship between total time spent on social media and body dissatisfaction (Arab et al., 2019; Butkowski et al, 2019; Sharp, Tiggemann & Mattiske, 2014; Stapleton, Luiz & Chatwin, 2017). For instance, Brown and Tiggemann (2016) have found that exposure to Instagram images of attractive celebrities and attractive unknown peers led to negative mood and body dissatisfaction. In addition, Stice and Shaw (2002) have argued that body dissatisfaction may be a risk factor for disordered eating, which possibly contributes to dieting, depression and substance abuse. Subsequently, body dissatisfaction is recognized as a major public health concern worldwide today (Sharifi, Omidi & Marzban, 2016).
Accordingly, there is current trend happening on Instagram concerning body positivity movement, which aims at challenging “mainstream beauty ideals and encourage acceptance and appreciation of all body types” (Cohen et al., 2019, p. 1546). Previous research have found that exposure to body positivity content has led to improvement in young women’s psychological, emotional and social well-being, and has also contributed to healthier eating patterns, more exercising, improved positive mood, body satisfaction and body appreciation (Cohen, Irwin, Newton-John & Slater, 2019; Cohen et al., 2019). Additionally, Cohen et al. (2019) have also found that body positive content on Instagram were linked to increased self-objectification.
Therefore, this master research aims to examine the extent of how young women objectify themselves due to Instagram usage. The study further examines if there is a strong
relationship between Instagram use with self-esteem of young women and cosmetic surgery considerations. Ultimately, it will examine if both Instagram use and body positivity posts are either positively or negatively associated with the level of self-esteem among young women. Therefore, the research question is as follows: To what extent does Instagram usage correlate with self-objectification, self-esteem, cosmetic surgery and body positivity concerning young women?
Instagram stimulates objectification behaviour and influences self-esteem
Instagram is a social networking site (SNS) that “provides users with an immediate means to capture and share their experiences” (Stapleton et al., 2017, p. 142), where users can apply filters to them and share these on their personalized page (Alhabash & Mengyan, 2017; Butkowski et al., 2019; Jackson & Luchner, 2018; Wagner, Aguirre & Sumner, 2016). Active female users spend quite some time browsing and posting pictures of, for instance, social events they attended or images of their physical appearance, on their accounts regularly (Hu, 2018; Saiphoo &
Vahedi, 2019; Wiederhold, 2019). Instagram is thus very much integrated in our daily lives, and is used the most by individuals younger than 35 years old (Clement, 2019; Sherlock & Wagstaff, 2019). Therefore, this research will focus on young women aged between 18 and 35 years old. Young women are further able to produce and present their ideal self, which is defined as the way they desire to look like (Hendrickse, Arpan, Clayton & Ridgway, 2017; Ahadzadeh, et al., 2017). Instagram has thus become one of the most popular online photo-sharing social media platforms for women, where young women build their identities around their bodies, making Instagram the most up to date source of what is the ideal body image for women (Hu, 2018; Tiggemann & Barbato, 2018; Wiederhold, 2019).
Consequently, Instagram usage has raised concerns for self-objectification, body image and self-esteem among young women (Hu, 2018; Marengo, Longobardi, Fabris & Settani, 2018). It has indeed been established that Instagram usage has been found to be positively associated with self-objectification among young women (Feltman & Szymanski, 2018; Tiggeman & Barbato, 2018; Lamp, Cugle, Silverman, Thomas, Liss & Erchull, 2019; Vendemia & DeAndrea, 2018; Marengo et al., 2019). Instagram usage and self-objectification among women has further been found to be correlated with increased body dissatisfaction and mental health disorders, such as appearance anxiety, depression and sexual dysfunction (Hu, 2018; Vandenbosch &
Eggermont, 2012; Lamp et al., 2019; Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997; Tiggemann & Williams, 2012). When young women engage in producing the best content of their idealized self, the objectification theory can be used to explain this societal pressure. According to Frederisckson and Roberts (1997), objectification theory is a sociocultural analysis of the mental health consequences of women living in a culture where their female bodies are being sexually objectified. The objectification theory proposes that women in the Western society are viewed and evaluated predominantly in terms of their physical and sexual attractiveness, which encourages women to view themselves from this observer’s perspective (de Vries et al., 2014; Feltman & Szymanski, 2018; Veldhuis, Alleva, Bij de Vaate, Keijer & Konijn, 2018; Tiggemann & Barbato, 2018). Self-objectification develops due to gradual socialization of internalization of viewing themselves as “objects to be looked at and evaluated” (Tiggerman & Barbato, 2018; Feltman & Szmyanski, 2018. p. 311). Internalization develops when an individual “has accepted societies’ beauty ideals and engages in behaviour to achieve that ideal” (Feltman & Szymanski, 2018; Walker et al., 2019, p. 1). Accordingly, women engage in self-objectification behaviour
due the great deal of value placed “on posting photos that reflects societal standards of beauty” (Lamp et al., 2019, p. 705).
Furthermore, the development of women objectification has greatly affected the
development of young women’s self-esteem and it has led to increased body dissatisfaction and negative emotional states, by experiencing body shame and appearance anxiety (Hu, 2018; Moradi & Huang, 2008; Stapleton et al., 2017). In addition, prior studies have found that the sharing and promoting of self-image can lead to a negative experience which will diminish the self-esteem among young women in the long run, where mostly young women are more susceptible to experience this (Schmuck, Karsay, Matthes & Stevic, 2019; Wiederhold, 2019). Instagram further serves as a guide for categorizing women’s body images as socially acceptable or unacceptable. If women are perceived as socially misfit, they will experience low self-esteem, whereas women whose body images are recognized as socially acceptable, their self-esteem will be strengthened (Hu, 2018; Walker et al., 2019). Self-esteem is defined as the positive and negative evaluations of an individual (Schmuck et al., 2019), to “the extent to which the individual views the self as worthwhile and competent” (Stapleton et al., 2017, p. 142).
Since prior studies have found that longer exposure to Instagram stimulates
objectification behaviour, the first hypothesis proposes that the more time young women spend on Instagram, the more likely they will engage in self-objectification behaviour (Hu, 2018; Schmuck et al., 2019; Wiederhold, 2019). Walker et al. (2019) have further found that young women experience low self-esteem when they spend long hours on Instagram. Therefore, the second hypothesis predicts that young women will experience lower self-esteem, if they spend a great amount of time on Instagram. Since the development of objectification behaviour has been found to be linked with the development of self-esteem, the third hypothesis also predicts the
lower the self-esteem, the more likely young women will engage in self-objectification (Hu, 2018; Stapleton et al., 2017). Finally, young women with low self-esteem are more likely to engage in self-objectification behaviors (Lamp et al., 2019; Veldhuis et al., 2018). Hence, the fourth hypothesis proposes that self-esteem will mediate the relationship between Instagram usage and self-objectification. (See Figure 1).
Does Instagram use encourage cosmetic procedures?
Through the socialization processes in all cultures, beauty ideals are shared via a mix of
sociocultural channels, including parents and friends, current social media outlets and traditional mass media (Keery, van den Berg & Thompson, 2004). The development of both self-esteem and cosmetic surgery considerations due to socially accepted beauty ideals are further explained by the Tripartite Influence Model, which states that the ideals of beauty “are reinforced and transmitted by three primary sociocultural influences: peers, parents and the media” (Walker et al., 2019, p. 1). Sood, Quintal and Phau (2017) explained that women’s attitudes toward cosmetic surgery is influenced by their sociocultural environment concerning family members or friends who had prior cosmetic surgery experiences. Moreover, due to scrolling through Instagram, women are constantly exposed to media images of thin and attractive peers and celebrities (Brown & Tiggemann, 216). The thin-ideal is “one prominent beauty ideal of the sociocultural pressure for women to maintain a […] youthful physique,” referring to “a thin body size, curvaceously slender, physically appealing, and unrealistically thin” (Perloff, 2014, p. 364; Vendemia & DeAndrea, 2018, p. 119).
All these exposed beauty ideals on Instagram influence young women’s self-esteem (Hu, 2018; Walker et al., 2019). Schmuck et al. (2019) explained that self-esteem is built around “social acceptance, social relationships, and received social feedback,” where social feedback is the most important aspect in developing personal self-esteem (p. 3). SNS has thus created a new trend of appearance pressure, since “evaluating one’s own and other’s physical attractiveness is an important part of social network use” (de Vries et al., 2014, p. 284). This is in line with Instagram reinforcing and transmitting beauty ideals “when users observe conventionally attractive individuals receiving attention and positive commentary about their appearance” (Feltman & Szymanski, 2018, p. 313). All these observed beauty ideals further provide young women numerous opportunities for social comparison (Stapleton et al., 2017). Women have the tendency to engage in appearance comparison and end up being dissatisfied (Hu, 2018).
Appearance comparison claims that women engage in comparing their own appearance to the idealized images exposed in the media (Sharp et al., 2014; Nerini, Matera & Stefanile, 2014). When women experience body dissatisfaction after comparing themselves to other attractive peers and celebrities on Instagram, they have the tendency to do something about their low self-esteem (Hu, 2018; Walker et al., 2019). As a consequence, Instagram has potentially influenced women to engage in more permanent appearance changes by encouraging cosmetic surgery (Walker et al., 2019). Cosmetic surgery refers to “any invasive procedure where the primary intention is to achieve what the patient perceives to be a more desirable appearance and where the procedure involves changes to bodily features […]” (Arab et al. 2019). Cosmetic treatments can be both surgical (e.g. rhinoplasty) and non-surgical (e.g. Botox). With the emerging trend of undergoing cosmetic surgery, around 16 million cosmetic surgeries were performed on women
in 2018 (American Society of Plastic Surgeons, 2019). For instance, the number of facial injectable treatments increased by over 33% from 2017 to 2018 as cited in Youn (2019).
Undergoing cosmetic surgery is thus not taboo anymore today, since “minimal invasive procedures, reduced recovery times and improvements in cosmetic procedures” are all main contributions of why society is accepting cosmetic surgery as a way of enhancing physical appearance (Sood et al., 2017, p. 186). Sharp et al. (2014) further added that attitudes towards cosmetic surgery may be altered due to the constant exposure of cosmetic surgery on social media, in the manner of also viewing cosmetic surgery as normal and acceptable means of improving physical appearances. Moreover, Nerini et al. (2014) have indeed found an
association between media influence and positive attitudes toward cosmetic surgery. Both Arab et al. (2019) and de Vries et al. (2014) have also found that the longer hours spend on SNSs, the greater the desire to consider having cosmetic surgery done. In addition, Youn (2019) also mentioned that recent surveys have found that Instagram indeed encourages patients to consider undergoing cosmetic surgery. Finally, Walker et al. (2019) found that frequent social media users were more inclined to be less satisfied with their physical appearance and hence, were more likely to consider cosmetic surgery in the future
Due to that prior studies have found that frequent Instagram users have built a higher tendency to consider cosmetic surgery in the future, the seventh hypothesis predicts that great Instagram usage will have a direct relationship with positive attitudes towards cosmetic surgery among young women (Arab et al., 2019, de Vries et al. 2014; Youn, 2019). Other studies have found that young women with low self-esteem have the tendency to do something about their appearance through cosmetic surgery (Hu, 2018; Walker et al., 2019). Hence, the eighth hypothesis proposes that young women with low self-esteem, are more likely to consider
cosmetic surgery in the future. Finally, previous studies have found that frequent Instagram use have affected self-esteem negatively due to appearance comparison and body dissatisfaction, which has contributed to more positive attitudes towards cosmetic surgery (Chen et al., 2019; Hu, 2018; Walker et al., 2019). Therefore, the ninth hypothesis predicts that women who spend more time on Instagram are more likely to build positive attitudes towards undergoing cosmetic surgery, which is mediated by self-esteem (See figure 2).
Can #BoPo slam internalized beauty ideals?
Due to Instagram exposure, women experience body dissatisfaction and low self-esteem caused by the socially accepted beauty ideals, specifically thin-ideal in Western cultures, which “are generally unattainable for most women” (Cohen et al., 2019, p. 1547; Hu, 2018; Saiphoo & Vahedi, 2019; Tiggemann & Barbato, 2018). For example, a study conducted among 10.000 women have found that 89% of them were not satisfied with their physical appearance, because they desired to resemble the thin-ideal instead (Widdows, 2018). It has indeed been found that this societal pressure among women is associated with body dissatisfaction, thin-ideal
internalization, low self-esteem and anxiety (Cohen et al., 2019; Cohen et al., 2017; Tiggemann & Zinoviev, 2019; Brown & Tiggemann, 2016; Walker et al., 2019). Saiphoo and Vahedi (2019) further added that when women engage in objectifying behaviour, they also engage in
appearance comparison. According to the social comparison theory, it is human nature that individuals tend to compare themselves with others in terms of our abilities and opinions (Fan, Deng, Dong, Lin & Wang, 2019; Brown & Tiggemann, 2016).
Accordingly, a group of women have united and responded with the body positivity movement. Body positivity is also known as body positive movement and originated from the
1960s where feminists encouraged a fat acceptance movement “that emerged in reaction to the rise in anti-fat discourse in Canada and the United States” during that period (Cohen et al., 2019, p. 248). Body positivity movement can be defined nowadays as an online social movement aiming at challenging dominant societal beauty ideals in order to encourage appreciation of all body types and to build self-esteem (Cohen et al., 2019; Cohen, et al., 2019; Cywnar-Horta, 2016; Tiggemann & Zinoviev, 2019). Positive body image is defined as the full embracing of love and respect for one’s body, which contains 6 components: body appreciation, body acceptance and love, conceptualizing beauty broadly, adaptive investment in body care, inner positivity and lastly, protective filtering of information (Cohen et al., 2019).
Instagram offers a new platform for women to partake in the body positivity movement to promote body diversity (Kelly & Daneshjoo, 2019). There are about 7, 069, 114 body positive hashtags (#bodypositive) and there are about 2, 195, 968 #bodypositivity posts on Instagram (Cohen et al., 2019). In addition, #BoPo refers to the abbreviation of #bodypositivity. This movement has encouraged other Instagram users to share their diverse body shapes and sizes by including the afore-mentioned hashtags (Saiphoo & Vahedi, 2019). That is the body positivity movement’s strategy of celebrating women’s bodies exactly as they are and the objective of sharing unedited and natural photos “will lead to normalization and acceptance of real bodies and less upward comparisons” (Tiggemann & Zinoviev, 2019, p. 132).
In fact, Cohen et al. (2019) found that if women view body positivity posts, the more likely their mood and self-perceptions will improve, which will increase body satisfaction and body appreciation. In addition, it has been found that even a quick peak of Instagram’s body positivity posts, lead to “both improved mood and body image” among young women
positive correlation between positive body image and “enhanced emotional, psychological and social well-being, as well as physical health outcomes” such as healthier eating patterns (p.48). Moreover, Kelly and Daneshjoo (2019) also found that #bodypositive content on Instagram resulted in inspiration for other women, by serving as a source of social support that promotes a sense of identity and female empowerment. The more likes, shares and positive reactions these posts get, the higher the empowerment and affirmation (Veldhuis et al., 2018). Cohen et al. (2019) further concluded that #BoPo content has led to increased self-objectification, since appearance-focused content of body positivity indeed can be a form of expressing their
acceptance and pride concerning their body image, however, it can also reflect the focus on their appearance instead of their competences. To my knowledge, there is not much research done on Instagram use and its correlation with body positivity content among young women. Hence, this study aims to investigate if the online body positivity movement is indeed helping young women coping with idealistic beauty standards. The only way women can experience body satisfaction is when they “reject societal ideal and trends of attractiveness,” which seems like a difficult thing to do (Hu, 2018, p. 100).
Since prior studies have found that even a sneak peak of body positivity content on Instagram has led to increased body appreciation, this master research predicts that #BoPo will lead to boosted self-esteem (Cohen et al., 2019; Wiederhold, 2019). Therefore, the fifth
hypothesis proposes that more exposure to body positivity posts on Instagram will moderate the direct relationship between Instagram use and esteem, which will lead to enhanced esteem. Cohen et al. (2019) has also found that body positivity has possibly led to increased self-objectification since its content reflects women’s emphasis on their appearances instead of their competences. Young women with different levels of body positivity will have different levels of
objectification, explained by self-esteem, such that people with high level of body positivity score less on self-objectification compared to people with low levels of body positivity. The sixth hypothesis then proposes that the association between Instagram use and
self-objectification is moderated by body positivity. Finally, according to my knowledge, no studies have researched if there is a possible correlation between body positivity and cosmetic surgery, and therefore this study will examine that gap. Young women with different levels of body positivity will have different level of cosmetic surgery explained by self-esteem, such that people with high level of body positivity score less on cosmetic surgery. The tenth hypothesis then proposes that the indirect association between Instagram use and cosmetic surgery is moderated by body positivity (See figure 1 & 2).
Figure 2. Moderated Mediation model for Cosmetic Surgery
The present study
This study contains one predictor which is Instagram usage, one mediator which is self-esteem and also one moderator which is body positivity. There are also two other dependent variables: self-objectification and cosmetic surgery. After measuring these variables, this study will possibly contribute to other studies who did not include cosmetic surgery in their study
concerning body positivity (e.g. Cohen et al., 2019). In addition, another body positivity study (e.g. Cwynar-Horta, 2016) did not include self-esteem as a possible variable to measure a relationship with body positivity. Furthermore, since previous studies have found that frequent Instagram usage can be problematic for young women, particularly concerning their
development of self-esteem which can potentially contribute to health problems and body dissatisfaction, this study aims to further extend prior studies by including body positivity as a possible moderator which can perhaps lessen pressure concerning body images, in relation with Instagram, self-objectification, self-esteem and cosmetic surgery.
Methodology Participants
The sample consisted of 165 young women. There were three inclusion criteria: participants had to own or used to own an Instagram account, secondly, the participants had to be female and lastly, they had to be aged between 18 and 35 years old. Among the 337 surveys, 172 did not meet the criteria (e.g. one participant was aged 62) and others did not complete it. Of the 165 young women in the final sample, 37 participants (22, 4%) were from Europe (e.g. The Netherlands and Italy), 13 participants (7,9%) were from South America (e.g. Venezuela and Colombia), 93 participants (56,4%) were from the Caribbean Islands (e.g. Aruba and Curaçao), and the remaining 22 participants (13, 3%) were from other countries (e.g. Australia and United States). The mean age of the 165 young women was 27.11 (SD = 3.71). Furthermore, 159 (96.4%) of the young women own an Instagram account and 6 (3.5%) used to own an Instagram account.
Procedure
The participants were recruited via snowball sampling, which is choosing a small group of people relevant to the research question and that specific small group will establish contact with others, by spreading the survey to other individuals (Brymann, 2012). The participants were recruited via the researcher’s own social network, namely peers from the University of Amsterdam, Erasmus University, The Hague University, University of Aruba, old classmates from International School of Aruba, Primark, WhatsApp, Facebook and Instagram. They had completed an online web-based survey, which consisted out of eleven questions. The self-completion questionnaire was created via Qualtrics survey software. Primarily, respondents read
the informed consent and indicated their consent by taking the survey by clicking a button. They were informed about their anonymity being protected and also that the information collected is solely intended for educational purposes. After obtaining the respondents’ consent, they were directed to the webpage containing the survey. The survey was presented in the following order: Instagram use, self-objectification, body positivity, self-esteem and cosmetic surgery. The respondents were thanked after completion of the survey.
Measures Instagram usage
Instagram usage was measured based on two questions: “how often do you check (or used to check) Instagram? (M= 4.22, SD = 1.22),” where response options ranged from 1 (= not at all) to 8 (= every 5 minutes) and also “how long do you spend (or used to spend) on Instagram on a typical day (M=4.29, SD=2.47),” where responses ranged from 1 (= 5 minutes or less) to 13 (=10 hours or more). (See Appendix B). The responses were multiplied together in order to obtain an approximation of daily Instagram use. (Bell, Cassarly & Dunbar, 2018; Fardouly et al., 2017). The respondents spend on average about 18 minutes on Instagram on a daily basis.
Self-Objectification
This variable was assessed by the Self-Objectification Questionnaire of Noll and Frederickson (1998). This questionnaire consists out of 12-item measures, which measures the extent to which participants view their appearance-related characteristics (objectified) in relation to their
competence-based characteristics (non-objectified). Participants were required to rank these 12-item attributes in ascending order of impact, namely from 1 = most impact to 12 = least impact
(See Appendix B). The scores were calculated by summing the ranks for the appearance- and competence elements separately, and then subtracting the sum of both from each other (Range = -31 to 37). This measure has satisfactory construct validity (Bell et al., 2018; Noll &
Frederickson, 1998). Due to the fact that it was a ranking scale, self-objectification was
computed into two separate variables: appearance-based and competence based. However, only appearance-based variable was relevant for further measurement, where 3 of the 6 items were reversely coded (M = 1.73, SD = .60) and ranking was based from 1 equaling least impact to 6 equaling most impact.
Body Positivity
Firstly, body positivity was briefly defined. It was measured based on two questions, from which the first included the 13-items of Body Appreciation Scale (BAS) by Avalos, Tylka and Wood-Barlow (2005), which measures trait body appreciation. Participants were able to respond on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from never to always. (See Appendix B). The scale resulted in very good reliability (α = .85) with a mean of 3.66 (SD= .62). The other question measured attitudes towards body positive accounts by asking participants “how often do you view body positive content on Instagram on a daily basis?” Participants were able to respond on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from never to always (M= 2.83, SD= 1.02).
Self-Esteem
This variable was measured by the 10-item of Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale and respondents were able to respond on a 7-point scale Likert scale ranging from “strongly Disagree” to
or “I wish I could have more respect for myself.” (See Appendix). After conducting a factor analysis, items 2, 5, 6, 8 and 9 were coded reversely, and therefore, the scale resulted in very good reliability (α= .89).
Cosmetic Surgery
This variable was assessed by using the 15-item Acceptance of Cosmetic Surgery (ACSS) in order to measure the attitudes towards cosmetic surgery and the response options were based on a 7-point Likert scale ranging from “Strongly Disagree” to “Strongly Agree.” The ACSS was divided into three different elements concerning cosmetic surgery attitudes, namely social, intrapersonal and consider. (Henderson-King, Henderson-King, 2005; Swami, Campana,
Ferreira, Barret, Harris & Tavares, 2011). (See Appendix B). This test showed to have excellent reliability (α = .90), with a mean of 3.94 (SD = 1.13).
Results
Pearson’s product moment correlation was conducted to find out if there are any other controlled variables for the outcomes self-objectification and cosmetic surgery. (See Table 1).
Table 1. Pearson’s correlation between all the variables
Regression analysis was conducted by using Hayes’ Process Macro, model 8. (Hayes, 2018). The first regression model with self-esteem as the outcome, daily Instagram use as the predictor, body positivity as the moderator and age and education as the covariates, resulted to be positive and significant by 7%, R2 = .07, F (5.0000, 159.0000) = 2.28, p = .0493. Thus 7% of the variance in self-esteem was explained by Instagram use and body positivity movement, and the interaction variable. However, self-esteem did not mediate the relationship between Instagram use and self-objectification because the whole model was non-significant. Daily Instagram
usage, b = 0.01, t = .96, p = .338, 95% CI [-0.02, 0.05], was positively and weakly but non-significantly associated with self-esteem. Therefore, H2 was rejected since daily Instagram use did not have a direct association with selfesteem. Furthermore, body positivity, b = 0.01, t = -1.29, p = .199, 95% CI [-0.01, 0.00], did not moderate the relationship between self-esteem and Instagram use, and hence, H5 was rejected. The other covariates that were also included in this regression analysis, were also not significant and had a very weak and negative strength towards self-esteem: age, b = -0.02, t = -1.45, p = 150, 95% CI [-0.04, 0.00], and education, b = -0.06, t = -1.31, p = 192, 95% CI [-0.15, 0.03].
Following the second regression model with self-objectification as an outcome, daily Instagram use as the predictor, self-esteem as the mediator, body positivity as the moderator and with two covariates, namely age and education, resulted to be positive and non-significant by 1%, R2 = .01, F (6.0000- 158.0000) = .21, p = .902. Thus 1% of the variance in
self-objectification was explained by Instagram use and self-esteem, and the interaction variable. However, body positivity did not moderate the relationship between Instagram use and self-objectification because the whole model was significant. There was a negative and non-significant direct relationship between daily Instagram use, b = - 0.01, t = .31, p = .754, 95% CI [-0.03, 0.04], and self-objectification, therefore H1 was rejected. Self-esteem, b = .02, t = .23, p = .819, 95% CI [-0.16, 0.20], did further have a positive but non-significant association with self-objectification, which lead to the rejection of H3. Furthermore, due to self-esteem being non-significant, it did not mediate the relationship between Instagram use and self-objectification, which led to the rejection of H4. Finally, body positivity had a negative and non-significant indirect association with Instagram use and self-objectification, b = -0.00, t = -0.41, p = .683,
95% CI [-0.01, 0.01], which lead to the rejection of H6. Thus, it did not moderate the relationship between Instagram use and self-objectification. Moreover, the other covariates included were also negatively and non-significantly associated with self-objectification: age, b = 0.00, t = .69, p = .489, 95% CI [ -0.02, 0.04] and education, b = 0.00, t = .07, p = .94, 95% CI [-0.10, 0.10]. Thus, there was a non-significant indirect relationship of how young women self-objectify themselves while they spend long hours on Instagram (see Figure 3).
Another regression analysis was performed using Process model 8 for the model
including cosmetic surgery. The second regression model with cosmetic surgery as the outcome, daily Instagram use as the predictor, self-esteem as the mediator, body positivity as the
moderator and two other covariates, namely age and education, resulted to be positively and significantly associated by 14%, R2 = .14, F (6.0000- 158.0000) = 4.28, p = .001. Thus 14% of the variance in cosmetic surgery was explained by Instagram use and self-esteem, and the interaction variable. However, self-esteem did not mediate the relationship between Instagram use and cosmetic surgery, because the 95% confidence limits included zero, which led to the rejection of H9. Daily Instagram usage, b = .01, t = .31, p = .756, 95% CI [-0.06, 0.07], had a non-significant association with cosmetic surgery and hence, H7 was rejected.1 However,
self-1 After completing Process model 8, daily Instagram use resulted to be non-significantly associated with cosmetic surgery, when body positivity was included as a moderator in this model. However, after completing Process model 7, there was a significant correlation between daily Instagram use and cosmetic surgery. The second regression model with cosmetic surgery as the outcome, daily Instagram use as the predictor, self-esteem as the mediator, body positivity as the moderator and two other covariates, namely age and education, resulted to be positively and significantly by 12%, R2 = .12, F (4.0000- 160.0000) = 4.74, p = .001. Daily Instagram usage, b = .02, t = 3.59, p = .000, 95% CI [0.01 – 0.03], had a direct association with cosmetic surgery and hence, H7 was accepted. Furthermore, H7 was also accepted after completing a simple regression with daily Instagram use as independent variable which was significant, F(1, 163) = 8.81, p = .003. The regression model can therefore be used to predict the relationship with cosmetic surgery, but the strength of the prediction is weak: five per cent of the
esteem, b = 0.40, t = 2.52, p = .012, 95% CI [0.09, 0.71] did have a positive and significant relationship with cosmetic surgery. Therefore, H8 was accepted. As for the final hypothesis, body positivity, b = 0.00, t = .29, p = .069, 95% CI [-0.79, 0.03], did not moderate the indirect relationship between daily Instagram use and cosmetic surgery. Hence, H10 was rejected. Furthermore, the controlled variables did not have any significance as predictors for cosmetic surgery: age, b = 0.03, t = 1.37, p = .200, 95% CI [- 0.03, 0.33] and education, b = .03, t = 1.38, p = .171, 95% CI [-0.01, 0.01]. Thus, there was a non-significant and negative indirect
relationship of how young women constructed positive attitudes toward cosmetic surgery while they spend long hours on Instagram. (See Figure 4).
Figure 3. Moderated Mediation model for Self-Objectification
surgery had a significant and weak association with daily Instagram use, b* = 0.23, t = 2.97 , p = .003, 95% CI [0.01, 0.03]. Per year, the predicted frequency of using Instagram daily increases by 0.02.
Figure 4. Moderated Mediation model for Cosmetic Surgery
Discussion & Conclusion
All in all, Instagram is considerably used on a daily basis among young women where they spend on average 18 minutes on the platform. There were four major findings concerning the research question: Instagram use and self-esteem were both found to be correlated with cosmetic surgery and a negative association was found between body positivity and cosmetic surgery, as well as a significant association between body positivity and education. It can be concluded that due to the exposure of attractive female Instagram users, young women might be encouraged to view cosmetic surgery as a possible means of altering their physical appearance after comparing themselves and experiencing body dissatisfaction. When they experience body dissatisfaction, their self-esteem will diminish and they will then automatically want to do something about it and hence, cosmetic surgery can possibly boost their self-esteem in the long run. Furthermore, the association between body positivity and cosmetic surgery may be due to the rising female empowerment, where women should be free in their pursuit of happiness. Body positivity further
promotes and educates other young women about accepting different beauty ideals instead of the thin-ideal.
Ultimately, Instagram use did not have an association with self-esteem, body positivity and self-objectification. Perhaps self-objectification is not really relevant for young women today as they are more open to nudity and sexuality on Instagram, as well as to more female
empowerment. The content shared today reflects the acceptable societal standards of beauty. After all, it is important to acknowledge that beauty is subjective.
Implications of the findings
Instagram usage resulted to be weakly associated with cosmetic surgery. Thus, Instagram is to a small degree problematic for young women, because exposure to such “perfect” photographs of other peers and celebrities can eventually lead to body dissatisfaction. These beauty ideals exposed on Instagram are then internalized and as a natural human trait, young women engage in appearance comparison, which could possibly lead to consideration of altering their appearance when experiencing body dissatisfaction (Hu, 2018); Walker et al., 2019). Moreover, the
association between Instagram use and cosmetic surgery can further be explained by the
normalization of cosmetic surgery. Cosmetic surgery is now perceived as an acceptable means of improving physical appearance (Sharp et al., 2014; Sood et al., 2017; Walker et al., 2019). That is also visible on Instagram. There are many shared stories about the before and after of cosmetic surgeries, where Instagram users share their experiences. Thus, the greater the exposure of these beauty ideals and normalization of cosmetic surgery on Instagram, the higher the positive attitudes towards cosmetic surgery. This goes in line with other studies who have found the
higher the frequency of Instagram use, the higher the desire to undergo cosmetic surgery (Arab et al., 2019; Chen et al, 2019; de Vries et al., 2014; Young 2019).
Furthermore, self-esteem was also found to be moderately correlated with cosmetic surgery, due to the possible fact that young women with low self-esteem have a greater tendency to consider undergoing cosmetic surgery (Brown & Tiggemann, 2016; Hu, 2018; Walker et al., 2019). Moreover, self-esteem is also built on Instagram via socializing and receiving validation from other peers. If one’s body image is perceived as socially misfit, then young women will experience low self-esteem and might be more susceptible to cosmetic surgery (Hu, 2018; Walker et al., 2019). Oddly enough, Instagram use did not have an association with self-esteem. Stapleton et al. (2017) have also found that Instagram did not directly affect self-esteem but they suggested that Instagram use is vital for young women’s self-worth, since they built it based on others’ approvals. Perhaps self-esteem should be measured differently because Instagram use and self-esteem were negatively correlated, but according to literature it does have a positive
association with self-esteem (Cohen et al., 2019; Schmuck et al., 2019; Tiggemann & Barbato, 2018; de Vries et al., 2014).
Following body positivity, it was found to be correlated with cosmetic surgery after conducting Pearson’s r. Perhaps cosmetic surgery is indeed normalized by family members and peers as well as female Instagram users who had prior cosmetic surgery experiences, according to the Tripartite Influence Model. It may influence young women’s perception about beauty ideals to some extent and it could possibly encourage positive attitudes towards cosmetic surgery. However, body positivity aims at challenging mainstream beauty ideals and this can be further explained by the correlation found between body positivity and different levels of
of sharing unedited and natural photos did not sufficiently lead to normalization and acceptance of real and natural bodies as was found in Tiggeman and Zinoviev (2019). It could be that women do feel a societal pressure to look at their best most of the times and this could also be explained by the Tripartite Influence Model. For instance, young female are taught at a very young age to eat healthy so that they do not get fat. Thus at a very young age, they already form negative perceptions about larger bodies. Education about body diversity and body appreciation can initially be taught at a young age starting with parents. Accordingly, Instagram can also serve as a powerful tool where young female activists can continue to educate and inspire others about body appreciation and female empowerment (Kelly & Daneshjoo, 2019).
Moving on to non-significant associations, body positivity did not have a correlation with self-esteem via Instagram, by internalizing body appreciation. It could be challenging for body positivity content to reshape body images for young women who have internalized societal beauty ideals. Moreover, both Cohen et al. (2019) did not measure self-esteem in their studies. Perhaps self-esteem should also be taken into account. However, it has been found that exposure to body positivity content has led to improved body image and emotional well-being (Cohen et al., 2019; Cohen et al., 2019; Wiederhold (2019). Furthermore, young women protect themselves by filtering out information on Instagram that can have a negative impact on their body image (Veldhuis et al., 2018).
Following the next non-significant association found between body positivity and self-objectification, this can be further explained by beauty objectification. Women can be judged based on their identification with their bodies but in the context of beauty as a value framework where a body is a carrier of meaning and identity, without primary consideration of being sexually desirable. Part of achieving beauty in some contexts is by “looking sexually confident
and empowered” (Widdows, 2018, p. 184). Thus women look good for themselves which simultaneously result as pleasing men is just a by-product, since women self-objectify themselves based on their physical and sexual attractiveness in the Western culture (Ibid).
This leads and contributes to the final finding where the model for self-objectification was completely insignificant, even though other studies have found that self-objectification has led to body anxiety and decreased self-esteem (Hu, 2018; Moradi & Huang, 2008; Stapleton et al., 2017). This may be further explained by the new women empowerment on Instagram. The higher the feminists beliefs, the higher the protective role (Feltman and Szymanski, 2018). They become more selective and deliberate in choosing to engage with more positive forms of media use (Veldhuis et al., 2018). Young women are uniting and embracing more sexuality and nudity in today’s society, while other Instagram female users shares words of encouragement and positive feedback. As Lamp et al. (2019) stated that a great deal of value is placed “on posting photos that reflects societal standards of beauty” (p. 705). Perhaps young women are aiming at more freedom concerning their body after all, which is why it should be taken into consideration if self-objectification is still relevant for today’s younger generation.
Ultimately, previous studies haven’t taken into account measuring positive attitude towards cosmetic surgery in relation to body positivity, whereas this study has contributed to a new finding between these two variables which can be further explored in the future. Moreover, this study also found that body positivity can also be encouraged through different levels of education, which can possibly diminish body dissatisfaction. Since body dissatisfaction is declared a public health concern today, it is important for sociocultural environments to be less harsh towards judging young women’s bodies and to be more accepting towards different body types. The societal pressure can result in various health concerns and negative emotional
well-being. Instagram users can spread positive messages to tackle insecurities, low self-esteem and body dissatisfaction that can potentially reach a global audience.
Limitations and suggestions for future research
My sample included only young women, so future research can further investigate if Instagram also influences middle-aged and older women. To my knowledge, no research has been done on this sample and hence, this study recommends for further investigation if all these shared stories also contributed to the normalization of cosmetic surgery and if it minimizes this taboo for the middle-aged women and older women as well. Women between 40 and 54 years old made up 49% of the total cosmetic procedures in 2018, which is almost the half! (American Society of Plastic Surgeons, 2019). Of course Instagram is mostly popular among users aged between 18 and 29, but users aged between 30 and 49 also account for 47% of the Instagram demographic (Tran, 2020). However, there was no correlation found between age and cosmetic surgery in this study and this could be due that age was a correlated variable, which is why different
measurements should be used to tackle these two variables
Moreover, to my knowledge, this is one of the few quantitative studies that looked at how Instagram use was correlated with both body positivity and cosmetic surgery. Future studies could build upon the results, due to the new finding of body positivity being correlated with cosmetic surgery. Perhaps a larger sample size would generate better results. Initially, this study wanted to generalize some statements between Europe, Caribbean Islands and South America, as well as other countries, but the measurement for countries resulted to be inadequate to do so. There were two questions for this variable, namely one with some boxes where participants can click if they are from Aruba, for example, and another where they can fill in the blank. (See
Appendix A). These two were difficult to combine together in SPSS. Therefore, nationalities were excluded. In addition, age was also excluded because it was also not positively correlated with any of the variables.
Finally, the ranking scale used for self-objectification was not valid for this study. However, it was valid and reliable for Bell et al. (2018) and Noll and Fredierickson (1998). It could be due misunderstandings, since some participants informed that they did not entirely understand the question. Perhaps a Likert scale would have been more comprehensible, such as the 7-point scale from Objectified Body Consciousness Scale developed by McKinley and Hyde (1996). In addition, perhaps the model for cosmetic surgery could have been measured
differently as well, by making self-esteem the predictor and Instagram use the mediator. That way the model could have resulted to be completely significant, since prior studies have found a positive correlation between self-esteem and Instagram usage (Hu, 2018; Marengo et al., 2018).
Conclusion
To sum up, Instagram use may be problematic in the long run if used frequently concerning body dissatisfaction for young women, as they are more susceptible to internalize the exposed beauty ideals and that can possibly lead to lower self-esteem. When one experience low self-esteem, one can possibly built positive attitudes towards cosmetic surgery. Therefore, education might be key in addressing body diversity. However, body positivity have also had an association with
cosmetic surgery and this is possibly due to its normalization via family members, peers and Instagram.
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Appendix A. The Survey Dear participant,
With this letter, I would like to invite you to participate in a research study to be conducted under the auspices of the Graduate School of Communication, a part of the University of Amsterdam. The title of the study for which I am requesting your cooperation is ‘Instagram Use and its influences on Self-Esteem’. The online survey consists out of 11 questions regarding Instagram usage and your opinion about physical appearance. Only students who owns or has ever owned an Instagram account may participate in this study.
The study will take about 15 minutes.
As this research is being carried out under the responsibility of the ASCoR, University of Amsterdam, we can guarantee that:
. 1) Your anonymity will be safeguarded, and that your personal information will not be passed on to third parties under any conditions, unless you first give your express permission for this.
. 2) You can refuse to participate in the research or cut short your participation without having to give a reason for doing so. You also have up to 24 hours after participating to
withdraw your permission to allow your answers or data to be used in the research. . 3) Participating in the research will not entail your being subjected to any appreciable risk or
discomfort, the researchers will not deliberately mislead you, and you will not be exposed to any explicitly offensive material.
. 4) No later than five months after the conclusion of the research, we will be able to provide you with a research report that explains the general results of the research.
For more information about the research and the invitation to participate, you are welcome to contact the project leader Nerinne Croes at any time (nerinnecroes@hotmail.com).
Should you have any complaints or comments about the course of the research and the
procedures it involves as a consequence of your participation in this research, you can contact the designated member of the Ethics Committee representing ASCoR, at the following address: ASCoR Secretariat, Ethics Committee, University of Amsterdam, Postbus 15793, 1001 NG
Amsterdam; 020‐525 3680; ascor‐secr‐fmg@uva.nl.
Any complaints or comments will be treated in the strictest confidence.
We hope that we have provided you with sufficient information. We would like to take this opportunity to thank you in advance for your assistance with this research, which we greatly appreciate.
Kind regards, Nerinne Croes
Informed consent
I hereby declare that I have been informed in a clear manner about the nature and method of the research, as described in the email invitation for this study.
I agree, fully and voluntarily, to participate in this research study. With this, I retain the right to withdraw my consent, without having to give a reason for doing so. I am aware that I may halt my participation in the experiment at any time.
If my research results are used in scientific publications or are made public in another way, this will be done such a way that my anonymity is completely safeguarded. My personal data will not be passed on to third parties without my express permission.
If I wish to receive more information about the research, either now or in future, I can contact Nerinne Croes (nerinnecroes@hotmail.com).
Should I have any complaints about this research, I can contact the designated member of the Ethics Committee representing the ASCoR, at the following address: ASCoR secretariat, Ethics Committee, University of Amsterdam, Postbus 15793, 1001 NG Amsterdam; 020‐ 525 3680; ascor‐secr‐fmg@uva.nl.
Instagram usage
Because of the aim of the study, only females aged between 18-35 years old and who have or used to have an Instagram account can participate.
1. Do you have an Instagram account? 1) Yes
2) Used to have 3) No
If no, this survey will terminate
2. Are you female? 1) Yes 2) No
If no, this survey will terminate
3. Are you aged between 18 and 35 years old? 1) Yes
2) No
If no, this survey will terminate
4. How often do you check Instagram? (Even if you are logged on all day) 1) Not at all
2) Every few days 3) Once a day 4) Every few hours 5) Every hour 6) Every 30 minutes 7) Every 10 minutes 8) Every 5 minutes
1) 5 minutes or less 2) 15 minutes 3) 30 minutes 4) 1 hour 5) 2 hours 6) 3 hours 7) 4 hours 8) 5 hours 9) 6 hours 10) 7 hours 11) 8 hours 12) 9 hours 13) 10 hours or more Self-Objectification
The questions below identify 12 different body characteristics. I would like you to rank order these body characteristics from that which has the greatest impact on your physical self-concept (rank this a “12”), to that which has the least impact on your physical self-concept (rank this a “1”).
Please first consider all 12 attributes simultaneously (at the same time), and then rank order the questions by dragging the highest impact to the lowest impact on your physical
self-concept. Scale: 12 = most impact to 1 = least impact.
When considering your physical self-concept what rank do you assign to...
6. When considering your physical self-concept... 1) ... physical coordination?
(= the ability to move different parts of your body together easily or e.g., doing a jump jack requires moving the arms and legs at the same time)
2) ... health? 3) ... weight?
4) ... muscular strength? 5) ... sex appeal?
6) ... physical attractiveness? 7) ... physical energy level? 8) ... firm or sculpted muscles? 9) ... physical fitness level? 10) ... coloring?
(e.g., skin tone, eyes, hair color) 11) ... measurements?
(e.g. chest, waist, hips)
12) … what rank do you assign to energy level or stamina?
(= the physical and/or mental health to do something that might be difficult and will take a long time or e.g. when you can run a long marathon without getting tired)
Body Positivity
Body positivity is defined as content on Instagram that challenge mainstream beauty ideals and encourage acceptance and appreciation of all body types.
7. Below is a list of statements dealing with your general feelings about your body appreciation. Please indicate whether the question is true about you never, seldom, sometimes, often, or always.
1) I respect my body
Never Seldom Sometimes Often Always 2) I feel good about my body
Never Seldom Sometimes Often Always 3) On the whole, I am satisfied with my body
Never Seldom Sometimes Often Always 4) Despite the flaws, I accept my body for what it is
Never Seldom Sometimes Often Always 5) I feel that my body has at least some good qualities
Never Seldom Sometimes Often Always 6) I take a positive attitude toward my body
Never Seldom Sometimes Often Always 7) I am attentive to my body’s needs
Never Seldom Sometimes Often Always 8) My self-worth is independent of my body shape or weight
Never Seldom Sometimes Often Always
9) I do not focus a lot of energy being concerned with my body shape or weight Never Seldom Sometimes Often Always
10) My feelings toward my body are positive, for the most part
Never Seldom Sometimes Often Always 11) I engage in healthy behaviors to take care of my body
Never Seldom Sometimes Often Always
12) I do not allow unrealistically thin images of women presented in the media to affect my attitudes toward my body
Never Seldom Sometimes Often Always 13) Despite its imperfections, I still like my body
Never Seldom Sometimes Often Always
8. How often do you view body positive content on Instagram on a daily basis? 1) Never
