The Power of the Imaginary: The Role of Narrative Fiction Film at the Human Rights Film Festival

(1)

Universiteit van Amsterdam

Faculty of Humanities, Department of Media Studies

MA: Preservation & Presentation of the Moving Image

The Power of the Imaginary:

The Role of Narrative Fiction Film at the

Human Rights Film Festival

Ruth Sweeney

Student Number: 10849475

Supervisor: Dr Marijke de Valck

Second Reader: Christian Gosvig Olesen

(2)

The Power of the Imaginary:

The Role of Narrative Fiction Film at the

Human Rights Film Festival

TABLE OF CONTENTS

————————————————————————————————————————

1. INTRODUCTION ………2

1.1 Observational Overview 2

1.2 Aims and Objectives 4

1.3 Structure 5

1.4 Methodology: Legitimations and Limitations 7

1.5 Historical Context 9

1.5.1 Human Rights 9

1.5.2 Film Festivals 10

2. AN ANALYSIS OF HUMAN RIGHTS FILM ………..13

2.1 Origins of the Human Rights Film 13 2.2 Ethics of Spectatorship 16

2.3 The Prominence of Non-Fiction Documentary Film 21 2.4 Interrogating “Truthfulness” 24 3.THE POWER OF THE IMAGINARY: A CASE FOR NARRATIVE FICTION FILM…..26

3.1 The Advantages of Narrative Fiction Film in the Human Rights Context 26 3.2 Reaching New Audiences 30 3.3 Utilising Emotional Engagement for Pedagogical Purposes 34 4. MOVIES THAT MATTER, THE HAGUE………..37

4.1 Festival Background 37 4.2 Overview of Programming: 2015 Edition 39 4.3 Narrative fiction films at Movies that Matter 41 4.4 Film in Focus: Timbuktu, Abderrahme Sissako, France/Mauritania, 2014 46 5.CONCLUSION………..48

(3)

1. INTRODUCTION

________________________________________________________________________________

1.1 Observational Overview

No art passes our conscience in the way film does, and goes directly to our feelings, deep down into the dark rooms of our souls.

- Ingmar Bergman (1918 - 2007) 1

The above quote, by the legendary film director Ingmar Bergman (fig.1), encompasses the idea shared by many human rights film festivals and their organisers: that the medium of film is powerful enough to tap into our innermost selves. Such human rights film festivals are motivated by the belief that, by penetrating our conscience, film is impacting enough to provoke change and therefore plays an important role in the global quest for justice. The notion that what is seen on-2

screen can be translated into “action” off-screen encapsulates the nature of human rights film festivals, and as Sean Farnel points out, justifies their existence. Whilst a number of human rights 3

Ingmar Bergman as quoted in Marcel Danesi, Popular Culture: Introductory Perspectives (Plymouth: Rowman and Littlefield

1

Publishers,2012), 141.

Dina Iordanova, “Film Festivals and Dissent: Can Film Change the World?” in Film Festival Yearbook 4: Film Festivals and

2

Activism, ed Dina Iordanova et al. (St Andrews: University of St Andrews Film Studies Department, 2012), 13.

Sean Farnel as quoted in Alex Fischer, “Hot Docs: A Prescription for Reality: An Interview with Sean Farnel, Former Director of

3

Programming at Hot Docs Canadian International Documentary Festival” in Film Festival Yearbook 4: Film Festivals and Activism, ed Dina Iordanova et al. (St Andrews: University of St Andrews Film Studies Department, 2012), 228.

Fig. 1, Ingmar Bergman in the 1970s,

(4)

film festival programmers, activist filmmakers and film festival theorists refer to this notion of the transformation of the viewer into an “active” spectator, I want to clarify that such festivals are not necessarily aiming to transform all those who attend the festival into fully fledged frontline activists. The purpose is more subtle: to alert consciousness, to spur thought processes and to shape opinion. In this sense having a viewer “act” may not mean that he/she becomes an “activist” but rather that the viewer becomes part of a growing body of opinion that can indeed lead to, or influence, political change.

Unlike mainstream film festivals such as Cannes, Venice or the Berlinale, this transformative element is one of the primary features of human rights film festivals. Whilst the larger festivals may programme individual films, or smaller sections within the broader festival agenda which cover similar topics, film festivals focusing specifically on human rights issues are designated platforms for social advocacy. Such festivals seek to highlight the “social impact of film,” whilst simultaneously aiming to mobilise the festival goer into action by presenting films which expose human rights violations and social injustices. Film festival theorist Sonia M. Tascon observes, 4

along with other scholars writing on the topic, that such festivals predominantly screen non-fiction documentary films over narrative fiction films. This suggests that the non-fiction documentary film 5

is generally regarded by film festival programmers as a more powerful pedagogical tool than the narrative fiction film, and in turn is more likely to drive the spectator to act. Deriving from the fact that documentary is the predominant medium, film festival theorist Leshu Torchin describes the human rights film festival to be “a field of witnessing” whereby the programmed films should be regarded as “testimonies” and the festival audiences as “witnessing publics”. This analysis relies 6

on the idea that the non-fiction documentary film, like testimonials in a juridical setting, embodies the essence of truth and reality. Arguably, the depiction of real people in the real world encourages audience members to engage on a deeper emotional level with the subjects caught on camera, and consequently the spectator is more likely to actively respond to what they have seen on-screen. 7

Cindy Hing-Yuk Wong, Film Festivals: Culture, People and Power on the Global Screen, (New Jersey: Rutgers University Press,

4

2011), 160.

Sonia Tascon, Human Rights Film Festivals: Activism in Context, (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2015), 7.

5

Leshu Torchin, “Networked for Advocacy: Film Festivals and Activism” in Film Festival Yearbook 4: Film Festivals and Activism,

6

ed Dina Iordanova et al. (St Andrews: University of St Andrews Film Studies Department, 2012), 3.

Jeremy Lehrer, “Bringing Abuses to Light: The Human Rights Watch International Film Festival Focuses the Public Eye on Human

7

(5)

Despite the precedence given to the concept of “truthfulness” in this circumstance, a number of human rights film festivals still include in their programme, albeit to a much lesser degree, narrative fiction films. If the presence of non-fiction documentary film at the human rights film festival rests on the assumption of this medium’s closeness to “truth,” then the object of this thesis is to examine the potential contribution of narrative fiction films in the context of such festivals.

1.2 Aims and Objectives

This thesis will interrogate whether the inclusion of narrative fiction films in the human rights film festival programme contributes to the desired network of action, focusing on the differences between the way in which the two mediums, non-fiction documentary film and narrative fiction film, mobilise the spectator. Whilst a number of contemporary film festival theorists have explored the dominance of non-fiction documentary film at these festivals, currently there appears to be little published on the topic which attempts such a comparison. Therefore, in order to frame my analysis I will draw on the work of a number of scholars working in the fields of cultural studies and international relations, most notably Safia Swimelar who has published essays in favour of educating on human rights through fiction film. I will expand upon Swimelar’s theories, transposing them into the realm of film festival studies. This will address a gap in the literature of film festival theory. Furthermore Elizabeth S. Anker, argues that in many cases different art forms, due to their existence in the realm of the imaginary, play an important role in shaping moral principles and ideals that “lie at the heart of a culture’s robust respect for human rights.” In this thesis I will apply 8

this claim to fiction film, suggesting that precisely because the medium is not shaped by the constraints of truthfulness as is the case with non-fiction documentary film, it nevertheless serves a vital role in human rights advocacy. Arguably, by reminding us of our ideals through fantasy and imagination, fiction film, like art and literature, can indeed nurture popular awareness of human rights abuses, promote “values and expectations” and encourage the active fight against social injustice. 9

Following this line of reasoning, this thesis seeks to challenge the apparent choice made by festival programmers to prioritise the notion of “truthfulness” when selecting films for human rights film festivals. Rather, I will aim to demonstrate that ethical considerations, the messages films deliver

Elizabeth S. Anker, “Human Rights in Literature” in The SAGE Handbook of Human Rights, ed Anja Mihr et al. (London: SAGE

8

Publications ltd, 2014), 460. Ibid.

(6)

and the circumstances in which they are screened and contextualised, are of paramount importance. I will argue that the inclusion of both fiction and non-fiction films at such festivals allows the overall message of the festival to reach a wider audience, proposing that a more balanced combination of both documentary and narrative fiction film helps a human rights film festival to achieve its primary goal: to “educate, enlighten and mobilise” as many viewers as possible. 10

1.3 Structure

The second chapter examines in more detail the concept of the human rights film, briefly tracing its history and emergence as a film genre. I consider the ethics of cinema and spectatorship, drawing on work by Downing and Saxton who claim that all forms of art, including film, are imbued with ethics. I explore the set of ethical and political demands negotiated by both fiction and non-fiction 11

films, when they are presented in the human rights context examining how this differs between the two mediums. I analyse the prominence of documentary film at the human rights film festival and interrogate further the theory of the “testimonial encounter” presented by Torchin, and examine why, despite the vast body of published literature that questions the “reality” and “neutrality” of the documentary medium, the understanding of it as a “document of truth” still persists in the context of the human rights film festival. I attempt to look beyond the truth concept in order to justify the place of the fiction film in the festival programme.

The third chapter presents the case for the inclusion of fiction films at the human rights film festival. I consider whether there is a difference between the potential of non-fiction and fiction films to encourage audiences to take action. I frame the argument in the context of cultural theorists who have presented a case for the use of fiction film and literature as a pedagogical tool. Opposing Sobchack’s view, I argue that films do not necessarily have to depict real people in order for the viewer to relate what they see on-screen to the real-world, particularly when films are presented in the context of a human rights film festival. This is an idea Tascon touches on, but does not 12

develop. I also make the claim that narrative fiction film, whilst it embodies the tropes of 13

mainstream cinema, is a more accessible medium than documentary film, so may attract a broader

Iordanova, “Film Festivals and Dissent” 16.

10

Lisa Downing and Libby Saxton, Film and Ethics: Foreclosed Encounters. (Hoboken: Taylor & Francis, 2010), 1.

11

Vivien Sobchack, “Towards a Phenomenology of Nonfictional Film Experience,” in Collecting Visible Evidence, ed. Jane Gaines et

12

al, (Minneapolis; London: University of Minnesota Press, 1999), 244. Tascon, Human Rights Film Festivals: Activism in Context, 44.

(7)

festival audience. I argue that by presenting human rights issues via the medium of fiction film, human rights film festivals combat what Moeller has described as “compassion fatigue.” 14

Arguably, by harnessing the spectators’ emotional engagement with narrative storytelling, the “fatigue," caused by the repetitive bombardment of distressing images hurled at us by the media, can be reversed.

Chapter four presents as a case study the Amnesty International film festival, Movies that Matter which is held annually in Den Haag. The festival aims to serve an international community and presents an expansive platform of events and film screenings whereby film is promoted as a “weapon against social indifference.” I focus specifically on the festival’s programming, analysing 15

the way in which both non-fiction documentary and fiction films are selected and presented to the audience. I examine how the applied modes of presentation in both cases encourage the active spectator. I was particularly interested to note that this year’s (2015) programme included almost one-third fiction film, a high number compared with other human rights film festivals. The festival website, printed programs, and festival edition newspapers provided a lot of material for analysis. I also gained first-hand observational experience by attending this year’s festival. I evaluate how the contextualisation of film screenings enhance a film’s transformative power, and how this varies between non-fiction and fiction film. The film screenings are not the only component of the human rights film festival, but rather they act as catalysts for discussions, Q&As, educational programmes, and other related events. The film festival is an excellent forum for the advocacy of political and social change because it is an environment that welcomes discussion, encourages debate and attracts an audience of people who are often willing and open-minded enough to absorb new perspectives and opinions. Unlike the Q&A sessions that follow mainstream film screenings, the 16

Q&As at a human rights film festival often go beyond the parameters of the making of the film and into the broader realm of the issues and debates raised by the film. The main protagonists of the films, the filmmakers and subject experts, are often invited to take part in discussions following screenings which “extends the emotional engagement into the off-screen space.” As Tascon puts it 17

the “film festival provides a particular interpellatory context.” 18

Susan Moeller, Compassion Fatigue: How the Media Sell Disease, Famine, War and Death. (New York; London: Routledge, 1999)

14

“About Us” accessed 15th May 2015, http://www.moviesthatmatter.nl/english_index/over_ons_en

15

Roy Carole, “Why Don’t They Show Those on TV? Documentary Film Festivals, Media and Community” in International Journal

16

of Lifelong Education Vol 31, No 3, (2012), 297.

Torchin, ‘Networked for Advocacy: Film Festivals and Activism.’ 8.

17

Tascon, Human Rights Film Festivals: Activism in Context, 43.

(8)

Chapter five brings together the threads of my research and presents some concluding perspectives. I suggest recommendations for why human rights film festival programmers might consider the selection of a more equal combination of non-fiction and fiction film in order to achieve their goal of exposing human rights violations, disseminating knowledge and mobilising as many viewers as possible into action. This chapter also includes suggestions for further research.

1.4 Methodology: Legitimations and Limitations

I have used a case study research methodology. The use of case studies is common in cultural studies and has proven “extremely valuable” as a research method. According to Robert Yin the 19

investigation of a “contemporary phenomenon” (the case) which exists in the real world ensures that the researcher maintains a “holistic and real-world perspective.” I have adopted a largely 20

qualitative approach to case study research. Matthew B. Miles describes qualitative research as “a source of well-grounded, rich description and explanation of human processes.” 21

I began my research by applying the case study approach to investigate the observation made by film festival theorists that human rights film festivals predominantly programme non-fiction documentary films over narrative fiction films. By focusing on Movies that Matter I sought to investigate the properties of this observation and further develop my research question. The findings of my research are largely based on direct observations whilst attending Movies that

Matter - “such observations are one of the most distinctive features in doing case study research.” 22

As well as direct observations, I gathered content for analysis via the Movies that Matter website and the festival’s printed material, such as programmes, newspapers and flyers. I have also included some quantitative analysis in order to display the ratio of fiction to non-fiction films programmed at the festival. My aim, through the presentation of such data, is to enhance the validity of my argumentation through supporting evidence. I am aware that whilst many scholars support case study based research methods, the approach has its weaknesses. It has been regarded by some as an

Ann Gray, Research Practice for Cultural Studies: Ethnographic Methods and Lived Cultures, (London: SAGE Publications,

19

2002), 68.

Robert K. Yin Case Study Research: Design and Methods (Applied Social Research Methods) (London: SAGE Publications; Fifth

20

Edition, 2013), 26.

Matthew B. Miles et al, Qualitative Data Analysis: A Methods Sourcebook, (London: SAGE Publications: Third Edition, 2013), 4.

21

Robert K. Yin, Applications of Case Study Research, (London: SAGE Publications: Third Edition, 2012),11.

(9)

ambiguous approach to qualitative research due to its subjectivity and lack of “generalisability.” 23

Some suggest that the apparent bias in the case study method results in a “multitude of inferential felonies.” In order to combat such criticism my case study is embedded within the framework of 24

existing academic theories and research. I have drawn on literature from film festival studies and the broader field of cultural studies. Whilst referring to pre-existing creditable academic sources is standard secondary research methodology I also hope that this demonstrates my knowledge of the subject and provides a less subjective framework for the case study analysis. John Gerring argues 25

that it is such insight which results in a successful case study research approach. By marrying my 26

in-depth case study with broader theoretical perspectives I have sought to present a body of research which can be applied to contexts beyond the specific case of Movies that Matter.

My thesis has a number of limitations. As the approach largely rests on a direct observational case study method and secondary research, it lacks original primary data. Therefore, at this stage I offer only speculations that indicate possible directions for further research. For a more thorough analysis of the difference between fiction and non-fiction film in the context of human rights film festivals it would have been beneficial to complete opinion-based surveys using a cross section of audience members exiting screenings at the festival. Furthermore, to gather a more comprehensive overview of the chosen topic it would also be necessary to undertake a cross-case study research project. 27

This would examine the practices of a number of different human rights film festivals that programme a combination of non-fiction and fiction film.

Whilst an analysis of the festival programme and a dissection of the website blurb does provide satisfactory “discursive signals of the way in which a festival sees itself,” conducting interviews with festival programmers would also have been advantageous in mapping out the priorities of festival organisers. Due to time constraints I was unable to carry out such extensive primary research so the thesis largely relies on available secondary sources. Nevertheless I hope that I have presented a thorough analysis which addresses a topic that has not yet been explored in detail in the field of film festival studies.

Yin, Applications of Case Study Research, 18.

23

Christopher H. Achen and Duncan Snidal as quoted in John Gerring, Case Study Research: Principles and Practices, (Cambridge:

24

Cambridge University Press, 2007), 7.

Stella Cottrell, Critical Thinking Skills: Developing Effective Analysis and Argument, (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2011) 126.

25

Gerring, Case Study Research, 7.

26

Ravonne Green, Case Study Research: A Program Evaluation Guide for Librarians, (Westport: Libraries Unlimited, 2011), 77.

(10)

1.5 Historical Context

The subject of my thesis rests upon two main concepts; human rights and film festivals. I will briefly define these concepts and outline their historical contexts.

1.5.1 Human Rights

“All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and

conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.” Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 1948 28

The above quote is article one of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, signed by fifty out of fifty-eight of the United Nations member states on December 10th 1948. Whilst the origin of human rights can be traced back to the signing of the Magna Carta in 1215, it is the Universal Declaration of Human Rights which has determined the shape of human rights as we understand them today. It was with the signing of this document, which was developed from the desire to 29

combat fascism and totalitarianism in the aftermath of World War II, that the “modern rendering of human rights, embodied with legal language, emerged.” Johannes Morsink remarks upon the 30

influence of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights stating that it transformed the international landscape, “scattering it with human rights protocols, conventions, treaties, and derivative declarations of all kinds.” However, even with the establishment of this Charter the concept of 31

human rights is not strictly defined, but rather it remains in a state of constant flux. Different 32

historical and geographical circumstances influence the way in which individuals and communities come to comprehend the term. For the last 60 years the Universal Declaration of Human Rights has been the subject of criticism for being Western-centric and displaying imperialist principles. 33

Herrera Flores and Humberto Mancilla, amongst others, have condemned the concept of human

United Nations, “The Universal Declaration of Human Rights”, accessed 15th May 2015, http://www.un.org/en/documents/udhr/

28

Helle Porsdam, Civil Religion, Human Rights and International Relations, (Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing Limited, 2012),

29

21.

30

Johannes Morsink, The Universal Declaration of Human Rights: Origins, Drafting, and Intent, (Philadelphia: University of

31

Pennsylvania Press, 1999), x.

Mariagiulia Grassilli, “Human Rights Film Festivals: Global/Local Networks for Advocacy,” in Film Festival Yearbook 4: Film

32

Festivals and Activism, ed Dina Iordanova et al. (St Andrews: University of St Andrews Film Studies Department, 2012), 34. Ibid.

(11)

rights as heavily weighted in Western ideals that evolve around “a social context based on capital” and which “disregards culturally specific beliefs.” 34

Such interpretations of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights exemplify how the very notion of human rights is subjective. As Tascon observes the concept is “no more than a moral vision that emerged from events of particular times and places.” Therefore, whilst the concept provides a 35

space for thinking about and debating social injustices, human suffering and what it means to be “human”, the term itself should be understood as a malleable concept. The human rights film 36

festival opens up a space where discourse surrounding the very notion of human rights can take place and in turn becomes an important cog in the development, definition and clarification of the term. 37

1.5.3 Film Festivals

The earliest film festivals appeared in the years preceding World War II. The first, the Mostra Internazionale d'Arte Cinematografica della Biennale di Venezia (The Venice International Film Festival) was established in 1932 under Benito Mussolini’s fascist regime in order to “glorify the nation-state” and compete with Hollywood dominance. This festival was unpopular in Britain, 38

America and France due to its blatant fascist agenda. It is therefore no surprise that shortly after it began, Cannes was established in France, with US and British support, as an anti-fascist alternative. 39

Following World War II an increasing number of film festivals emerged in Europe, yet the growing tensions of the Cold War influenced the socio-political motives behind their existence. In 1948, the first edition of the Karlovy Vary festival took place, in what was then Czechoslovakia, as a reaction to the Western centricity of Cannes. The festival believed in film as a tool for propaganda in the

Ibid.

34

35

Michael Freeman, Human Rights: An Interdisciplinary Approach, (Cambridge: Polity Press 2011), 3.

36

Grassilli, “Human Rights Film Festivals: Global/Local Networks for Advocacy,” 34.

37

Hing - Yuk Wong, Film Festivals, 37.

38

Ibid. 39.

(12)

“ideological struggle against the west.” Meanwhile, in 1951, the Berlinale opened in order to 40

demonstrate to the communist East the successes of the capitalist West. These examples show 41

how, during this period, film festivals contributed to the European “cultural battlefield” of the cold war. 42

De Valck identifies three main phases of the film festival phenomenon since the 1930s: the above period, characterised by socio-political upheavals which lasted until 1968, the second phase whereby independent festivals emerged with a focus on cinema as art and the festival’s role in the film industry, and the third phase beginning in the 1980s, whereby film festivals became both “professionalised and institutionalised” on a global scale. De Valck also states how the recent 43

surge of film festivals, which centres around “cinephilia”, has lead to the rise in the “thematic festival”. The human rights film festival is in this category. 44

The first film festival devoted solely to human rights took place in Helsinki in 1988 and was born out of the organisation Helsinki Watch which later became Human Rights Watch. Human Rights film festivals are commonly affiliated with existing organisations such as non-governmental organisations (NGOs) or registered charities. As well as offering financial support and bringing enhanced media attention, an association with a well-respected and long-established parent organisation legitimises the festival’s authenticity. 45

In recent decades, following the inauguration of the Human Rights Watch festival, numerous human rights film festivals have emerged. In 2003 the Human Rights Film Network was formed. It was founded as a result of a collaboration between four human rights film festivals: Movies that Matter, Human Rights Nights, Festival du Film and Forum International sur les Droits Humains (FIFDH).

Festival Karlovy Vary, “A Brief Festival History.” http://www.kviff.com/en/about-festival/festivalhistory quoted in Hing - Yuk

40

Wong, Film Festivals, 41.

41

Ibid.

42

Marijke de Valck, Film Festivals: From European Geopolitics to Global Cinephilia, (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press,

43

2007) 19. Ibid. 166.

44

Iordanova, “Film Festivals and Dissent,” 14.

(13)

The network now has 38 contributing organisations, a figure which is increasing each year as more and more festivals dedicated to human rights advocacy emerge. 46

The human rights film festival, as a “thematic” sub-division of the film festival network, adheres to many of the same modes of practice as other festivals. Thomas Elsaesser remarks that all film 47

festivals are time and location based and reliant on the turn-out of a large audience. It is also 48

apparent that the primary goal of all film festivals is to promote cinema. All these factors apply to the human rights film festival. However, unlike mainstream film festivals, the human rights film festival does not focus primarily on cinema as an art form, but rather on cinema as a tool, which negotiates “specific social and political articulations.” Iordanova argues that the central objectives 49

of human rights film festivals - to expose human rights violations, disseminate knowledge and foster an environment conducive to change - also separates them from other festivals. These goals 50

provide the foundations of the overall mission of the human rights festival: to promote justice on a global scale. In turn, this mission shapes the selection criteria of the films that are screened.51

Despite the dominance of film festivals in the cultural landscape since World War II, film festival studies has only recently been regarded as a legitimate field of academia. De Valck states that this is largely to do with the “classical preoccupation of film historians with filmic texts.” The 52

emergence of a New Film History in the 1980s arguably marked the beginning of film festival studies. Scholars started to focus attention away from the isolated filmic object, choosing instead 53

to shine a light on the specific socio-political and cultural contexts of exhibiting film, as well as the practices of film production and distribution. This move away from the isolated filmic text opened 54

up new perspectives, paving the way for the emergence of film festival studies as an academic field

Human Rights Film Network, “About” accessed 3rd January 2015, http://www.humanrightsfilmnetwork.org/about

46

47

Thomas Elsaesser, ‘Film Festival Networks: The New Topographies of Cinema in Europe’ in Dina Iordanova, ed., The Film

48

Festival Reader, (St Andrews: St Andrews University Film Studies Department, 2013), 82. Hing - Yuk Wong, Film Festivals, 160.

49

Iordanova, “Film Festivals and Dissent: Can Film Change the World?” 16.

50

51

de Valck, Film Festivals: From European Geopolitics to Global Cinephilia, 21.

52

Ibid.

53

Ibid.

(14)

in the late 1990s. Dina Iordanova, Leshu Torchin, Marijke de Valck, Sonia Tascon and Cindy 55

Hing-Yuk Wong are among several academics working in this domain.

2. AN ANALYSIS OF HUMAN RIGHTS FILM

——————————————————————————————————

2.1 Origins of The Human Rights Film

Tascon suggests that the use of film for “illustration, presentation, and promotion of human rights” has been in place since the first Human Rights Watch International Film Festival in 1988. 56

However, as Daan Bronkhorst of Amnesty International states, if we consider the entire history of the moving image, films depicting human rights issues were made long before the first human rights festival, and in fact, long before the establishment of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the concept of human rights emerged. Geoffrey Malins and J.B. McDowell’s 1916 57

documentary The Battle of the Somme and Abel Gance’s 1918 fiction film J’accuse are amongst the earliest films depicting the atrocities of war and conflict which could be read in the context of human rights today. Since then countless filmmakers have chosen to use the medium of film and 58

video to depict human rights issues and provide a voice for victims of human rights violations throughout the world. Others consciously used film as a medium to draw attention to social and political injustice, notably Charlie Chaplin, throughout his career as a director, actor, and writer.

Perhaps what Tascon is referring to regarding the Human Rights Watch Film Festival is rather the first time human rights films were recognised as a distinct genre and legitimised as such by being presented in the context of the film festival; by then, a long established cultural phenomenon. The human rights film festival is also a node in the “institutionalisation” of the human rights film. 59

However, such “institutionalisation” of the human rights film can be traced back to the first time

Ibid.

55

Sonia Tascon, “Considering Human Rights Films, Representation, and Ethics: Whose Face?” in Human Rights Quarterly, 2012,

56

Vol.34(3), 864.

Daan Bronkhorst, “Human Rights Film”, accessed 21/05/2015, http://jedensvet.cz/archive/www.jedensvet.cz/ow/2004/en/

57

workshops/index2.php.htm Ibid.

58

Sandra Ristovska, “Institutional Video Advocacy: Tackling the Role of Human Rights Videos,” talk delivered at the University of

59

Amsterdam Media Studies Department, 21/04/2015, Abstract: https://www.asc.upenn.edu/news-events/news/ristovska-deliver-talk-university-amsterdam-media-studies-department

(15)

film was used in a legal context. The use of film as witness material in the Nuremberg trials 60

marked a pivotal moment in the history of the moving image. For the first time, film was used as evidence in a court of law. Two films, The Nazi Plan and Nazi Concentration Camps were presented by the American prosecution who claimed they “needed to use film in order to establish proof of the nature of the crimes under investigation.” The use of film evidence against Nazi 61

perpetrators exemplified how the “visceral power” of the medium could be used to hold human rights abusers accountable for their actions. Nazi Concentration Camps was used in the Eichmann 62

trials in Jerusalem and since then film has continuously been deployed as a valid tool to complement legal proceedings throughout the world. 63

In the contemporary media landscape where more and more ordinary citizens worldwide have access to filming materials it is increasingly possible to record and broadcast human rights struggles. Due to the accessibility of the medium, individuals are able to use film to expose 64

injustices, but also to challenge the boundaries of what is meant by human rights, reshaping and reconsidering the very notion. Widespread belief that film can transform the world provides the backbone for human rights film as a genre, and in turn, human rights film festivals.

Grassilli points out how the definition of a human rights film may be “as broad and potentially malleable” as the notion of human rights. Film practitioners, festival programmers, film historians 65

and film festival theorists have all outlined different defining characteristics of the human rights film. For Mona Rai, programmer coordinator for Document Film Festival, Glasgow, it is a narrative film which “forces the viewer to look, think, engage and perhaps act long after the film is over.” 66

For Maurizio del Bufalo, founder of Cinema e Diritti, Napoli, it is a deeply impacting story that invites reflection, and for Igor Blazevc founder of One World, Prague, it is a film which “motivates

Ristovska, “Institutional Video Advocacy: Tackling the Role of Human Rights Videos,” talk delivered at the University of

60

Amsterdam Media Studies Department, 21/04/2015

Lawrence Douglas in Kristi M. Wilson et al. ed. Film and Genocide, (Wisconsin: Wisconsin University Press, 2012), 7.

61

Jeremy, Lehrer, ’Bringing Abuses to Light: The Human Rights Watch International Film Festival Focuses the Public Eye on Human

62

Rights Abuses’ in Human Rights Vol 24, No 3, 1997, 14.

Lawrence Douglas in Kristi M. Wilson et al. ed. Film and Genocide 7.

63

Sam Gregory, “Cameras Everywhere: Ubiquitous Video Documentation of Human Rights, New Forms of Video Advocacy, and

64

Considerations of Safety, Security, Dignity and Consent,” Journal of Human Rights Practice, 2010, Vol. 2 (Oxford: Oxford University Press), 191.

65

Mona Rai in Grassilli, “Human Rights Film Festivals: Global/Local Networks for Advocacy,” 37.

(16)

people to take action.” Sonia Tascon argues, that there is “no such thing as a human rights film,” 67

only human rights film festivals. She suggests that when the film enters the discursive context of 68

the human rights film festival it becomes entwined in a set of political and ethical requirements specific to human rights. 69

The Human Rights Film Network lays out criteria for film selection as follows:

Human rights films, in our view, are films that reflect, inform on and provide understanding of the actual state of past and present human rights violations, or the visions and aspirations concerning ways to redress those violations.

Human rights films can be documentary, fiction, experimental or animation. They can be short, medium or feature length; have a 35mm, 16mm, video or other format; can be experimental through the use of 'new media' or any other artistic and technological visual means.

Human rights films may be harshly realistic, or highly utopian. They may offer gruesome pictures, or show the bliss of peaceful life. They may report, denounce or convey an emotional message. They may forcefully present the views of one group or individual only, or try to convey the opinions of as many of those involved as possible. They may be a highly accurate report of facts, or offer surreal provocation…The Network promotes films that allow silenced and marginalised voices to be heard, as a contribution to their empowerment. 70

Due to the sensitive nature of many films exploring human rights issues, morality and ethics both play a significant role in the selection of such films for film festival screenings. The charter states that human rights films should:

Inform the viewers on human rights issues and aspirations, and should not intentionally misrepresent the facts or the views or words of those portrayed. They should not be so biased as to invoke hatred and discrimination against groups and individuals, or serve political or commercial interests only. They should be explorative of the issue rather than propagandistic, and not reproduce stereotypes. 71

I would argue that the human rights film can be any genre of film that explores human rights issues in an ethical manner, encouraging reflection and debate, and interrogating and expanding the boundaries of the human rights discourse. The human rights film festival is a space that enhances the medium’s potential to fulfil these goals by providing a forum for discussion and outlining the

Maurizio del Bufalo and Igor Blazevc in Grassilli, “Human Rights Film Festivals: Global/Local Networks for Advocacy,” 37.

67

68

Ibid, 9.

69

Human Rights Film Network, “Charter: Statement of Principles and Practices”, accessed 20/05/2015, http://

70

www.humanrightsfilmnetwork.org/content/charter Ibid.

(17)

importance of film as a vital tool in the global quest for social justice and human rights advocacy. In relation to the Human Rights Film Network selection criteria I will examine the ethical and political dilemmas that human rights films present to the spectator by negotiating issues of representability, visualising another’s suffering, and the fraught power relations intrinsic to the act of watching.

2.2. Ethics of Spectatorship

No other spectacle can raise the ethical question of what to do so compellingly as suffering.

Lilie Chouliaraki 72

A large number of films concerned with human rights issues contain depictions of people suffering or experiencing pain, either physical or emotional. This visualisation of suffering, and, in turn, the subject of witnessing another’s distress, has been a philosophical preoccupation for centuries. At 73

the end of the 18th-century Immanuel Kant explored the role of compassion and the moral duty implicit on the viewer when he or she is confronted with another individual’s pain. Since then, 74

philosophers, cultural theorists and visual arts commentators have revisited and reworked Kant’s theories. Susan Sontag, Lilie Chouliaraki and Luc Boltanski are amongst the most notable scholars in recent years who have interrogated the way “modern technologies of visual representation expose us to others’ pain from a spatial and temporal distance.” An analysis of such representation 75

demonstrates how film, whilst an excellent tool for promoting human rights advocacy in many circumstances, is also subject to a number of political and ethical demands. 76

In the aforementioned Human Rights Film Network charter, the criteria for film selection states that films should not “intentionally misrepresent the facts or the views or words of those portrayed… they should be explorative of the issue rather than propagandistic, and not reproduce stereotypes.” 77

These guidelines highlight the potential for such films to be problematic and the need for festival programmers to be selective. Safia Swimelar outlines the risk of subject manipulation in films exploring human rights issues. In some circumstances, for instance, unethical visual representation,

Lilie Chouliaraki, The Spectatorship of Suffering, (New York: SAGE Publications, 2006), 2.

72

Downing and Saxton, Film and Ethics, 65.

73

Kant referenced in Downing and Saxton, Film and Ethics, 65.

74

75

Tascon, Human Rights Film Festivals, 9.

76

Human Rights Film Network, “Charter: Statement of Principles and Practices”, accessed 20/05/2015, http://

77

(18)

according to Swimelar, can “reinforce sociopolitical hierarchies, shape foreign policies and humanitarian aid and justify armed intervention.” The feature length film The Kite Runner, based 78

on the novel by Khaled Hosseini, for example, seeks to promote the growing access to eduction and improved opportunities for women in Afghanistan, but in doing so actually paints a negative picture of the country, thus propping up “orientalising biases”. Elizabeth S. Anker criticises Hosseini’s 79

novel for presenting an under-developed and “in general barbaric” country that “inadvertently endorses some of the most insidious and injurious misconceptions about non-western lives.” 80

These criticisms can also be applied to Marc Forster’s film adaptation, which despite such condemnation, was a box office success. Such reinforcement of stereotyping in literature and film, rather than raising awareness of human rights issues, contributes to the feeling of “otherness” that Edward Said first discussed in his seminal publication Orientalism, 1978. Swimelar argues that 81

rather than “creating a sense of common humanity” and using the medium to encourage action off-screen, such films widen the pre-existing gulf between the watcher and the watched by strengthening the opposing dualities of “us and them, East and West, rich and poor etc.” 82

Manipulation of the viewer, as well as manipulation of the subject is also present in problematic films depicting human rights issues. The use of particular camera angles, strategic editing and 83

emotive sound tracks are often deployed in order to produce specific emotions in the viewer which can produce negative results. One such reading of unethical visual representation is the notion of “poverty porn” whereby viewers are encouraged to indulge in the supposed aesthetic beauty of the subject’s suffering thus regarding it to be nothing more than entertainment and spectacle. 84

Encouraging such a voyeuristic reception of the subjects depicted reinforces “otherness,” which, as I previously mentioned, is counterproductive rather than progressive. Moreover, by transforming 85

issues depicting serious human rights violations into heart-rending spectacles they become

Safia Swimelar, “Making Human Rights Visible Through Photography and Film’” in Anja Mihr et al, eds. The SAGE Handbook of

78

Human Rights, 421.

Elizabeth S Anker, “Human Rights in Literature,” in Anja Mihr & Mark Gibney, eds. The SAGE Handbook of Human Rights, 474.

79

Ibid.

80

Edward W. Said, Orientalism (1978), (London: Vintage Book, 1st Edition, 1988), 21.

81

Safia Swimelar, “Making Human Rights Visible Through Photography and Film” 423.

82

Ibid.

83

Barbara Korte & Frédéric Regard, eds, Narrating Poverty and Precocity in Britain,(Berlin; Boston: Walter de Gruyter GmBH,

84

2014) 208.

Lilie Chouliaraki, The Spectatorship of Suffering, 2.

(19)

separated from reality. Spectators are then unable to relate what they see on-screen to their own lives. For example Spielberg’s Schindler’s List (fig.2) has been criticised for “turning the holocaust into a theme park” and consequently the result is a film which is trivial, sensational, and detached from the real world. 86

Specific editing techniques can also be deployed in order to encourage the viewer to feel pity for the subject, which can be equally detrimental. Downing and Saxon argue, echoing Boltanski and Chouliaraki, that the pity a viewer feels for the subjects on-screen is a narcissistic emotion “masquerading as altruism.” On a self-indulgent level spectators feel reassured that they have 87

been moved by another’s suffering. Such pity can turn into feelings of sympathy for the subjects. However, such emotions, as Swimelar points out, do not equate to empathy or indeed, action off-screen. Susan Sontag argues that despite feelings of pity or sympathy we do not feel any closer to 88

the individuals represented, and “our sympathy proclaims our innocence as well as our impotence.” It is these negative effects of the medium that human rights film makers have to 89

Barbie Zelizer, Visual Culture and the Holocaust, (London: The Athlone Press, 2001), 130.

86

Downing and Saxton, Film and Ethics, 65. See also Lilie Chouliaraki, The Ironic Spectator, (Cambridge: Polity Press 2013) and

87

Luc Boltanski, Distant Suffering: Morality, Media and Politics, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999). Swimelar, “Making Human Rights Visible Through Photography and Film” 423.

88

Susan Sontag, Regarding the Pain of Others, (London: Penguin Books, 2003), 91.

89

Fig.2, Schindler’s List 1993 US Distribution

(20)

overcome, and human rights film festival programmers have to consider when selecting films to screen at festivals.

Such films also have to negotiate the concern that visual representation of human rights injustices can repel rather than attract attention. Both Susan Sontag and Susan Moeller have written 90

extensively on how the mass media often depicts victims of suffering and human rights violations. The repetitive bombardment of distressing images thrown at us by the media plagues us with what Moeller describes as “compassion fatigue.” According to Sontag, the acceptable level of violence 91

in everyday media is increasing. This proliferation of violent or depressing images results in a 92

culture whereby people are either numbed, repelled or exhausted by what they see, rather than shocked or moved into action. Sontag refers largely to photography, and Moeller to the visual 93

depictions of human suffering presented by the media. Arguably, feature length fiction films and non-fiction documentary films ought to be considered in a different light. Unlike the mass media, due to their different viewing circumstances, they can be tools which combat the problem of “compassion fatigue,” rather than contribute to it. If done well film can harness audience attention with compelling story telling, contextualisation and carefully constructed framing devices. According to Downing and Saxon, who analyse ethics in cinema, rather than photography 94

or the media, film has the power to mediate the uneven power relations between the spectator and the subjects on screen, as well as the hierarchical political system continually reinforced by the dominant discourse of Western mass-media. 95

Swimelar highlights another potential ethical challenge human rights film makers and film festival programmers must consider: “the post-modern critique and the myth of the image.” The notion 96

that visual documentation, such as photography or film, presents events in their actuality is of course the “myth” Swimelar is referring to here. I will discuss this in more detail in the following section relating to the prominence of documentary film at the human rights film festival.

Swimelar, “Making Human Rights Visible Through Photography and Film” 423.

90

Susan Moeller, Compassion fatigue: How the Media Sell Disease, Famine, War and Death, (New York: Routledge, 1999)

91

Sontag, Regarding the Pain of Others, (London: Penguin Books, 2003), 90.

92

Ibid.

93

94

95

Safia Swimelar, “Visual Culture and Pedagogy: Teaching Human Rights with Film and Images,” Global-e: A Global Studies

96

(21)

Visual representation is fundamentally political because, Swimelar argues, it makes claims about “what is important to be seen,” thus buying into a hierarchy of representation. The process of 97

selecting, editing, and omitting specific information to include in a film, whether non-fiction documentary or narrative fiction film, has ethical underpinnings; particularly when those films are making claims about human rights. This is also applicable to the human rights film festival, which cannot exist in a space of neutrality. As Tascon asserts: film festival “programming is a form of discursive gatekeeping.” Like the archival institution Jacques Derrida describes in Archive Fever, 98

the film festival should be regarded as a public forum that continuously negotiates power relations, neutrality and memory. Derrida elaborates on the notion of a “collective memory” as a social 99

construct with his exploration of the establishment of ‘truth’. As the human rights film festival is 100

a public cultural forum, it could be argued that it also forms part of the larger network of public institutions that contribute to the formation of collective memory that Derrida refers to. Like the archive which collects documents for the sake of preservation, the film festival selects films legitimising and justifying their existence in, and relevance to, the real world. This selection process is political because, whilst selecting specific films “produces memory,” it simultaneously “produces forgetting.” For Derrida, this dilemma highlights the limitations of the archive - limitations that are also applicable to the human rights film festival, and indeed, the act of filmmaking. They

demonstrate how, in the words of novelist Milan Kundera, “the struggle against power is the struggle of memory against forgetting.” 101

The ethical and political demands discussed in this chapter must be constantly negotiated and revisited by filmmakers, festival organisers and film festival attendees. Human rights filmmakers must consider the most appropriate way to visualise human rights abuses in a way that effectively avoids taking advantage of another’s pain, or reinforcing dominant power relations propelled by the Western media discourse. As Swimelar states “visualisation of human rights is a paradox: a double

Swimelar, “Making Human Rights Visible Through Photography and Film,” 413.

97

98

Jacques Derrida, ‘Archive Fever’ (transcribed Seminar) in C. Hamilton et al, eds. Refiguring the Archive, (Kluwer Academic

99

Publishers), 2002, p38-p78 Ibid.

100

Milan Kundera quoted in Terry Cook,‘‘What is Past is Prologue: A History of Archival Ideas Since 1898, and the Future Paradigm

101

(22)

edged sword” that can indeed be captivating, but also repulsive and divisive. Visual 102

representation of human suffering should “prompt ethical self-scrutiny,” emphasising the viewers’ implications and responsibility in what they see on-screen, rather than reinforce dominant power relations via exploitative, manipulative and sensationalist techniques. Human rights film festivals 103

must combine screenings with effective presentation strategies that enhance self-reflection and harness an effective network for action, combating stereotypes and feelings of otherness. Film festival attendees should interrogate what it means to be a spectator and consumer of films exploring human rights issues, exercising an awareness of the political and ethical demands implicit in such visual representation.

2.3 The Predominance of Non-Fiction Documentary Film

Clearly there is no correlation between the specifications of human rights film in the Human Rights Film Network charter (see page 16) and the prominence of non-fiction documentary film at the human rights film festival. According to Heather Harding of Human Rights Watch International Film Festival one of the main goals in film selection is not merely dependent on the film’s specific subject content or specific film genre, but rather finding films that challenge the collective understanding of human rights. Prioritising this element of the human rights film not only 104

exposes the malleability of the notion, but also makes “changes to the (human rights) discourse by extending its frame.” With this goal in mind, along with the selection criteria laid out by the 105

human rights film network, I will interrogate the predominance of non-fiction documentary film at the human rights film festival.

Documentary filmmaker and cultural anthropologist, Meg McLagan argues that “human rights activism has always exhibited a strong documentary impulse.” This could largely be to do with 106

the genre’s inherent engagement with society and politics — a characteristic of the medium that can be found in the work of Joris Ivens, Luis Bu uel and John Grierson, or indeed the aforementioned

102

103

Heather Harding in Jeremy, Lehrer, ’Bringing Abuses to Light: The Human Rights Watch International Film Festival Focuses the

104

Public Eye on Human Rights Abuses’ in Human Rights Vol 24, No 3, 1997,14. Tascon, Human Rights Film Festivals, 9.

105

Meg McLagan, “Principles, Publicity, and Politics: Notes on Human Rights Media,” in American Anthropologist, Vol.105(3),

106

(23)

World War I cinematographers, Malins and McDowell. Arguably, documentary films are an 107

effective tool for disseminating knowledge about society because they are understood as having close ties to the reality of the “protagonist of life.” In other words they present circumstances that 108

the viewer can relate to and recognise as existing in the real world. Film theorist Bill Nichols describes documentaries as presenting “views of the world…social issues and cultural values, current problems and possible solutions, actual situations and specific ways of representing them.” He argues, therefore, that the spectator’s experience of documentary films transcends the 109

boundaries of the film-viewing encounter, and the viewing experience is transported into the realm of society itself. 110

Vivien Sobchack, who suggests that our engagement with documentary film is intrinsically different to our engagement with fiction film, echoes Nichols’ argument. She claims that with fiction film 111

the “viewer’s attention is focused on — rather than through — the screen object,” and with non-fiction documentary the viewer sees “beyond the screen’s boundaries and back into our own life world.” Both Sobchack and Nichols propose that the way in which the viewer identifies with the 112

documentary image bridges the gap between the spectator and the on-screen subject. According to 113

them, the consequence of this viewing experience is that the viewer is forced to consider the conditions of the real world, rather than anything distant, abstract or even fantastical. The conclusion therefore is that the medium of documentary is an excellent tool that can enlighten spectators, mould consciousness, and in turn, contribute to social or political change. This view is clearly shared by human rights film festivals and their organisers. In relation to Sobchack’s interpretation of how documentaries hurl the viewer “right back into the world we inhabit," Tascon argues that the viewing circumstances and the contextualisation of film screenings within the human rights film festival affects how a spectator engages with what they see on-screen. 114

Igor Blazevic, “Film Festivals as a Human Rights Awareness Building Tool: Experiences of the Prague One World Festival” in

107

Film Festival Yearbook 4: Film Festivals and Activism, ed Dina Iordanova et al. (St Andrews: University of St Andrews Film Studies Department, 2012), 111.

O. Getino and F. Solanas quoted in Tascon, Human Rights Film Festivals, 7.

108

Bill Nichols, Representing Reality: Issues and Concepts in Documentary, (John Wiley & Sons, 1992), ix.

109

Ibid

110

Vivien Sobchack quoted in Tascon, Human Rights Film Festivals, 43.

111

Ibid.

112

113

Ibid.

(24)

However, she only lightly touches on how this can also produce similar effects on the spectator in the case of fictional films. I will explore this question more thoroughly in chapter 3.

Along with the documentary’s inherent engagement with society and politics, and the medium’s ability to confront us with the reality of the world we inhabit, the theory of documentary as testimony and audience as witness has been proposed by a number of scholars regarding the potential of non-fiction film to expose human rights violations, disseminate knowledge and encourage audiences to take action in the context of the human rights film festival. McLagan points out that visual representations of suffering, more often than not presented as testimony, dominate the genre of human rights media. The term “testimony” is a historically loaded term long 115

associated with juridical and religious realms. In the legal sense, testimony refers to evidence 116

provided by a witness in a court of law under an oath of truthfulness. In religious arenas believers will often testify as a declaration of their faith. Testimony in these circumstances epitomises truthfulness. Torchin, expanding upon McLagan’s viewpoint, suggests therefore that it is documentary’s close proximity to truth that likens it to the testimonial encounter. McLagan 117

provides a particularly concise description of the testimonial encounter in the human rights documentary, highlighting how such testimony can create an audience of witnesses:

Though we are rarely witnesses to atrocity, we are witnesses to stories of atrocities by their survivors. These stories take the form of testimony and we often regard them as evidence of “what really happened”… Circulation of human rights testimonials create what I call “witnessing publics.” As narratives and images of suffering travel, they have the potential to construct audiences as virtual witnesses, a subject position that implies responsibility for the suffering of others. 118

The assumption here is that in the context of the human rights film festival, audiences are more likely to take responsibility and act on what they “witness” on-screen when they are confronted with films that provide testimony. This is because such ‘evidence’ embodies the essence of reality and truthfulness. Suggesting that the non-fiction documentary film is closely linked to testimony, like the deliverance of testimony in a legal context, assumes that what is presented to the audience on-screen is indeed “the truth, the whole truth and nothing but the truth.” I would argue therefore, that McLagan’s and Torchin’s analysis does not bring to bear the question that has concerned

Meg McLagan, “Principles, Publicity, and Politics: Notes on Human Rights Media,” 609.

115

Torchin, “Networked for Advocacy: Film Festivals and Activism,” 3.

116

Ibid.

117

Meg McLagan, “Principles, Publicity, and Politics: Notes on Human Rights Media,” 609.

(25)

philosophers and art historians since the invention of photography and film: the value and trustworthiness of the medium as “truthful documentation of reality.” This relates to the “myth of 119

the image” I referred to previously. In order to look beyond the preoccupation with truth and reality with regard to film encouraging the spectator to act, I will interrogate the notion of truthfulness and the depiction of such in the non-fiction documentary film. This is a worthwhile endeavour if only because of the counter-intuitive proposition that fiction may represent truth, and its potential contribution to the quest for societal improvement, notably the need to address injustice.

2.4 Interrogating “Truthfulness”

Photography is truth. And Cinema is truth twenty-four times a second.

Jean-Luc Godard 120

Of course the notion of “truth” has troubled philosophers for hundreds of years, long before the invention of film. Discussion of the origins of thought and the relativity and subjectivity of truthfulness appear in the writings of the pre-Socratic Greek philosopher Protagoras (490 - 420BC) who famously asserted “man is the measure of all things.” He determined that cultural and 121

historical contexts affect an individual’s judgement of truth and reality, and that different people or societies can have different understandings of the notion. Since then philosophers have revisited 122

and reworked theories of radical relativism that Protagoras introduced. Over two millennia later Michael Foucault made these assertions that mirror Protagoras’ conception of truth:

Truth is of this world; it is produced in it thanks to manifold constraints. And it induces in it regulated effects of power. Each society has its regime of truth, its ‘general politics’ of truth: that is, the type of discourse which it accepts and makes function as true or false, the way each of these is sanctioned; the mechanisms and procedures that are valorised for the obtaining of truth; the status of those who are charged with saying what counts as true. 123

Marcel Feil, “Image-Based Activism Today,” in Foam : The Messenger Issue 41 Spring 2015, (Amsterdam: Foam Magazine), 6.

119

Jean-Luc Godard quoted in Daniel Varndell, Hollywood Remakes, Deleuze and the Grandfather Paradox, (London: Palgrave

120

Macmillan, 2014), 197.

Protagoras quoted in Benjamin Frankel, ed, Roots of Realism, (London: Routledge 2013 edition, First published 1996 by Frank

121

Cass Publishers), 205. Ibid.

122

Michel Foucault in Power/Knowledge: Selected Interviews and Other Writings 1972-1977, Colin Gordon, ed and Colin Gordon et

123

(26)

An analogy between ancient philosophical theories about “truthfulness” and the medium of cinema may be best explained by referring to Plato’s allegory of the people in the cave. The implication 124 of Plato’s Cave is that all images are mediated depictions of reality, or subjective interpretations, yet in certain situations they have the potential to seem real. In contemporary society the cave in Plato’s analogy can be replaced with the black box cinema. Although in the context of cinema we know that what we see on-screen is an edited and manipulated version of originally captured footage, and the notion that documentary should be “true” has long been questioned, the essential claim that documentary film is “unmediated truth” still persists. The assertion that documentary film is 125

testimony, particularly when presented in the context of the human rights film festival, reinforces this claim.

I would indeed support assertions that unstaged and unedited film footage can access a certain kind of “testimonial truth.” However, once such footage is embedded in a carefully edited documentary and then exhibited in the context of cinema, such “truthfulness” is replaced with subjectivity and the neutrality of the image is lost, thus presenting a mediated reality. As Tascon points out such films, “as creative, constructed texts cannot avoid positionality, and are in that sense interpretive and persuasive.” In the contemporary media landscape, due to increasing digital technologies, the 126

“countless, often untraceable steps” between the original film footage and the final film product mean that a “verifiable relationship” between visual representation and reality is becoming increasingly complex. 127

I agree with the claim that documentary films have a different effect on the viewer because they depict real people in the real world, and they provide a voice for victims of injustices. For this reason they should of course remain essential components of the human rights film festival programme. However, I would argue that if the notion of presenting “truthfulness” were not given such precedence but remained open to re-evaluation, then a case could be put forward for the justification of including more narrative fiction film in the human rights film festival programme. I propose that screening a majority of documentary films at such festivals, and furthermore

Martin Heidegger, The Essence of Truth: On Plato’s Cave Allegory and Theaetetus, (London: Bloomsbury, 2013 Edition, First

124

published as Vom Wesen der Wahrheit, Frankfurt am Main: Vittorio Klosterman GmBH, 1988), 12.

Ann-louise Shapiro, “How Real Is the Reality in Documentary Film?” in History and Theory, Vol.36(4), (John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

125

1997), 80.

126

Marcel Feil, “Image-Based Activism Today,” 6.