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Graduation*Thesis**
MA*Translation***
*Translating*manga*into*Dutch:*an*annotated*translation*
of*Paji*by*Takashi*Murakami**
_____________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________! * * * * * * * * * * Student:*Akane*Luiken* Supervisor:*Dr.*Eric*Metz* Moderator:*Prof.*dr.*Andreas*Niehaus* Subject:*Translation*and*Adaptation** * ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! I!would!like!to!thank!my!supervisor,!Dr.!Eric!Metz,!for!his!guidance!and! encouragement!he!has!provided!me!throughout!my!study.! ! I!also!wish!to!express!my!profound!gratitude!to!my!sister!who!has!always! inspired!me!and!supported!me!in!my!study!and!anything!I!do.! Thank!you!Himiko.!! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
Contents!! ! 1.! Abstract...! 4! 2.! Introduction!...! 4! 2.1.! !!Brief!history!of!manga!in!Japan...! 4! 2.2.! !!Types!of!manga...! 5! 2.3.! !!Popularity!beyond!print...! 6! 2.4! !!Brief!history!on!manga!in!the!West...! 7! 3.! Previous*studies*on*manga*translation...! 7! 4.! Research*questions...! 9! 5.! Methodology...! 10! 5.1.! !!Material...! 10! 5.1.1.! !!Choice...! 10! 5.1.2.! !!Synopsis...! 11! 5.1.3.! !!Background!Takashi!Murakami...! 11! 5.2! !!Process!of!translation!(scantlation)...! 12! 5.3! !!Translation!strategy...! 12! 5.3.1.!! !!Page!and!reading!order...! 12! 5.3.2.! !!Strategy...! 12! 5.3.3.! !!Process...! 13! 5.4.! !!Methods!of!analysis...! 13! 6.! Definitions*of*the*particularities*of*the*Japanese*language...! 14! 6.1.! !!Written!Japanese...! 14! 6.2.! !!Onomatopoeia!and!mimetic!words...! 15! 6.3.! !!Register!of!spoken!Japanese!...! 17! 6.4.! !!Gender!and!age!differences!in!spoken!Japanese...! 17! 7.! Analysis*of*translation*problems...! 18! 7.1.! !!Onomatopoeia!and!mimetic!words...! 18! 7.2.! !!Cultural!categories...! 20! 7.3.! !!Word!play!...! 25! 7.4.! !!Ateji...! 26! 7.5.! !!Register...! 26! 7.6.! !!Gender!and!age...! 27! 7.7.! !!Constrained!translation...! 28! 7.8.! !!Proper!nouns...! 29! 7.9.! !!Typography...! 30! 7.10.! !!Past!tense...! 31! 8.! Conclusions...! 31! 9.! Bibliography...! ! 34! ! Appendix*A**Original*and*translation*of*Paji%* ! ! Appendix*B**List*of*all*the*onomatopoeia*and*mimetic*words** ! !
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1.*Abstract**
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!!!The!present!paper!is!the!annotated!translation!of!the!manga!Paji!by!Murakami! Takashi!into!Dutch.!The!study!explores!the!translation!problems!that!occur!when! translating!manga!into!Dutch!with!focus!on!onomatopoeia/mimetic!words!and! various!cultural!elements.!The!challenge!in!manga!translation,!or!in!this!case! 'scantlation'!(the!word!blending!of!scan!and!translation!where!amateur! translators!digitally!scan!and!translate!manga!to!release!it!online)!is!the! multimodality!of!the!genre!which!combine!text,!images!and!text!as!sound.!On!top! of!this,!space!constraint!cause!difficulties!as!the!result!of!Dutch!(or!any!other! language!written!in!the!Roman!alphabet)!using!more!characters!than!Japanese.! The!aim!of!this!study!is!to!analyze!in!what!manner!equivalence!is!realized!in!the! translation!of!Paji!into!Dutch!and!look!closely!how!this!is!achieved!through!the! translation!of!onomatopoeia/mimetic!words,!realia,!and!humor.!!!
Keywords:!Translation,!scantlation,!manga,!Japanese!language,!Dutch,! onomatopoeia,!realia,!humor,!!!
2.*Introduction**
! 2.1*Brief*History*of*manga*in*Japan* ! !!!In!Japan!manga!is!everywhere.!They!are!sold!everywhere!from!supermarkets!to! kiosks,!seen!in!the!hands!of!children!and!adults,!used!as!entertainment!as!well!as! education,!and!lie!around!in!doctor's!waiting!rooms!and!restaurants.!There!are! even!manga!cafés!where!one!cat!sit!and!read!manga!for!an!hourly!rate.!This! visual!product!is!a!highly!influential!and!lucrative!business!as!it!reflects!the! history!and!present!of!the!Japanese!societal!landscape.!Its!success!also!relates!to! the!versatility!of!the!product!as!it!covers!a!long!list!of!topics!and!appeals!to!a! wide!audience.!! ! !!!''Manga!has!humor,!satire,!exaggeration,!and!wit.!The!comic!art!includes! caricature,!cartoon,!editorial!cartoon,!syndicated!panel,!daily!humor!strip,!story_ manga,!and!animation.!Like!any!other!form!of!visual!art,!literature!or! entertainment,!manga!does!not!exist!in!a!vacuum.!It!is!immersed!in!a!particular! social!environment!that!includes!history,!language,!culture,!politics,!economy,! family,!religion,!sex!and!gender,!education,!deviance!and!crime,!and!demography,! Manga!thus!reflects!the!reality!of!Japanese!society,!along!with!the!myths,!beliefs,! rituals,!tradition,!fantasies,!and!Japanese!way!of!life.!Manga!also!depicts!other! social!phenomena,!such!as!social!order!and!hierarchy,!sexism,!racism,!ageism,! classism,!and!so!on''(Ito,!456).!! ! !!!This!culture!of!comics!dates!back!to!607!CE!in!the!ancient!capital!of!Nara!where! caricatures!of!people!and!animals!were!found!on!the!ceilings!of!the!temple!(Ito,! 458).!The!commercialization!of!manga!however!began!in!the!early!eighteenth! century!and!spread!from!Osaka!to!other!important!economic!centers!(Ito,!459).! !!!It!is!said!that!the!modern!manga!is!a!direct!descendent!from!the!art!form!of! ukiyoe!(‘‘pictures!of!the!floating!world''),!a!traditional!Japanese!art!form!that!was! highly!popular!throughout!the!seventeenth!and!nineteenth!century!and!that!is! now!considered!as!a!sophisticated!artifact.!!!!!The!serialized!manga!magazines!as!we!know!now!started!with!the!publication! of!Tobae!magazine!in!1887!by!the!French!George!Bigot;!a!magazine!that!satirized! Japanese!society!and!politics!(Ito,!461).!The!modern!manga!comes!in!different! forms!but!usually!follows!the!pattern!of!being!published!in!weekly!to!monthly! magazines!showing!an!episode!each.!The!success!of!each!comic!by!different! mangaka!(manga!artist)!determines!the!longevity!of!the!series.!Some!manga! even!last!10_20!years.!For!the!collectors!of!manga!or!for!the!audience!that!reads! the!manga!for!the!first!time!after!its!original!publication!in!the!magazines,!the! comics!are!published!individually!in!smaller!pocket_sized!series.!! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Figure!1.!On!the!right:!thick!magazine!Margaret!(biweekly!since!1963)!that!has!about! 300_400!pages.!On!the!left:!the!first!individual!publication!of!the!iconic!series!Berusaiyu! no!Bara!(The!Rose!of!Versailles).! * * 2.2*Types*of*manga*** * !!!As!mentioned!earlier,!manga!treats!a!wide!range!of!genres!from!history!to! social!phenomena!such!as!sexism,!ageism!and!social!order.!However,!all!the! different!genres!can!be!roughly!categorized!into!5!types!of!manga!that!are! designated!to!different!ages!and!gender.!! * Kodomo7muke!! * ! (etymology:!child!+!aimed)!is!the!genre!for!young!children!with!simple! and/or!imaginative!story!lines!that!usually!aim!to!teach!children!about!morals! and!values.!Popular!works!include!Doraemon,!Heidi!and!Chibimaruko.!Many! school!libraries!hold!manga!biographies!of!historically!important!people!where! children!can!learn!from!in!an!accessible!way.!! ! ! ! ! ! !
! * * * * * * * * * * Figure2.!Manga!biographies!of!Jeanne!d'Arc,!Anne!Frank!and!Martin!Luther!King! * Shōjo! * ! (etymology:!few!+!girl)!is!the!genre!for!girls!between!the!age!of!10_18.! Storylines!often!cover!romance!and!interpersonal!relationships!in!and!out!of!the! school!environment.!Popular!works!include!Hana!Yori!Dango!(Boys!over! Flowers),!NANA,!and!Berusaiyu!no!Bara!(The!Rose!of!Versailles).!! ! Shōnen! * ! (!etymology:!few!+!years)!is!the!genre!for!boys!under!the!age!of!15.!They!are! characterized!by!a!male!hero,!action,!fighting!and!fantasy!plots.!Popular!works! include!Naruto,!Bleach!and!One7Piece.!! ! Jyosei! * ! (etymology:!woman!+!sex)!is!the!genre!aimed!at!adult!women!that!depict! interpersonal!relationships!covering!love,!family!and!work.!Popular!works! include!Loveless,!Paradise!Kiss!and!Honey!and!Clover.!! ! Seinen!! * ! (etymology:!blue/green!+!years)!is!the!genre!aimed!at!boys!between!the! age!of!15_25!but!it!is!very!common!to!have!readers!up!to!the!age!of!50.!Shōnen! mangas!are!more!violent!and!have!a!psychological!and/or!sexual!nature.!Popular! works!include!Akira,!Gantz,!and!Kōkaku!Kidōtai!(Ghost!in!the!Shell).!! ! 2.3*Popularity*beyond*print* ! !!!Manga!is!a!mass_produced/mass_marketed!commodity!that!doesn't!stop!at!the! books!that!are!sold.!Popular!mangas!are!turned!into!animés!(animations),! dramatization,!and!merchandize.!An!iconic!example!is!Hana!Yori!Dango!(Boys! over!flowers).!Hana!Yori!Dango!was!serialized!in!biweekly!magazine!Margaret! from!1992_2003!and!is!collected!into!37!individual!volumes.!Since!then!the! series!have!been!turned!into!anime,!live_action!TV!series!and!movies!in!Japan,! Korea!and!Taiwan.!! ! !
2.4*Brief*background*of*manga*in*the*West* ! !!The!popularity!of!manga!outside!of!Japan!and!Asia!has!been!growing!since!the! 1990s!although!there!is!a!clear!dominance!of!manga!in!the!European!market! over!the!market!in!North!America.!In!October!2002,!the!first!independent! Japanese!manga!corner!was!exhibited!at!the!Frankfurt!Book!fair,!one!of!the! oldest!and!biggest!international!book!fairs!in!the!world!that!deals!with!novels,! children's!books,!and!translated!books!(Ito,!472).!By!that!time!manga!had! already!gained!a!lot!of!success!in!France,!Germany,!Spain!and!Italy.!In!2011!50%! of!the!European!manga!market!was!represented!by!France!and!within!France,! manga!represented!40%!of!comic!books!published1.!The!success!of!manga!in! France!has!been!attributed!to!the!already!established!comic!book!culture!(bande! dessinée)!and!the!fact!that!it!is!viewed!as!a!form!of!art.!By!2007!France!had!more! than!ten!established!manga!distributors,!Italy!at!least!seven,!Spain!had!two!and! Germany!had!several!manga!distributors!also!publishing!serialized!manga! magazines!in!German2.!! ! 3.*Previous*studies*on*manga*translation** ! !!!The!translation!of!manga!is!quite!a!new!subject!within!translation!studies!but! the!rise!of!global!popularity!of!Japanese!manga!and!culture!have!inspired!a!few! studies!that!I!would!like!to!discuss!briefly.!!! * On!translation!standards!and!treatment!of!cultural!aspects! * !!!In!her!study!on!Japanese!comics!in!Germany3,!Heike!Elisabeth!Jüngst!identifies! and!discusses!some!translation!problems!found!in!the!manga!version!of!the! literary!classic!The!Tale!of!Genji!by!Murasaki!Shikibu.!Since!The!Tale!of!Genji!is!a! story!about!the!lifestyles!of!the!high!courtiers!in!the!Heian!period!(11th!century),! many!of!the!historical!and!cultural!aspects!have!had!to!be!explicitated!in! footnotes.!Jüngst!also!discusses!that!many!translation!standards!have!been! established!from!the!opinions!of!the!fan!base!of!manga!as!well!as!the!publishers! instead!of!the!translators!themselves.!The!study!showed!that!the!fans!prefer!a! translation!that!is!as!close!as!possible!to!the!original,!even!when!it!creates! clumsiness!within!the!text!and!image.!The!closeness!to!the!TT!is!what!appeals!to! manga!fans!the!most.!!!* ! !!!In!two!pilot!studies,!Hiroko!Inose!looked!at!the!informal!learning!environment! that!manga!translation!could!offer!to!amateur!translators!(scantlators)4.!The!first! pilot!study!consisted!of!comparing!the!Japanese!original!to!an!official!English! translation!and!a!scantlation!downloaded!from!a!manga!fan_site.!The!second! study!compared!the!Japanese!original!to!two!different!scantlations.!Both!studies! examined!and!compared!the!level!of!Japanese!language!and!the!overall!quality!of! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 1!Pra,!Elvero,!Anime!and!Manga,!AnVi!OpenSource!Knowledge.!p.32! 2!Wong,!Wendy!Siuyi.!2007.The!Presence!of!Manga!in!Europe!and!North!America,!RTHK!Media! Digest.!Web.! 3!Heike!Elisabeth!Jüngst.!2004.!Japanese!Comics!in!Germany,!Perspectives:!Studies!in! Translatology,!12:2,!83_105!p.!88! 4!Inose,!Hiroko.!2012.!"Translating!Japanese!Onomatopoeia!and!Mimetic!Words!in!Manga!into! Spanish!and!English"!in!Zybatow,!L.,!Petrova,!A.,!and!Ustaszewski,!M.!(eds.)!Translation!Studies:! Old!and!New!Types!of!Translation!in!Theory!and!Practice.!Peter!Lang:!Wien:!179_184!
the!translations.!The!results!showed!that!the!scantlations!provided!by!amateurs! did!have!consequential!errors!caused!by!the!inadequate!level!of!the!Japanese! language.!Linguistically,!the!official!translations!by!professionals!were!of!a!higher! quality.!However,!results!also!showed!an!interesting!pattern!regarding!the! treatment!of!cultural!aspects.!!The!fan!_translators!tended!to!have!a!more! 'foreignizing'!strategy!with!cultural!references,!onomatopoeia!and!word!play.! 'Foreignization'!(Venuti,!1995)!is!the!effort!to!retain!as!much!of!the!local!color!of! the!original!rather!than!replacing!it!with!the!target!culture!equivalent.!The! explanation!for!the!tendency!for!fan!translators!to!adopt!a!foreignizing!strategy! is!that!they!are!students!of!the!Japanese!language!and!culture!and!feel!that!their! translations!are!a!gateway!to!the!understanding!of!the!culture.!The!study! concludes!that!scantlation!can!be!a!valuable!means!for!learning!Japanese!and! that!the!fan!translators!acquire!many!skills!such!as!speed!of!translation!(online! fan!translations!can!be!published!in!a!matter!of!days!after!the!Japanese!original! has!been!published).!! ! !!!In!a!similar!way,!Huang!and!Archer!discuss!the!comparisons!between!official! and!fan!translations!of!manga!in!''Fluidity!of!modes!in!the!translation!of!manga:! the!case!of!Kishimoto's!Naruto5.!They!draw!attention!to!the!fact!that!manga! translation!concerns!multimodal!translation!because!it!combines!text!with! images!but!also!text!that!convey!actions!and!sounds.!This!study!examines!the! relation!between!layouts,!space,!conventions!that!govern!the!reading!path!and! how!sound!effects!are!conveyed.!Huang!and!Archer!found!that!sound!effects!in! fan!translations!were!left!untranslated!and!that!the!layout!was!also!untouched,! whereas!official!translations!changed!the!sounds!and!layout!system!(mirroring! the!pages!and!reading!direction)!for!the!Western!readership.!Where! onomatopoeic!and!mimetic!words!were!left!untranslated,!it!is!argued!that!the! reader!who!cannot!read!Japanese!is!still!able!to!generate!the!sound!effect!from! the!context!of!the!story!as!well!as!the!typography.!! ! On!prominent!manga!translation!problems! ! !!!A!study!conducted!by!Mikael!Svensson!that!looked!specifically!at!the! translation!of!onomatopoeia!and!mimetic!words!from!Japanese!to!Swedish! collected!data!from!four!different!mangas!translated!into!Swedish.!The!results! showed!that!even!though!the!mangas!were!translated!into!Swedish,!many! English!words!were!used!to!translate!onomatopoeia!and!mimetic!words6.!!This! study!identifies!several!translation!problems!and!solutions!regarding! onomatopoeia!and!mimetic!words.!! ! !!!In!a!case!study!of!manga!translation!problems!from!Japanese!to!English,!Per! Gyllenfjell7!identified!ten!different!types!of!translation!problems!and!eleven! different!solutions!to!these!problems.!The!results!showed!the!most!prominent! translation!problems!were!onomatopoeia!consisting!of!63.9%!of!the!total! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 5!Huang,!Cheng_wen.!and!Archer,!Arlene.!2014.!''Fluidity!in!the!translation!of!manga:!the!case!of! Kishimoto's!Naruto''!in!Visual!Communication!13(4),!University!of!Cape!Town:!471_!486! 6!Svensson,!Mikael.!2012.!Översättning!till!svenska!av!japansk!onomatopoetikon!i!manga.! Kandidatuppsats,!Göteborgs!Universitet.! 7!Gyllenfjell,!Per.!"Case!Study!of!Manga!Translation!Problems."!Thesis.!Dalarna!University,!2013.! Print.!
amount!of!translation!problems.!Ateji!was!the!second!most!occurring!problem! with!10%,!followed!by!proper!nouns!at!8.1%.!Ateji!is!the!irregular!pronunciation! of!a!given!kanji.!Gyllenfjell!gives!the!next!example!to!illustrate!the!problem:!! ! !!!!! !(ranchi:!luch)! !!! !(chūshoku)!is!the!Japanese!word!for!lunch.!However,!it!is!very!common!to! say!'ranchi'!borrowed!from!English.!The!kanji!above!can!technically!only!be!read! as!chūshoku,!but!the!furigana/ruby!indicates!that!it!is!supposed!to!be!read!as! ranchi.!This!is!the!author's!stylistic!preference.!! ! !!!Although!this!case!study!has!only!collected!data!from!one!manga!that! Gyllenfjell!translated!himself,!he!speculated!that!these!three!main!problems!are! common!to!the!action!manga!aimed!at!adolescent!males.!! ! !!!These!previous!studies!have!established!some!of!the!translation!standards!that! have!been!manifested!throughout!the!years!of!manga!translation,!compared! official!and!fan!translations,!and!have!analyzed!prominent!manga!translation! problems!such!as!onomatopoeia.!So!far!there!aren't!any!known!studies!that!have! researched!manga!translations!into!Dutch.!The!present!study!will!analyze! prominent!translation!problems!that!arise!when!translation!manga!into!Dutch!as! well!as!analyzing!the!accompanying!translation!techniques.!! !
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4.Research*questions*
! The!following!are!the!research!questions!of!this!study:!! ! In*what*manner*is*equivalence*realized*in*translating*manga*into*Dutch?** ! I. How!are!translation!problems!that!are!the!result!of!the!multimodality!of! the!manga!genre!(image,!text!and!text!a!sound)!solved?!! II. To!what!extent!is!realia!foreignized!or!naturalized!in!manga!translation! into!Dutch?! III. How!is!humor!maintained!in!manga!translation!into!a!language!such!as! Dutch!that!is!typologically!and!culturally!significantly!far!from!Japanese?! IV. To!what!extent!can!onomatopoeia!and!mimetic!words!be!translated!into!a! language!such!as!Dutch!that!make!little!use!of!onomatopoeia!and!mimetic! words?! ! ! !*
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5.*Methodology**
! 5.1*Material** * 5.1.1*Choice* ! !!!First!and!foremost,!I!chose!to!translate!Paji!into!Dutch!because!of!my! familiarity!with!this!manga.!I!have!read!it!many!times!in!my!childhood!and!have! had!many!discussions!with!my!sister!who!is!also!a!big!fan!of!this!work.!It!is!a! work!that!has!many!themes!such!as!life!after!loss,!struggles!of!raising!children,! interaction!between!the!elderly!and!youth,!struggles!and!how!to!cope!when! there!isn't!enough!money,!and!of!course!the!mundane!happiness!of!everyday!life.! All!of!these!themes!are!and!will!stay!relevant,!as!they!are!universal!across! cultures.!I!believe!this!work!is!a!good!mixture!of!universality!across!cultures!and! ''otherness''!that!will!allow!readers!to!relate!and!enjoy!learning!something!about! the!unknown.!I!also!saw!a!good!challenge!of!translating!this!work!since!humor! plays!a!big!role!along!with!the!bittersweet!happiness.!Another!challenge!in! translating!Paji!is!the!fact!that!it!attracts!a!large!demographic!ranging!from! children!to!adults!up!till!the!age!of!50.!It!was!originally!published!in!Weekly! Young!Jump,!a!manga!magazine!for!men!between!15_50,!and!ran!for!6!years! before!it!was!published!on!its!own.!When!it!was!published!on!it's!own!as!a! serialized!manga,!it!attracted!an!even!wider!audience!of!girls!and!women!and! this!can!also!been!seen!in!how!the!books!were!bound.! ! ! ! ! ! Figure!3.!From!the!left:!Weekly!Young!Jump!August!1995,!three!standard!publications!of! serialized!comics!from!manga!publisher!Jump!Comics,!inside!a!standard!manga! publication! ! !!!The!above!three!images!show!how!seinen!mangas!published!in!magazines!such! as!Weekly!Young!Jump!look!like.!The!cover!of!the!weekly!magazine!appeals!to! men!and!once!they!are!serialized!on!their!own,!they!have!a!standard!form!of! 174mm!by!112mm!printed!on!light!and!cheaper!paper.!! ! !!!When!Paji!first!appeared!as!a!weekly!comic,!it!was!published!in!a!magazine! such!as!shown!here!above!on!the!left.!When!it!got!published!on!its!own,!it!was! published!in!a!bigger!format!on!whiter!and!thicker!paper!and!overall!had!a!more! sophisticated!look!as!shown!on!the!next!page.!! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Figure!4.!Serialized!books!of!Paji!published!by!Young!Jump!Comics!! ! ! 5.1.2*Synopsis** ! Paji*by*Takashi*Murakami** ! !!!Paji!is!a!slice_of_life!story!about!a!75!year_old!grandfather!and!his!4!year_old! granddaughter!Momo.!Paji!is!what!Momo!calles!her!grandfather!because!he!is! both!her!father!(papa)!and!grandfather!(jīchan!in!Japanese).!The!two!live! together!ever!since!her!parents!passed!away!and!the!story!centers!on!Paji's! happiness!and!struggles!of!raising!Momo.!Having!experienced!the!Great! Hanshin/Kobe!earthquake!that!hit!in!1995,!the!author!created!this!story!with!the! thought!of!depicting!the!treasures!of!the!mundane!everyday!life!you!experience! with!family.!Momo!and!Paji!live!in!an!unnamed!city!in!an!old!house!surrounded! by!their!friendly!neighbors.!They!aren't!affluent!and!this!also!plays!a!major! theme!in!the!story.!! ! 5.1.3*Background*Takashi*Murakami* * !!!Takashi!Murakami!( )!is!a!mangaka!(manga!artist)!born!in!1965!in! Osaka.!Although!he!did!not!graduate,!he!studied!economics!at!Kyoto!University.! While!he!was!studying!at!Kyoto!University!in!1985,!he!debuted!his!first!work! !(namakemono!ga!miteta!/!''the!sluggard!was!watching'')!with! Young!Jump!Comics!owned!by!Japans!most!biggest!publisher! (Shueisha! Inc.)!Until!Murakami!wrote!Paji!in!2000,!his!works!were!focused!on!the! (gyagu_manga)!which!is!humorous!manga!with!one_line!gag!jokes.!Paji!was! thus!a!turning!point!for!the!mangaka!and!his!work!received!a!prize!at!the!fourth! Japan!Media!Arts!Festival.!!Murakami's!international!recognition!came!in!2013! when!he!was!selected!in!the!top!ten!of!the!Great!Graphic!Novels!for!Teens!by! YASLA!(Young!Adult!Library!Services!Association)!for!his!work! ! (hoshimamoru!inu)!or!Stargazing!Dog!(NBM!Publishing,!2011)!in!English.!This! work!is!also!highly!popular!in!Japan!and!a!movie!version!of!the!story!was!made! in!2011.!! !
! ! * * * * * * * * * * Figure!5.!On!the!left:!Murakami's!debut!work!Namakemono!ga!miteta.!On!the!right:! Hoshimamoru!Inu!1&2.!! * 5.2*Process*of*translation*(scantlation)** ! !!!I!have!translated!roughly!half!of!the!first!volume!of!Paji.!The!process!was!as! follows:!! ! 1.!Scan!the!pages.! 2.!Remove!all!the!Japanese!text!with!a!software!called!GIMP.!! 3.!Correct!the!color!and!size!in!PowerPoint.!! 4.!Fill!in!the!translated!texts!using!PowerPoint.!PowerPoint!shows!the!total!word! count.!! 5.!Where!it!was!possible,!I!expanded!the!textboxes!(using!GIMP)!since!Dutch!uses! more!characters!than!Japanese.!! ! 5.3*Translation*strategy** * 5.3.1*Page*and*reading*order* ! !!!The!Japanese!pages!are!read!from!right!to!left!and!texts!are!read!from!top!to! bottom.!When!manga!was!first!translated!into!English,!the!pages!were!generally! mirrored!so!that!the!English_speaking!consumer!would!be!able!to!read!it!from! left!to!right.!However,!with!the!huge!popularity!of!Japanese!culture,!publishers! stopped!mirroring!the!pages!to!deliver!a!product!that!was!more!authentic!to!the! consumer!who!craved!for!a!product!that!was!closest!to!the!original.!Since!this!is! now!the!norm!in!manga!translation,!I!also!have!chosen!to!keep!the!reading! direction!as!the!original!(Sell,!101)!! * 5.3.2*Strategy** ! !!!Since!manga!translation!is!quite!constrained!because!of!the!images!and!limited! space,!I!haven't!adopted!one!single!strategy.!Where!the!image!and!space!allowed,! I!have!domesticated!aspects!so!that!lengthy!explanations!and!clumsy!wording! wouldn’t!interrupt!the!reading!and!humor.!However,!where!the!story!couldn't!be! translated!without!explanation,!and!where!I!personally!wanted!to!maintain!the! specific!cultural!aspect,!I!adopted!foreignizing!procedures.!! !
!!!My!mixed!strategy!is!due!to!my!intended!readership,!which!is!a!Dutch_speaking! readership!that!already!has!an!interest!in!Japanese!comics!and!culture.! ! 5.3.3*Process* ! !!!I!had!the!choice!of!either!translating!Paji!into!English!or!Dutch!but!after!having! translated!some!sections!in!both!languages,!I!judged!that!the!transfer!to!Dutch! suited!the!nuance!of!this!work!more!than!English!did.!However,!in!some!cases,!I! have!translated!from!Japanese!to!English,!and!then!Dutch!to!find!the!most! suitable!translation.!! ! !!!The!reason!I!chose!to!translate!Paji!into!Dutch!instead!of!English!is!a!highly! personal!preference.!!My!two!maternal!languages!are!Japanese!and!Dutch!and! the!interaction!I!have!had!as!a!child!with!elderly!people!was!mostly!in!either! Japanese!or!Dutch.!!Moreover,!when!translating!Momo's!speech!into!Dutch,!I! would!think!of!what!my!two!3_year_old!nieces!would!say!in!Dutch.!Dutch!came! more!naturally!to!me!when!translating!for!these!reasons.!Another!reason!for! choosing!Dutch!was!the!option!to!use!the!diminutive,!as!it!is!a!good!alternative!to! express!the!difference!in!registers!that!Dutch!can't!express!grammatically.! ! !!!One!of!the!big!problems!I!faced!during!translation!was!onomatopoeia.!I!will! elaborate!further!on!this!in!the!analysis!section!but!in!cases!where!I!couldn't!find! anything,!I!took!inspiration!from!the!following!comics:!! ! _!Suske!en!Wiske!! _!Flaters!te!koop!!! _!Naruto!translated!into!Dutch!! * 5.4*Methods*of*analysis** * !!!For!the!analysis!of!my!translation!of!Paji,!I!will!apply!Vinay!and!Darbelnet's! model!as!it!effectively!categorizes!what!happens!in!interlingual!translation.!I! have!also!applied!Newmark's!model!since!it!is!very!similar!to!that!of!Vinay!and! Darbeltnet!but!is!more!elaborate!on!the!cultural!aspect!of!translation.!!! * • Vinay*and*Darbelnet's*strategies*and*procedures* ! 1) Borrowing* The!SL!word!is!directly!transferred!to!the!TL!to!fill!a!semantic!gap!or!to!add! local!color.!! 2) Calque* This!is!a!type!of!'borrowing'!where!the!SL!expression!or!structure!is! transferred!in!a!literal!translation.!! 3) Literal*translation* This!is!'word_for_word'!translation,!which!occurs!commonly!between! languages!of!the!same!family.! 4) Transposition* This!is!a!change!of!one!part!of!speech!for!another!!(e.g.!verb!for!noun)! without!changing!the!sense.!! 5) Modulation* This!changes!the!semantics!and!point!of!view!of!the!SL.!!
6) Équivalence** Vinay!and!Darbetnet!use!this!term!to!refer!to!cases!where!languages!describe! the!same!situation!by!different!stylistic!or!structural!means.!This!is!not!the! same!as!'equivalence'!used!in!the!more!common!translation!theory.!! 7) Adaptation* This!procedure!changes!the!cultural!reference!when!a!situation!in!the!source! culture!does!not!exist!in!the!target!culture.!! * • Newmark's*translation*methods* * 1) Transference** Transference!(emprunt!or!loan!word)!is!the!process!of!transferring!a!SL!word! to!a!TL!text:!same!as!borrowing.!! 2) Cultural*equivalent* This!is!an!approximate!translation!where!a!ASL!culture!word!is!translated!by! a!TL!culture!word:!same!as!adaptation.!! 3) Neutralization*(functional*or*descriptive*equivalent)** This!common!procedure,!applied!to!cultural!words,!requires!the!use!of!a! culture_free!word,!sometimes!with!a!new!specific!term;!it!therefore! neutralises!or!generalises!the!SL!word! 4) Naturalization** This!procedure!succeeds!transference!and!adapts!the!SL!word!first!to!the! normal!pronunciation,!then!to!the!normal!morphology!(word_forms)!of!the! TL.! 5) Deletion* This!is!the!cutting!of!redundant!stretches!of!language!in!non_authoritative! texts,!especially!metaphors!and!imensifiers.!! 6) Paraphrase,*gloss,*notes** This!is!an!amplification!or!explanation!of!the!meaning!of!a!segment!of!the!text.!! !
6.*Definitions*of*the*particularities*of*the*Japanese*language*
! 6.1*Written*Japanese*** * !!!Before!discussing!the!translation!shifts!from!Japanese!to!Dutch,!it!is!important! to!understand!how!Japanese!is!written.!Japanese!uses!three!different!systems!of! writing:!kanji,!hiragana!and!katakana.!Kanji!is!a!writing!system!borrowed!from! Chinese!and!contains!meaning!( /kun)!and!sound( /onn).!!!
!!!For!example,!the!kanji!for!river( /kawa)!has!one!meaning!but!several!sounds.! (kawa)!is!the!kun_reading!since!it!contains!the!meaning!of!'river'.!In!compound! nouns!such!as! (sansen),!a!noun!made!up!from!the!kanji! (yama)!meaning! mountain,!and!the!kanji! (kawa)!makes!up!the!word!'mountain!river'.!The! reading!of! (kawa)!is!now!'sen'!because!it!is!read!in!its!on_reading(sound! reading).! (kawa)!also!has!the!on_reading(sound)!of!'ka',!'ko'!and!'sawa'.!With! names,!it!can!even!be!more!complicated!because!parents!can!designate!a!non_ general!on_reading!to!the!kanji!of!their!liking.!For!instance,!someone!named!their! child!Tiara,!as!in!the!crown,!and!has!written!it!with!the!kanji! (kannmuri),! which!means!'crown'!in!English.!! !
!!!The!two!other!writing!systems!are!Japanese!syllabaries!hiragana!and!katakana.! These!syllabaries!are!purely!phonetic!and!each!have!the!same!set!of!50!letters!and! even!more!sounds!in!combination.!Hiragana!is!mainly!used!for!grammatical! purposes!and!katakana!on!the!other!hand!is!used!for!borrowed!words,!foreign! names!and!to!transliterate!foreign!languages.!! ! For!reference:!! ! English:!Good!morning!! Transliteration!hiragana:! (guddomōnin)! Transliteration!katakana:! (guddomōnin)! ! Hiragana!is!also!used!to!write!furigana,!or!ruby,!which!is!a!reading!aid!printed! on!top!of!or!next!to!kanji!to!indicate!its!accurate!pronunciation.!Children's! literature!or!textbooks!use!this!often!since!children!have!not!learned!all!the!kanji! yet,!but!it!is!also!used!in!adult!literature!for!difficult!kanji!that!aren't!used!on!a! daily!basis.!Official!documents!always!have!a!column!to!write!one's!name!in!kanji! and!ruby!because!there!isn't!only!one!way!to!pronounce!the!kanji.!! ! ! ! ↵!hiragana!as!ruby! (Minji!Jiro)! ! ↵kanji!(Minji!Jiro)! ! ! Figure!6.!Sample!of!how!to!fill!in!a!name!on!official!documents!! ! In!the!case!of!the!name!Tiara,!ruby!is!needed!for!'accurate'!pronunciation!of! (kannmuri).!! ! ↵(Tiara)!in!hiragana! !!!!!!!!!↵!kanji!for!'crown'!generally!pronounced!as!kannmuri!! ! Grammatically,!there!is!no!reading!of!the!kanji! (kannmuri/crown)!as!'tiara',! but!these!rules!can!be!bent!for!names!and!for!word!play.!! ! 6.2*Onomatopoeia*and*mimetic*words* ! Japanese!is!a!language!that!uses!onomatopoeia!and!mimetic!words!in!high! frequency!in!all!registers!of!spoken!and!written!language.!Many!languages!such!as! English!or!Dutch!reserve!the!use!of!onomatopoeia!largely!for!informal!use!or!for! rhythmic!poetry!and!comics.!This!is!why!onomatopoeia!and!mimetic!words!cause!the! most!problems!in!the!translation!from!Japanese!to!Dutch!or!most!of!the!other! languages;!there!simply!aren't!enough!literal!equivalents.!! !! Kojien!(5th!edition!1998),!one!of!the!most!reputable!Japanese!dictionaries,!gives! the!following!definitions!of!Japanese!onomatopoeia!and!mimetic!words!(translated! by!Inose):!!
! • Giseigo:!Words!that!imitate!human!and!animal!voices.!Kyaakyaa![female! high!voice,!laughing!or!shouting],!wanwan,![dog!barking]!and!so!on.!! • Giongo:!Words!that!imitate!real!sounds.!Sarasara![sound!of!stream],! zaazaa![sounds!of!showering!rain],!wanwan![dog!barking]!and!so!on.!! • Gitaigo:!Words!that!describe!visual,!tactile,!and!other!non_auditory! sensitive!impressions.!Niyanniya![smiling!ironically],!furafura![state!of!not! being!able!to!walk!steadily],!yuttari![state!of!being!relaxed]!and!so!on.!! ! !!!Thus,!giseigo!and!giongo!imitate!real!sounds!and!can!be!categorized!as! onomatopoeia,!whereas!gitaigo!is!the!phonetic!expression!of!the!phenomena!or! the!states!that!do!not!produce!sounds.!The!latter!can!thus!be!categorized!as! mimetic!words.!(Inose,!p.98)!The!reason!that!wanwan!is!both!giseigo!and!giongo! is!because!all!giseigo!are!giongo!because!they!all!imitate!real!sounds.!Giseogo!is!a! specific!giongo!that!imitates!sounds!made!by!the!living.!! ! !!!In!some!translated!manga!such!as!the!Dutch!version!of!Naruto!by!Masashi! Kishimoto,!some!onomatopoeic!and!mimetic!words!are!left!untranslated!but! transcribed.!Because!the!text!in!manga!is!being!treated!as!an!extension!of!the! imagery,!readers!can!deduce!the!meaning!of!the!Japanese!onomatopoeia!by! image!and!context8.!! * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *************************Figure!7.!Dutch!translation!of!Naruto!by!Masahi!Kishimoto! * * * * * * * * * * !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 8!Huang,!Cheng_wen.!and!Archer,!Arlene.!2014.!''Fluidity!in!the!translation!of!manga:!the!case!of!
6.3*Register*of*spoken*Japanese** ! !!!The!register!of!spoken!Japanese!is!a!very!complex!and!elaborate!one.!The! register!reflects!the!speaker's!age,!gender,!and!position!among!other!things.!The! difference!in!register!is!both!grammatical!and!lexical.!! ! !!!Honorifics!in!Japanese!is!referred!to!as!keigo!( ,!respect!+!language)!and! have!three!categories:!! ! • Sonkeigo!( ),!respectful!language!!! • Kenjōgo!( ),!humble!language!! • Teineigo!( ),!polite!language!! ! !!!The!two!first!honorifics!are!used!for!someone!being!talked!about!and!the!last! one!is!used!for!someone!being!talked!to.!The!main!difference!between!sonkeigo! and!kenjōgo!is!the!visible!hierarchy.!Sonkeigo!is!used!to!talk!about!the!actions!of! a!superior!as!to!'elevate'!that!person,!whereas!kenjōgo!is!used!to!talk!about!the! person!speaking!as!to!'lower'!your!own!position!in!the!hierarchy.!! ! !!!An!example!to!illustrate!the!importance!of!understanding!the!register!with!the! verb!'to!say':!! ! Sonkeigo:!ossharu/iwareru!! Kenjōgo:!mōsu! Teineigo:!iimasu! ! !!!If!the!person!who!is!speaking,!let's!say!a!salesperson,!says!'I!said'!using!the!verb! ossharu,!this!would!be!very!embarrassing.!The!correct!verb!would!be!mōsu!when! talking!about!your!own!actions.!In!Dutch!or!English,!'I!say',!'!you!say',!'he!says',!all! used!the!same!verb!unlike!Japanese.!This!causes!translation!problems!where!the! nuance!and!register!is!essential!in!understanding!relationships.!Possible! solutions!for!the!consequential!translation!loss!could!be!compensated!by!overly! polite/rude!language!and/or!adjusting!the!vocabulary!accordingly!to!the! speaker's!background!and!attitude.!! * 6.4*Gender*and*age*differences*in*spoken*Japanese** ! !!!In!the!same!manner,!gender!and!age!differences!in!speech!cause!translation! problems!between!Japanese!and!Dutch.!There!are!specific!ways!in!which!a! certain!age!group!or!gender!express!themselves!not!only!lexically!but!also! grammatically.!These!differences!can!be!expressed!by!suffixes!and!verb!endings.! With!Paji!specifically,!there!is!a!lot!of!translation!loss!in!the!aspect!because!the! main!characters!differ!so!much!in!age.!The!play!on!these!registers,!gender!and! age!differences!that!are!used!to!create!humor!tend!to!get!lost!in!translation!too.!! !
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7.*Analysis*of*translation*problems***
! !!!All!the!references!to!the!page!numbers!from!here!on!can!be!found!in!appendix! A!(ST&TT).!! ! 7.1*Onomatopoeia*&*mimetic*words** * !!!This!category!was!where!the!most!translation!problems!occurred.!In!70!pages,! there!were!123!onomatopoeic!and!mimetic!words!of!which!71!were! onomatopoeia!and!52!mimetic!words.!The!following!pie!charts!show!how!these! problems!were!solved:!! ! ! Verb! 27%! Omission!! 17%! Mimetic! word! 13%! Adverb! 5%! Onomatopoeia! 6%! Description!! 6%! Punctuation!mark! 6%! Interjection!! 6%! Neologism! 6%! Proper!noun! 2%! Adjective! 2%! English!!2%! Noun!! 2%! Chart*2:*Translation*solutions*for*mimetic*words* Onomatopoeia! 46%! Omission!! 16%! Interjection!! 13%! Verb! 8%! Neologism! 7%! English! 6%! Mimetic!word! 3%! Adjective!1%! Chart*1:*Translation*solutions*for*onomatopoeic*words****As!it!can!be!seen!on!the!charts,!the!three!most!occurring!solutions!for! onomatopoeic!words!were!1)!onomatopoeia,!2)!omission,!and!3)!interjection.!A! lot!of!the!onomatopoeic!words!that!I!have!used!in!my!translation!have!been! inspired!from!Dutch!comic!books!such!as!Suske!en!Wiske.!The!three!most! occurring!solutions!for!mimetic!words!were!1)!verb,!2)!omission,!and!3)!mimetic! words.!The!interesting!thing!is!that!although!the!123!Japanese!onomatopoeic! and!mimetic!words!were!all!different,!the!translation!uses!the!same!word!for! several!different!Japanese!words.!The!subtle!differences!in!words!that!can!be! expressed!in!Japanese!were!somewhat!lost.!The!detailed!list!of!these!words!can! be!found!in!appendix!B.!! ! !!!All!the!page!references!made!from!here!refer!to!the!ST!and!TT!in!appendix!A.!! * Onomatopoeia* * ST:! ! Pusu!pusu!(sound!of!sharp!needle!like!object!piercing!through!something)!! TT:!Prik!prik!prik!! (Refer!to!p.34)! ! ST: ! Kyu!kyu!(sound!of!something!being!polished)! TT:!Poets!poets!! (Refer!to!p.38)!! ! ST: ! Nnsho!Nnsho!(sound!one!makes!when!using!great!effort)!! TT:!Wiebel!wiebel!! (Refer!to!p.44)!! ! !!!In!all!the!above!cases,!an!onomatopoeic!word!is!translated!using!the!stem!or! imperative!of!a!Dutch!verb.!Here!we!speak!of!transposition!where!there!is!a! change!in!one!part!of!speech!for!another!without!changing!the!sense.!What!also! happens!here!is!that!the!translations!of!the!onomatopoeic!words!become! mimetic!words!because!the!words!made!from!the!stems!of!verbs!in!Dutch!do!not! produce!any!sounds.!! * Mimetic*words* * ST:!!! !/! ! Otōsan!ga!korori!to!shinde!/!okāsan!ga!porori!to!shinde!! !!!!!!!!!Father!(sound!of!something!falling)!dead!/!Mother!(sound!of!teardrop)!dead! TT:!Vader!ging!zomaar!dood/!Moeder!ging!zomaar!dood!! (Refer!to!p.3)!! ! !!!The!understanding!of!the!introduction!of!Paji!is!very!important!as!it!sets!the! scene!in!merely!5!sentences.!The!tone!of!the!story!is!bittersweet!as!Momo!and! Paji!live!a!very!blissful!live!together!but!the!reason!for!this!is!because!she!has!lost! her!parents.!But!the!way!her!parents'!death!is!being!announced!is!very! nonchalant!and!has!a!hint!of!humor!in!it.!It!might!even!been!seen!as!morbid!that!
a!4_year_old's!parent's!death!is!being!described!like!this!in!a!humorous!manner.! Thus,!the!word!choice!is!very!important.!Korori!means!effortlessly!or!suddenly,! but!it!is!also!used!to!describe!sound!of!rolling!down!or!falling!down!nonchalantly.! Porori!has!the!same!nuance!but!this!mimetic!word!is!used!for!the!sound!of!a!tear! or!water!drop!dropping.!The!image!these!two!words!create!is!that!Momo's! parents!died!in!an!unexpected!way!and!very!suddenly,!yet!keeping!the!tone!very! light.!One!of!my!first!options!was!to!translate!it!as!''Vader!en!moeder!gingen! zomaar!dood''.!The!reason!for!this!is!that!I!wanted!to!maintain!the!word!''dead''! like!the!ST!to!keep!the!morbid!humor.!However,!I!wanted!to!find!a!solution! where!the!effect!of!the!mimetic!words!could!be!recreated.!I!focused!on!finding! words!that!would!convey!the!manner!in!which!they!died!and!that!would!rhyme! at!the!same!time.!''Vader!ging!grifweg!dood/!Moeder!ging!losweg!dood''!was!the! second!option.!Whilst!searching!for!these!words,!I!came!across!the!work!'grif'! with!the!synonym!'kwiek'.!Although!I!had!lost!the!word!''dead''!I!felt!that!this! translation!was!most!suitable!since!the!words!both!have!one!syllable!and!look! like!they!might!be!mimetic!words.!I!presented!the!translation!to!a!three!Dutch! speakers!and!received!feedback!that!'grif'!and!'kwiek'!were!first!of!all!words!that! are!not!used!daily!and!that!therefore!the!meaning!of!these!words!were!very! vague.!At!the!end,!I!chose!the!very!first!option!where!I!would!use!the!word!'dead'! but!lose!the!mimetic!word!with!the!reason!that!it!is!straightforward!and!is!still! close!to!the!ST.!! * 7.2*Cultural*categories** * !!!Culturally,!the!Japanese!and!Dutch!have!a!significant!gap,!which!creates!many! translation!problems!in!this!text.!Newmark!defines!culture!as!the!''way!of!life!and! its!manifestations!that!are!peculiar!to!a!community!that!uses!a!particular! language!as!its!means!of!expression''!(Newmark,!p.94).!He!divides!cultural! translation!problems!into!the!following!five!categories:!! ! 1) Ecology:!Flora,!fauna,!winds,!plains,!hills!etc.! 2) Material!culture!(artifacts)! a. Food! b. Clothes! c. Houses!and!towns! d. Transport!! 3) Social!culture!_!work!and!leisure!! 4) Organizations,!customs,!activities,!procedures,!concepts! a. Political!and!administrative!! b. Religious! c. Artistic!! 5) Gestures!and!habits!! ! ! ! The!following!are!some!of!the!examples!of!cultural!translation!problems!found!in! Paji:!! ! ! !
1)*Ecology* ! Ginnan* ! ST:! ! !!!!!!!Ginnan!! TT:!Ginkonootjes! (Refer!to!p.60)!! ! !!!Ginnan!is!the!fruit!of!the!ginko!biloba!tree!(Ichō!in!Japanese).!In!Japan!it!is! commonly!known!to!have!a!strong!odor,!but!despite!the!odor,!it!is!considered!a! delicacy!when!cooked.!In!the!Western!world,!the!word!'ginko'!evokes!health! supplements!and!not!the!tree,!the!fruit!or!the!odor.!To!avoid!having!to!explicitate! ginnan,!I!first!considered!translating!ginko!to!a!functional!equivalent!as!'durian',! a!fruit!I!was!sure!people!knew!to!be!the!world's!smelliest!fruit.!I!had!changed!the! setting!where!Momo!found!the!ginnan!during!a!walk!to!a!setting!where!they!tried! exotic!fruit!at!the!kindergarten.!Being!familiar!with!toddlers,!I!felt!it!was!very! believable!that!Momo!would!keep!a!piece!of!fruit!in!her!pocket!for!Paji!to!taste.! However,!when!I!gave!the!material!to!read!to!a!few!Dutch!speakers,!they!did!not! know!the!fruit!durian.!Finally,!I!changed!the!setting!back!to!its!original!and! explicitated!the!Japanese!word.!The!solution!I!found!was!to!naturalize!the!word! ginnan!to!ginko,!add!'nootjes'!to!so!that!the!reader!understood!it!was!something! edible,!and!further!gave!an!explanation!in!a!footnote.!! ! 2)*Material*culture* ** Gyōza% ! ST: ! !!!!!!Kyō!no!okazu!wa!gyōza!!!!!!!!!!Itadakimāsu! !!!!!(Today's!side!dish!is!dumplings!!Let's!eat)!!! TT:!Croissantje!voor!ontbijt!!Bon!appetit!)!! (Refer!to!p.22)!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Figure!8.!''Spelen!MET!Paji''!p.22! ! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!Although!the!Asian!food!culture!is!becoming!very!popular!in!the!Netherlands,! since!the!average!Dutch!person!doesn't!make!dumplings!at!home,!the!image!that! goes!with!making!them!(illustrated!on!the!picture!on!the!right)!wouldn't!evoke! the!same!effect!as!it!does!for!the!Japanese.!A!croissant!is!an!adequate!functional! equivalent!to!replace!gyōza!as!it!fits!the!image!of!Momo!playing!with!Paji's!hand.! The!translation!of!'bon!appetit'!is!the!cultural!equivalent!for!itadakimasu! (literaly:!I!humbly!receive).!The!choice!of!'bon!appetit'!over!'eet!smakelijk'!is!to! fit!the!imaginary!game!Momo!is!playing!where!she!is!'making'!something!French.!!! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
Depāto% * ST:! , ! Yosh,!depāto!de!katteyarou!! (All!right,!I'll!buy!it!for!you!at!the!department!store)!! TT:!Goed,!dan!gaan!we!naar!de!Harrods!!! (Refer!to!p.52)! ! !!!In!this!story,!Momo!and!Paji!wake!up!early!to!get!a!deal!on!a!doll!she!wants.! Unfortunately,!the!dolls!at!the!special!price!are!out!of!stock!and!Paji!suggest!they! go!to!a!department!store!to!buy!it!for!its!original!price.!A!department!store! evokes!a!sense!of!luxury!in!Japan!and!well!as!in!Holland.!Bijenkorf!for!example! would!be!a!perfect!equivalent!to!a!luxury!department!store!in!Japan.!However,! considering!my!foreignizing!strategy,!it!would!be!unfit!to!convert!depāto!(a! generic!term)!to!something!so!culturally!specific!to!Holland!such!as!Bijenkorf.! The!reason!for!the!choice!of!Harrods!is!because!this!specific!department!store! conveys!the!luxurious!sense!and!is!widely!known!to!the!Japanese!as!well!as!the! Dutch.!Moreover,!it!is!a!believable!conversion!as!Harrods!has!popup!stores!in! Japanese!department!stores.!This!conversion!is!an!adaptation!of!a!cultural! reference.!!! ! 3)*Social*culture** * Senko%hanabi% ! ST:! ! !!!!!!!Niwa!de!hanabi!wo!yarimashita! ******(They!did!fireworks!in!the!garden)!! TT:!Zomer!is!het!seizoen!voor!vuurwerk!! (Refer!to!p.49)!! ! !!!In!Holland,!fireworks!are!associated!with!New!Year’s!Eve!whereas!in!Japan!it!is! in!the!summer!when!firework!shows!are!held.!In!Holland!some!fireworks!are! even!illegal!and!use!of!fireworks!on!an!individual!basis!is!often!associated!with! 'hangjongeren'.!In!Japan,!family!pack!firework!sets!can!be!bought!at! supermarkets!and!it!often!goes!hand!in!hand!with!barbeque!gatherings.!Although! the!sentence!in!the!TT!is!not!a!translation!of!the!ST,!it!gives!cultural!information! for!the!reader!who!might!find!it!peculiar!that!Momo!and!Paji!are!playing!with! fireworks!when!it's!not!even!New!Year's!Eve.!This!procedure!is!called!gloss,! which!is!a!part!of!paraphrasing!where!there!is!an!amplification!of!the!meaning!of! a!unit!of!text.! ! ! ! ! ! !
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Figure!9.!''Vuurwerk'',!p.49! ! 4)*Customs,*activities,*procedures*and*concepts** * Honoring*the*ancestors** ! ST:! ! !!!!!!!Odekake!! !!!!!!(Outing)!! TT:!Papa!en!mama's!graf!bezoeken! (Refer!to!p.41)! ! !!!Throughout!the!series,!Paji's!storyline!is!chronological!in!following!the!seasons.! In!chapter!five!(p.34),!it!is!clear!for!the!Japanese!reader!to!know!that!the!story!is! in!the!month!of!August!because!of!the!shyōryō7uma!(see!p.34).!At!the!end!of!the! chapter!on!p.41,!Momo!and!Paji!visit!the!grave!of!her!parents.!This!scene!has! only!two!lines!of!dialogue,!which!makes!it!difficult!to!incorporate!explanatory! lines!in!the!dialogue.!The!title!of!the!original!translates!to!'an!outing',!but!this! might!be!insufficient!for!the!Dutch!reader!to!understand!what!is!going!on.! Without!much!dialogue,!the!image!of!the!water!splashing!on!the!tombstone!and! the!onomatopoeia!of!the!train!sounds!and!crickets!evoke!the!feeling!you!have!on! a!hot!summer's!day!when!you!take!a!trip!outside!of!the!city!to!honor!the!grave!of! your!ancestors.!That!is,!for!the!Japanese.!Adopting!a!very!oblique!procedure!of! translation!using!explicitation,!I!have!immediately!placed!the!setting!in!the!title! where!normally!images!would!be!enough!for!the!Japanese!reader.!The!tranfser!to! TT!involved!paraphrasing.!! ! ! ! !
Meimei% * ST: ! !!!!!!!!Meimei!''ga7me''!! !!!!!!!(naming!''ga_me'')! TT:!Hoera!een!schildpad!!We!noemen!hem!Pad!Sakita!! (Refer!to!p.12)!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Figure!10.!''Huis_pad'',!p.12! ! ! !!!When!a!baby!is!born,!cards!like!the!one!on!the!right!are!made! to!announce!the!newborn's!given!name.! simply!means! 'naming'!and!is!made!up!out!of!the!characters!'life'!and!'name'.! It!makes!the!naming!of!their!pet!turtle!somewhat!of!an!official! happening.!I!considered!''De!heilige!doop!:!Pad!Sakita''!because! this!had!the!ceremonial!effect!that! (meimei)!has.!However,! the!religious!side!of!''de!heilige!doop''!would!be!a!mismatch!to! the!story's!setting.!Compensating!for!the!lost!humor!in!other! scenes,!I!added!''hoera!een!schildpad!''!as!it!would!if!it!were!a! birth!card!announcing!the!sex!and!name!of!a!newborn.!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Figure!11.!An!example!of!a!typical!Japanese!birth!card! ! 5)*Gestures*and*habits** * The*bow** * * * * * * * * * ! Figure!12.!''Warenhuis!1'',!p28!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Figure!13.!''Proeven'',!p.!68! ! !!!Bowing!is!a!versatile!gesture!used!by!the!Japanese.!It!can!serve!as!a!greeting,!an! acknowledgement,!an!apology!and!is!even!used!to!show!gratitude.!The!subtle! differences!can!be!understood!from!the!context!but!since!bowing!isn't!a!gesture! that!Dutch!readers!are!accustomed!to,!I!have!added!an!explanatory!phrase!on! page!28!to!show!what!the!bow!means.!In!the!above!picture,!Paji!says!''het!spijt! ons!!''.!However,!in!the!original!words!of!apology!are!not!expressed.!The!bow!of! the!manager!in!this!scene!expresses!that!he!really!doesn't!want!Paji!and!Momo! doing!labor,!and!thus!is!begging!them!to!stop.!To!express!this,!I!have!added! 'alstublieft'.!! ! !!!On!page!68,!Paji!and!Momo!actually!say! (gochisōsamadeshita),!which!literary!means!'it!was!a!feast'!but!used!to!express!
gratitude!for!a!meal!as!well!as!praising!the!meal.!Momo!places!her!hands! together!and!slightly!bows!showing!gratitude.!I!opted!for!''Dank!u!wel''!instead!of! ''het!was!lekker''!to!focus!on!Momo's!gesture!of!gratitude.!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! * 7.3*Word*play** * ST:! ! !!!!!!!!!''Kaba''!tte!yonderu?! TT:!Noem!je!haar!''Kaba''?! ! (Refer!to!p.26)!! ! !!!Here!I!have!translated!it!in!the!same!way!as!I!did!the! name!and!title''Paji''!using!explicitation.!The!joke!in!this! section!is!that!the!combination!of!mother!and! grandmother!in!Japanese!in!the!same!manner!as!''Paji''! makes!''Kaba'',!and!that!kaba!means!hippopotamus! (which!the!grandmother!resembles...).!Although!having! to!explain!the!joke!might!affect!the!humor,!the!readers! will!still!be!able!to!understand!why!it!would!be!so!funny! in!Japanese.!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Figure!14.!''Nori's!oma'',!p.26! ! !!!A!similar!problem!occurs!where!explicitation!is!necessary!for!understating!on! page!68.!''Momo''!is!a!homonym!for!peach!and!thighs!in!Japanese.!Momo!sees! ''momo''!written!on!the!packaging!of!chicken!thighs!but!because!she!is!not!able! to!read!the!word!'chicken'!which!is!written!in!kanji,!she!thinks!that!they!all! belong!to!her.!In!order!to!make!it!clear!that!Momo!is!only!able!to!read!her!name! that!is!written!in!hiragana!without!having!to!explain!the!writing!systems,!I!have! translated!it!as!below.!! ! ! ST:! ! !!!!!!!Momo7chan!wa!kanji!yomenai!! !!!!!!(Momo!cannot!read!kanji)! TT:!Ze!kan!alleen!''momo''!lezen!! (Refer!to!p.!68)! * !!!Since!she!is!only!4!years!old,!it!is!understandable!that!she!would!only!recognize! her!name!that!has!been!written!on!all!of!her!things!in!the!kindergarten.!! * ***The!next!example!is!a!sound/word!play!that!I!have!translated!literally!using! borrowing.!! * !!!Since!the!Dutch!reader!will!most!likely!not!know!what!senko7hanabi!is!(which!I! have!explicitated!as!a!footnote),!they!will!also!not!know!what!kind!of!sounds!are! associated!with!this!particular!type!of!firework.!The!word!play!here!is!that!Paji! thinks!that!she!is!being!poetic!but!Momo!literaly!hears!''paji,!paji''!when!the! firework!is!burning.!A!burning/buzzing!sound!in!Dutch!could!be!conveyed!by! ''bzzzzp!bzzzp''!but!then!the!essence!of!this!story!would!be!lost.!Hence,!I!have!
transliterated!and!have!spelled!''paji''!in!a!way!that!it!both!sound!like!'Paji'!and! something!burning!(please!refer!to!page!49).!! * ! 7.4*Ateji** ! (maji)!! ST:! ! !!!!!!!!Honkki!ya...! TT:!Het!is!menens!!!! (Refer!to!p.62)!! ! !!!In!this!case,!there!is!a!difference!between!the!spelling!and!the!traditional!
reading!of!the!word! (honki),!which!means!'serious'.! (maji)!has!the!same! meaning!but!falls!under!the!category!slang!as!it!does!not!have!its!own!kanij!and! is!written!in!katakana.!The!effect!this!non_traditional!reading!of!the!word! (honki)!creates!is!humor!because!it!comes!from!an!elderly!man.!The!gap!between! expectation!and!reality!cannot!be!transferred!into!Dutch!in!the!same!manner.!In! Dutch,!''het!is!menens''!is!not!used!regularly!and!is!now!considered!somewhat!of! an!old!expression.!I!chose!to!use!this!expression!because!it!conveyed!the! meaning!of!the!ST!and!because!it!worked!as!a!compensation!for!the!loss!of!'old_ man!speech''!in!all!the!previous!stories.!! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Figure!15.!''11.!Sportdag!!'',!p.62! * 7.5*Register* * ST:! ! Okimari!ni!narimashitaka?! TT:!Meneer,!heeft!u!al!een!keuze!kunnen!maken?! (Refer!to!p.6)! ! ST:! ! Onaji!shurui!wa!arukedo...! TT:!Jawel,!ik!heb!wel!zo'n!schildpad...! (Refer!to!p.7)!! ! ! ! !
! * * * * * * * * * Figure!16.!''Paji!koopt!een!huisdier'',!p.!!!!!!!''Een!schildpad!verzorgen'',!p.7! ! !!!The!shopkeeper!of!the!pet!store!where!Paji!buys!Momo!the!turtle!addresses! Paji!and!Momo!in!two!different!registers.!It!is!required!from!people!to!speak!in!a! respectable!and!polite!manner!to!clients!but!within!this!hierarchy,!there!is!also! the!question!of!age.!On!page!6,!the!shopkeeper!uses!sonkeigo!when!addressing! Paji!whereas!when!talking!to!Momo!on!page!7,!he!doesn't!because!she!is!a!child.! Momo!at!age!4!however!does!address!the!shopkeeper!in!keigo.!As!the!register! difference!cannot!be!expressed!grammatically!for!the!shopkeeper’s!speech,!I! have!added!the!word!'meneer'!and!'u'!to!reflect!his!politeness!towards!Paji.!On! page!7,!Momo!also!addresses!the!shopkeeper!as!'meneer'!but!it!should!be!noted! that!this!is!a!direct!translation!from!the!word! (ojisan),!which!means! uncle!but!is!used!by!children!to!address!any!man!who!is!older.!However,!it!would! be!rude!for!the!shopkeeper!to!address!Paji!in!this!manner.!! * 7.6*Gender*and*age** * a.!ST:! ! !!!!!!!!!Washi! !!!!TT:!Ik! !!!!(Refer!to!p.6)!! ! b.!ST: ! !!!!!!!!!!Chotto!chigaun!jyaganou...! !!!!TT:!Dat!was!niet!echt!de!bedoeling...! !!!!(Refer!to!p.34)! ! c.!ST: ! !!!!!!!Risaikuru!shite!tezkuri7hagaki!wo!tsukurimasunoyo!! !!!TT:[bij!ons!thuis]!recyclen!we!het!naar!handgemaakte!postkaartjes! !!!(Refer!to!p.58)!! ! !!!The!above!three!examples!illustrate!the!translation!loss!as!a!result!of!the! difference!in!speech!regarding!age!and!gender.!In!Japanese,!the!word!'I'!takes! different!forms!according!to!who!is!speaking.!Watashi,!boku,!ore,!watakushi,! washi,!atashi,!are!all!first!person!pronouns.!They!are!designated!to!certain! genders!or!age!but!they!are!also!subject!to!preference.!In!example!a,!it!is!Paji!who! refers!to!himself!as!washi,!a!first!person!pronoun!generally!used!for!elderly!men.!!!!
!!!Another!way!kids!say!'I'!in!Japanese!is!to!simply!say!their!name!in!third!person.! The!rather!eloquent!Momo!does!this!quite!frequently!and!this!is!almost!the!only! indication!in!her!speech!that!reminds!us!she!is!4!years!old.!! ! !!!As!in!example!b,!Paji's!sentences!usually!end!in!the!suffix!''jyanou''!or! ''jyaganou''.!This!is!typical!for!elderly!men!but!also!some!women,!although!is!its! characterized!as!masculine.!However,!Haru,!the!only!elderly!woman!in!the!story,! is!portrayed!as!a!soft!and!elegant!lady!and!her!speech!reflects!this!too.!Her! sentences!usually!end!with!the!suffix!''noyo''!and!this!is!characteristic!to!feminine! speech!no!matter!what!age.!! ! !!!All!three!examples!above!were!subject!to!translation!loss!since!there!is!no! grammatical!equivalent!in!Dutch.!Thus,!the!subtle!difference!in!speech!between! the!characters!that!form!their!identity!is!lost!in!Dutch.!! ! 7.7*Constrained*translation** * !!!Typologically!speaking,!Japanese!writing!uses!less!space!and!less!individual! characters!than!any!other!language!written!in!roman!letters.!Added!to!this,!the! speech!bubbles!and!text!boxes!(narration)!are!more!vertically!oriented!because! Japanese!is!read!from!top!to!bottom.!This!creates!many!problems!when! translating!because!of!the!limited!space.!! ! Solution!1:!Oblique!translation!using!fewer!words!! ! ST: ! Toshiyori!ga!entenka!de!undō!shisugi...! (He's!doing!too!much!exercise!for!an!elderly!under!the!blazing!sun)!! (Voor!een!bejaarde!onder!de!felle!zon!doet!ie!te!veel!aan!oefeningen)!! TT:!Paji!heeft!zich!te!veel!uitgesloofd!onder!de!felle!zon…! (Refer!to!p.42)!! ! !!!This!strategy!worked!the!best!with!space!constraint!because!rewording!or! finding!shorter!synonyms!would!shorten!the!text!so!that!it!would!fit!in!one!box.! Although!some!words!are!lost!in!the!translation,!the!general!idea!is!transferred.!! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
Solution!2:!Widening!the!narrator's!box!! ! !!! !Figure!17.!''11.Sportdag!!’’!p.62! ! !!!!Where!it!was!possible!for!me!to!widen!the!narrator's!textbox!without!affecting! the!images!too!much,!I!used!the!same!software!GIMP!so!that!the!translated!text! would!fit!in.!! ! ! Solution!3:!Omission!! ! !!!Where!the!space!was!too!small!to!fit!the! complete!translation,!words!were!omitted!if!the! story!still!made!sense!without!them.!In!the!scene! on!the!right,!the!space!didn't!allow!the!word! 'uitlaten'.!! ! ST:! ! !!!!!!!E!?!Sanpo?!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Figure!18.!''Een!schildpad!verzorgen''!p.7! !!!!!!(What!?!A!walk?)!! TT:!Wat...?!! (Refer!to!p.7)!! ! ! 7.8*Proper*nouns** * ST:!! ! !!!!!!!!Paji!! TT:!Paji!! (Refer!to!p.3)!! ! For!the!title!character!I!chose!to!borrow!the!word!with!the!reason!that!it!isn't! even!a!real!word!in!Japanese.!This!word!is!the!combination!of!''papa''!and! ''ojīchan'',!which!is!the!Japanese!word!for!grandfather.!As!my!intended!audience! is!one!with!an!interest!in!Japan!and!its!culture,!I!have!explicitated!the!meaning!of!
ojīchan!underneath!the!box!so!that!the!reader!would!understand!where!the! sound!of!'ji'!came!from.!! ! ST:! ! !!!!!Ga7me! TT:!Pad!! (Refer!to!p.12)!! ! !!!The!humor!in!the!fact!that!little!Momo!names!her!pet!turtle!''ga_me''!comes! from!the!fact!that!the!turtle's!biological!name!in!Japanese!is! (!Mississippi!aka!mimi!ga7me,!''Mississippi!red!ear!turtle').!Ka7me!means! turtle!in!Japanese!but!the!consonant!changes!to!g,!ga7me,!when!it!becomes!a! conjoint!noun.!She!thinks!about!it!for!a!while!and!comes!up!with!an!abbreviation.! But!she!simply!names!him!'Ga7me'!which!has!nothing!to!do!with!the!other! information!they!got!from!the!encyclopedia.!The!childlike!simplicity!of!Momo! naming!the!turtle!''Ga7me''!after!having!asked!for!its!official!name!is!an! unexpected!turn,!which!creates!humor.!Although!'Pad'!isn't!the!actual!word!for! turtle,!I!thought!the!simplicity!of!taking!the!last!syllable!of!the!word!schildpad! was!an!appropriate!translation.!!This!procedure!could!be!called!a!calque!since!it! is!a!type!of!borrowing!the!SL!word!structure.!! ! ! 7.9*Typography** Figure!19.!''Beertje''!p.35!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Figure!20.!''Paji!koopt!een!huisdier''!p.6! ! !!!Where!the!translations!of!mimetic!words!were!unusual!for!the!Dutch!reader,!I! have!used!typography!to!reinforce!the!nuance!the!Japanese!mimetic!words! create.!! ! ST: ! !!!!!!!Gudeen! (Mimetic!word!to!describe!something!or!someone!in!an!exhausted!state)!! TT:!Flop! ! !!!Adjusting!the!typography!here!helps!create!the!image!that!Momo's!teddy!bear! can't!sit!straight!up!and!that!it!is!worn!out.!! ! ST:! ! !!!!!!!!Jī! (Mimetic!word!to!describe!someone!staring)!! TT:!Staar...! !
!!!Elongating!and!forming!the!word!'staar'!around!Paji's!face!expresses!that!his! gaze!is!fixed!and!long.!This!effect!helps!with!the!understanding!of!Paji's!action! because!'staar'!is!not!a!mimetic!word!one!would!come!across!in!a!Dutch!comic! book.!! ! ! 7.10*Past*tense** Fig.!21,!22,!23.!''Warenhuis!1''!p.28,!''Een!anzicht_kaart!maken!!''!p.58,!''Schoenen''!p.38! ! !!!All!the!square!boxes!in!the!story!is!the!narration!of!a!very!present!third!person.! As!in!the!second!image!above,!the!narrator!even!gives!comments!towards!the! characters.!In!Japanese,!it!is!very!common!to!use!the!past!tense!in!story!telling.! However,!for!the!Dutch!reader!it!might!seem!uneasy!that!the!present!and!past! tense!are!used!together!in!the!same!situation.!I!have!chosen!to!keep!the!tenses!in! the!past!just!like!the!original!because!this!is!a!characteristic!feature!of!Japanese! writing!and!my!translation!leans!towards!a!more!exoticizing!approach.!For!these! cases,!I!have!adopted!a!more!literal!translation!to!keep!the!texts!''Japanese_ness''.!! * * 8.*Conclusions** ! In!what!manner!is!equivalence!realized!in!translating!manga!into!Dutch?!* * ***Equivalence!is!a!key!concept!in!translation!studies!that!have!sparked!many! debates!and!is!the!evolved!theory!of!the!opposing!'literal'!and!'free'!translation.! Jakobson!distinguishes!the!difference!between!linguistic!meaning!and! equivalence;!Nida's!concept!is!between!formal!and!dynamic!equivalence,!and! Newmark!refers!to!this!as!semantic!and!communicative!translation.!The!theory! of!equivalence!is!based!on!the!theory!of!language!by!linguist!Saussure!who! distinguished!between!the!linguistic!system!which!he!called!langue,!and!specific! individual!utterances!which!he!called!parole.!In!this!theory,!there!is!a!clear! difference!between!the!'signifier'!(the!spoken!and!the!written)!and!the!'signified'! (the!concept),!which!create!the!linguistic!‘sign’!(Munday,!59).!When!this!theory!is! applied!to!translation!studies!in!respect!of!equivalence,!it!means!that!a!TT!can! convey!the!meaning!and!have!the!equivalent!effect!the!ST!has!without!being! linguistically!equivalent.!For!Nida,!an!adequate!translation!achieved!equivalent! effect!or!response!and!there!are!four!basic!requirements!for!a!translation!to! achieve!this:!! ! 1) making!sense;! 2) conveying!the!spirit!and!manner!of!the!original;! 3) having!a!natural!and!easy!form!of!expression;! 4) producing!a!similar!response.!!
!!!I!have!translated!Paji!with!these!requirements!in!mind!whilst!having!a!specific! audience!in!mind,!which!is!a!readership!with!an!existing!interest!in!the!Japanese! language!and!culture.!! !!!In!conclusion,!I!will!answer!the!following!questions!in!order!to!draw!a!global! conclusion!on!the!research!question!here!above.!! ! I. How!are!translation!problems!that!are!the!result!of!the!multimodality!of! the!manga!genre!(image,!text!and!text!a!sound)!solved?! ! !!!!Dutch!used!more!characters!and!space!than!Japanese!does!and!this!meant!that! space!limit!was!a!constraint!in!many!cases.!Where!the!image!allowed!for! manipulation!without!interfering!with!the!story,!speech!boxes!could!be!widened! with!a!software!called!GIMP.!All!the!three!elements!of!image,!text!and!text!as! sound!had!to!be!in!sync!in!the!TT!and!how!this!was!achieved!is!explained!further! where!realia!and!onomatopoeia!is!discussed.!! ! II. To!what!extent!is!realia!foreignized!or!naturalized!in!manga!translation! into!Dutch?! ! !!!The!extent!to!which!realia!is!and!can!be!foreignized!or!naturalized!depends!on! the!skopos!(aim!or!purpose!of!translation).!In!this!translation,!the!aim!was!to! translate!the!work!for!an!audience!that!has!an!already!existing!interest!in!the! Japanese!culture!and/or!language,!thus!maintaining!the!local!color!of!the!work.! However,!in!order!to!for!the!TT!to!make!sense!and!be!read!effortlessly!while! having!to!place!the!text!in!a!limited!space,!realia!have!had!to!be!naturalized! where!the!images!allowed!it.!The!main!difference!between!realia!that!have!been! foreignized!and!naturalized!is!their!value!in!the!context!and!for!the!whole!story.!! Realia!that!did!not!have!a!significant!cultural!value!and!for!which!there!was!an! adequate!equivalent!existed,!and!that!also!matched!the!images!were!translated! using!the!adaptation!procedure.!For!the!realia!that!were!judged!essential!for!the! story!and!spirit!of!the!original,!several!explicitation!procedures!were!applied! such!as!explicitation!using!a!footnote,!incorporating!information!in!the!speech! boxes!or!clarifying!the!situation!of!event!in!the!title.!For!the!translation!of!Paji,! the!majority!of!the!realia!were!maintained!and!explicitated.!! ! III. How!is!humor!maintained!in!manga!translation!into!a!language!such!as! Dutch!that!is!typologically!and!culturally!significantly!far!from!Japanese?! ! !!!Linguistic!universalism!considers!that!even!though!languages!can!differ!in!the! way!they!communicate!meaning,!there!is!a!more!or!less!shared!way!of!thinking! and!experience!the!world!(Munday,!59).!This!universalism!offers!the!ability!of! humor!to!be!translated!into!another!language.!However,!humor!is!not!merely! subjective!but!often!culturally!subjective.!Where!language!linguistic!transfer! wasn't!sufficient!and!where!untranslatability!occurred,!explicitation!was!used.! Explanation!often!takes!away!the!humor!of!jokes!but!since!the!untranslatable! humor!often!involved!world!play!specific!to!Japanese,!explicitation!in!footnotes! was!appropriate!for!the!intended!audience.!! !!!! IV. To!what!extent!can!onomatopoeia!and!mimetic!words!be!translated!into!a! language!such!as!Dutch!that!make!little!use!of!onomatopoeia!and!mimetic! words?!
* !!!The!result!of!the!translations!of!onomatopoeia!and!mimetic!words!was!quite! surprising!in!the!sense!that!omission!occurred!far!less!than!expected.!! In!70!pages,!there!were!123!onomatopoeic!and!mimetic!words!of!which!71!were! onomatopoeia!and!52!mimetic!words.!The!three!most!occurring!solutions!for! onomatopoeic!words!were!1)!onomatopoeia,!2)!omission,!and!3)!interjection.! Although!omission!came!in!as!the!second!most!used!procedure,!it!equaled!to! 16%!of!total!of!onomatopoeic!words!and!17%!for!mimetic!words.!!46%!of!the! cases!of!Japanese!onomatopoeia!were!translated!into!Dutch!onomatopoeia!and! 13%!into!interjections.!Many!of!the!TT!onomatopoeia!were!inspired!by!existing! words!taken!from!Dutch!comic!books!such!as!Suske!en!Wiske.!The!difference! between!the!Japanese!and!Dutch!onomatopoeia!is!that!the!Japanese! onomatopoeia!are!frequently!used!in!daily!life!whereas!Dutch!onomatopoeia! isn't.!Other!procedures!included!using!verb!stems!and!neologisms!that!would! have!a!similar!effect!as!well!as!using!English!onomatopoeia.!The!result!is!that! although!a!Dutch!readership!would!not!immediately!recognize!all!the!solutions! of!the!Japanese!onomatopoeia,!the!meaning!is!transferred!in!combination!with! the!images!and!context.!The!same!goes!for!mimetic!words!where!non_mimetic! words!were!used!as!a!translation.!What!was!very!effective!was!to!use!the!stems! or!imperatives!of!Dutch!verbs!to!create!'mimetic!words'.!The!translation!of! Japanese!onomatopoeia!and!mimetic!words!into!Dutch!proved!to!be!very! realizable!because!of!the!image!that!is!provided!with!it.!Thus,!this!is!applicable!to! manga!translation!but!would!be!very!difficult!to!employ!with!prose!and!poetry! without!images.!! * !!!Although!all!the!mentioned!translation!problems!and!solutions!might!not! appear!in!all!manga!translations!into!Dutch,!it!gives!an!idea!of!how!a!scantlator! might!solve!certain!difficulties.!The!importance!of!knowing!how!to!tackle!a! translation!problem!is!to!have!a!clear!idea!of!who!the!intended!audience!is.!! !!!From!the!findings!on!onomatopoeia!and!mimetic!words!of!this!study,!it!could! be!an!interesting!topic!to!conduct!further!research!on!how!the!translations!of! these!words!are!received!by!a!Dutch!audience!with!particular!regards!to! onomatopoeia!and!mimetic!words!created!from!verb!stems,!adverbs!and! adjectives!as!well!as!neologisms.!!! ! * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
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