Using ecosystem services to
mitigate noise and air pollution
in the circular context of De
Nieuwe Kern
An interdisciplinary assessment of multiple mitigation techniques
Wies de Jong, Valerie Wilhelm, Matthijs Hinkamp, Yamell Kuen
Abstract
The population of the metropolitan area of Amsterdam has increased the past few years and it is expected that it will keep growing in the future. Previous research has shown that noise and air pollution are likely to pose a significant threat to the quality of life for future inhabitants. This problem has led to the formulation of the following research question: ‘In what way can ecosystem services, in a circular context, contribute to noise and air pollution mitigation caused by the existing infrastructure in De Nieuwe Kern?’. The research is commissioned by Balance with an interdisciplinary approach, combining the knowledge from environmental science, biology, business studies and political science. In order to find the best way to answer the above-mentioned research question, a scenario-analysis was conducted with the axes being the techniques used (linear or circular) and the paradigm (traditional or innovative). Consequently, for each scenario a multi-criteria analysis was conducted with the different interests of the stakeholders in mind. This method leads to the outcome that the circular-innovative scenario is the optimal scenario for this issue. It is therefore advisable that Balance and the Municipality of Amsterdam will work towards this scenario after receiving this report.
Table of contents
1. Introduction ... 2
2. Theoretical framework ... 4
2.1 Circularity ... 4
2.2 Ecosystem services and their circular context ... 5
2.3 Economic valuation of ecosystem services ... 6
2.4 Noise pollution (mitigation) ... 7
2.5 Air pollution (mitigation) ... 8
2.6 Stakeholder analysis ... 9
3. Interdisciplinary integration and complexity ... 10
3.1 Interdisciplinary integration process ... 10
3.2 Defining traits of Complexity in De Nieuwe Kern ... 11
4. Problem definition ... 12 4.1 Noise pollution ... 12 4.2 Air pollution ... 15 5. Selected methods ... 21 5.1 Scenario Analysis ... 21 5.2 Multi-criteria analysis ... 22 5.2.1 Criteria specifications ... 23 5.3 Sensitivity analysis ... 26 6. Technical Data ... 26 6.1 Green walls ... 26 6.2 Trees ... 27 6.3 CityTree ... 28
6.4 Air filtering sound wall ... 28
6.5 Bamboo sound wall ... 29
6.6 Conventional and recycled concrete ... 30
7. Results ... 31 7.1 Scenario Analysis ... 31 7.1.1 Promethean Environmentalism ... 31 7.1.2 Business as Usual ... 32 7.1.3 Potential of Plants ... 32 7.1.4 Play it Safe ... 33
7.2 Results multi-criteria analysis... 33
7.3 Stakeholders Analysis ... 34
7.4 Sensitivity analysis from the perspective of the most important stakeholders ... 36
7.4.1 Results sensitivity analysis ... 41
7.5 Economic valuation of ecosystem services ... 43
8. Discussion and Conclusion ... 44
8.1 Limitations of the study ... 46
8.2 Recommendations ... 46
9. References ... 47
10. Appendix ... 56
1. Introduction
The population of the metropolitan area of Amsterdam has increased the past few years and it is expected that it will keep growing in the future (CBS, 2016). Consequently, it is expected that economy will grow as well (CBS, 2016). Facilitating these new inhabitants combined with higher standards of living (more appreciation for green spaces, outdoor recreation and sport facilities) exerts a pressure on the housing sector in this region. In addition, new workspaces must be created. The municipality of Amsterdam and Ouder Amstel strive to relieve pressure on the overburdened housing and construction sector by for example restructuring the area called De Nieuwe Kern, located in the south-eastern part of Amsterdam (Figure 1a and b) (municipality of Ouder-Amstel, 2013). De Nieuwe Kern should be planned in such a way that all the higher standards of working and living are met.
Not only does the municipality want to provide a suitable living environment for its growing number of inhabitants and economy, it also strives for circular area development (Municipality of Amsterdam, 2017a). Circular area development is defined as developing an area in such a way that it benefits the people, the planet and that it is profitable. Ideally, the whole area should be self-sustaining, meaning that it can generate its own energy and close its flows of resources and waste by recycling and reusing them (Su et al., 2013; Webster 2015). This circular aim of the municipality can be explained by the reason that a big city as Amsterdam has significant impact on the environment and therefore also on her inhabitants. In order to sustain a suitable living environment in the future, the impact needs to be reduced. Therefore, the municipality of Amsterdam has hired consultants from Balance to further investigate the chances and obstacles for circular area development in De
Whilst Balance familiarised themselves with the spatial context of De Nieuwe Kern, it was noticed that noise and air pollution are likely to pose a significant threat to the quality of life for future inhabitants (municipality of Ouder-Amstel, 2013; Balance, pers. comm.). This is because De Nieuwe Kern is situated between a major highway and railways (Figure 1b).
The nature of the noise and air pollution at De Nieuwe Kern is complex. For example, the problem cannot be explained from the perspective of one discipline due to knowledge gaps. This characteristic of complexity is called the observer dependence (Menken & Keestra, 2016). For this reason, the study will be conducted in an integrated way from a biology, environmental sciences, political and business perspective. The discipline of environmental sciences is used to conduct a problem analysis. Consequently, the disciplines of biology, political and business studies are used to conduct a scenario analysis, multi-criteria analyses and a sensitivity analysis respectively.
The final aim of the study is to formulate concrete advice for the municipality of Amsterdam and Balance about the most adequate implementations by which noise and air pollution can be mitigated through ecosystem services, in a circular context. This problem has led to the formulation of the following research question: ‘In what way can ecosystem services, in a circular context, contribute to noise and air pollution mitigation caused by the existing infrastructure in De Nieuwe Kern?’.
Figure 1a: Spatial context of De Nieuwe Kern in relation to the city of Amsterdam. De Nieuwe Kern is demarcated by the dashed red line. (Municipality of Ouder Amstel, 2013).
Figure 1b: Spatial context of De Nieuwe Kern (zoomed in). The area of De Nieuwe Kern is demarcated by the dashed red line. Note the Ajax football stadium, highway A2 and the railroad are in close proximity of De Nieuwe Kern (Municipality of Ouder-Amstel, 2013).
2. Theoretical framework
In this chapter, scientific theories and concepts are defined that are relevant for the case of De Nieuwe Kern. The theoretical framework takes into account all relevant scientific frameworks from the disciplines of political sciences, earth sciences, business studies and biology.
2.1 Circularity
As stated before, the municipality of Amsterdam strives to develop its urban area and economy in a circular way. Therefore, it is important to define the concept of circular economy or circular area development. According to Webster (2015), a circular economy (or circular area development for that matter) ‘’is one that is
restorative by design, and which aims to keep products, components and materials at their highest utility and value, at all times.’’. Furthermore, Webster (2015)
mentions five components that further elaborate on this definition:
1. Economic growth and development does not depend on the consumption of non-renewable resources;
2. A separation is made between organic and technological materials. This way, their highest value can be maintained at all times;
3. Circularity focuses on smart design, optimizing the utility of every resource used in order to maintain or increase natural or technological resource stocks; 4. It provides a platform for innovation in all sectors of the economy and society; 5. It facilitates the fundament for a resilient, nonlinear system that works and is
Circular area development shows some similarities to the qualities of a healthy ecosystems: ecosystems are organised in such a way that every available resource is used and conserved effectively in the system and no nutrients or water is lost. Thus, by learning from the billions of years that nature is using and reusing all important resources and how it has handled long-term growth and resilience, we may be able to apply circular area development more successfully. The knowledge and other benefits that can be attained by from ecosystems are labelled as ecosystem services.
2.2 Ecosystem services and their circular context
Ecosystem services are services, or results of the behaviour of an ecosystem, that are critical for the wellbeing of nature, but also to the well-being and functioning of humans and society (Costanza et al., 1997). Examples of such services are the capacity for swamps to store excess rainwater, for dunes to filter groundwater and most importantly in context of the Nieuwe Kern: the capacity of vegetation to mitigate noise and air pollution.
In an effort to communicate the immense monetary value of ecosystems all over the world, Costanza et al. (1997) developed the concept of ecosystem services. In 2014, they estimated the total economic value of all ecosystems to be 125 trillion US dollars (Costanza et al., 2014). Alarmingly, 4 to 20 trillion US dollars of ecosystem services is lost due to land use change (Costanza et al., 2014). Examples of land use change are for example the soil degradation which is caused by overgrazing of grasslands by livestock or rainforests that are transformed to monoculture plantations (Costanza et al., 2014).
This shows that natural ecosystems are a crucial life support system for the human population and that anthropogenic activities are negatively affecting it. Figure 2 illustrates the interdependence of human society and nature schematically.
Figure 2: The interdependence of the human population and natural capital. All human-made capital is embedded and therefore depends on natural capital. Without natural capital, a human well-being will be greatly affected. Important to note is that in this Figure, the loss of natural capital by anthropogenic activities is NOT included. Image retrieved from research of Costanza et al. (2014).
2.3 Economic valuation of ecosystem services
An important aspect of the concept of ecosystem services is that it is possible to economically valuate ecosystems. This is a valuable tool to translate the critical importance of ecosystems to businesses and other profit-oriented organisations in order to preserve or improve the quality of these ecosystems (Costanza et al., 1997). The economic valuation can be divided into three categories: direct market valuation, indirect market valuation and group valuation (De Groot, Wilson & Boumans, 2002), of which indirect market valuation will be discussed in this paper. Indirect market valuation uses the value concept willingness to pay (WTP) due to a lack of markets (Farber, Costanza & Wilson, 2002; De Groot, Wilson & Boumans, 2002). People are questioned how much they are willing to pay for a certain effect of an ecosystem service, which in our case would be the effects of noise and air pollution mitigation. Since there is no market for noise or air pollution, the indirect market valuation will be applied for De Nieuwe Kern.
Within the category of indirect market valuation there are different techniques (Farber, Costanza & Wilson, 2002; De Groot, Wilson & Boumans, 2002). The hedonic and contingent pricing methods will be applied to our study, because of the above-mentioned fact that there is no market and for the reason that similar inquiries also use the hedonic and contingent pricing methods as a valuation technique.
The hedonic pricing method is about the reflection of prices of associated goods relating to the ecosystem service (Farber, Costanza & Wilson, 2002; De Groot, Wilson & Boumans, 2002). For example: the price of parcels could increase because
conducts surveys in which hypothetical scenarios are stated with questions about the WTP. (Farber, Costanza & Wilson, 2002; De Groot, Wilson & Boumans, 2002). For example: the WTP of people to live at a specific location with different scenarios of air and noise quality.
However, a critique often heard about economic valuation of ecosystem services, is that it is impossible to value an intangible concept and that it is immoral to use economic valuation to protect the environment. In an economic context, price is often the most important factor which alters decisions of either improving or ignoring certain ecosystem services. The economic valuation has therefore resulted in more space for ecosystems in stakeholder processes, however to develop the concept there is a need for further research on the effects of economic valuation (Daily et al., 2009; De Groot, Alkemade, Braat, Hein & Willemen, 2010).
2.4 Noise pollution (mitigation)
Highway traffic causes several forms of pollution. Mechanisms of noise pollution and their effect on public health, will be discussed in the following section.
Noise pollution from traffic is abundant, especially the case in inner cities and near highways (Geravandi et al., 2015). Exposure to noise can have several negative effects on health, both auditory and non-auditory (Basner et al., 2014). It is linked to general distress, cardiovascular diseases (Ising & Kruppa, 2004), sleep disturbance (Basner et al., 2014), hypertension, general annoyance and a reduction in complex task performance. In children, long-term noise exposure can affect blood pressure, long-term memory and reading comprehension (Stansfeld & Matheson, 2003).
Noise pollution can be mitigated through placement of sound walls. These sound walls, traditionally made out of concrete or glass, reflect sound waves from traffic so that they will not reach residents behind the sound wall. A more circular method may be constructing a sound wall from bamboo, which is shown to be as effective as conventional sound walls if planted correctly (Van Leeuwen & Waarts, 2013).
Another way sound can be reduced is by diffraction: if obstacles are placed in a crossed manner, sound waves scatter and less sound waves reach residents (US Federal Highway Administration, 1976; Fan, 2010). By planting air pollution reducing trees in a crossed manner, they can contribute to solving two problems at once. A schematic overview of these sound attenuation techniques is provided in Figure 3 & 4.
Figure 3. Schematic overview of the experimental setup for noise attenuation through sound diffraction by crossed patterned plants by Fan. (2010). Sound waves will be scattered in all directions by the crossed pattern, resulting in fewer sound waves reaching the receiver behind the crossed pattern.
Figure 4. Schematic illustration by the US Federal Highway Administration (1976) of different effects of noise attenuation by means of a noise barrier. Note that noise can never be cancelled out completely, since some noise can still be transmitted through the barrier or through a diffracted pathway.
2.5 Air pollution (mitigation)
Motorised transport accounts for nearly 25 percent of the energy-related greenhouse gases worldwide. These greenhouse gases are not only contributing to climate change, but can also cause significant air pollution, especially in an urban environment (Xia et al., 2015). In fact, traffic is one of the main sources of air pollutants in cities (Guarnieri & Balmes, 2014). The main pollutants are particulate matter, soot and nitrogen oxides (Raaschou-Nielsen et al., 2013). Long-term exposure to these pollutants is linked to natural-cause mortality, even at relatively low concentrations (Beelen et al., 2014). In addition, long exposure increases the risk of lung cancer (Raaschou-Nielsen et al., 2013; Pope et al., 2002), cardiopulmonary diseases (Pope et al., 2002; Pope et al., 2004) and asthma (both pre-existing and new-onset) (Guarnieri & Balmes, 2014).
Air pollution can be mitigated through several methods. Here, the focus is on how pollutants will be extracted out of the air by trees and plants. Plants have the
concentrations (McDonald et al., 2007; Ottelé et al., 2010). Pollutants will stick to the leaf surface. If the air pollution needs to be reduced easily from the environment, leaf-shedding trees could be used. Leafs could be disposed of, thereby removing the pollution. In the following growing season, the following load of pollution can be adsorbed (Figure 5).
Figure 5a & 5b: Electron microscope photograph of adhesion of air pollution by oak trees in Beijing. Figure 5a (left) shows a clean leaf surface, right shows a leaf surface exposed to polluted air. The particulate matter is seen as small spheres and rods stuck to the leaf surface (Ottelé et al., 2010).
2.6 Stakeholder analysis
The stakeholder analysis is an important component of stakeholder management: the application of stakeholder theories (Donaldson & Preston, 1995). Stakeholders are defined by Freeman (1984; p46) as: ‘’any group or individual who can affect or is affected by the achievement of the organisation's objectives". This definition of a stakeholders is emphasized from the perspective of organisations in a corporate context. The focus of the definition of a stakeholder can also be from the perspective of a project by which different stakeholders are affected (Luyet et al., 2012). This study will be focused on stakeholder project management.
The first step in every stakeholder analysis is to identify the different stakeholders (Donaldson & Preston, 1995; Mitchell, Agle & Wood, 1997; Reed, 2008). The second step is to outline the interests and influences of the different stakeholders to create agreement among the stakeholders to succeed the project.
By including a stakeholder analysis in the process of project development, a better understanding of the problem itself and a more effective implementation of the project is realised. It is important to take this into account for De Nieuwe Kern, since ambitious circular projects will probably be developed that will affect many stakeholders with different priorities, needs and wishes.
3. Interdisciplinary integration and complexity
In order to investigate the case at De Nieuwe Kern in an interdisciplinary and holistic way, it is important to acknowledge the complexity of the situation as well as to outline the integration of the disciplines. The interdisciplinary integration process will first be discussed and it is followed by the complex nature of the problem in De Nieuwe Kern.3.1 Interdisciplinary integration process
The cross-table integration technique is used to start the process of integrating the different disciplines (Appendix 2) (Menken & Keestra, 2016). Common ground between disciplines can be found by using this technique to overcome the complexity in the process of integration (Menken & Keestra, 2016).
The cross-table integration technique is an organisational approach for integration (Repko, 2012; Sommerville & Rapport, 2000). This approach identifies similarities in concepts between disciplines, redefines concepts and organises the new concepts in an integrated framework (Repko, 2012; Sommerville & Rapport, 2000). This integration process has led to the decision to conduct a scenario analysis.
These scenarios will then be analysed with multi-criteria analyses and sensitivity analyses to assess which scenario would turn out most feasible.
These methods form the foundation for the integrated framework (Figure 6). Thus, the integration technique and the subsequent chosen methods allows complex problems to be analysed in a cohesive, interdisciplinary manner.
A complex problem, or complexity is related to interdisciplinary research in various ways. First of all, interdisciplinary research is necessary in order to prevent the observer dependence (Menken & Keestra, 2016). Observer dependence means that a complex problem cannot be explained from the perspective of one discipline (Menken & Keestra, 2016). Therefore, a complex system can be more comprehensively understood through an interdisciplinary research approach, where several perspectives are taken into account. Secondly, the relationship between complexity and interdisciplinary research is explained by the similarities and differences between different subsystems within a complex system (Menken & Keestra, 2016). In this case the different subsystems are the different disciplines and the whole research topic is the complex system. For example, a problem within the subsystem of Business Studies could show similarities relating to a problem in the subsystem of Biology. By understanding these similarities, it could be possible to find a common approach to solve the problem for both subsystems within the whole system. Finally, Menken and Keestra (2016) address the importance of understanding the idea of complex systems for interdisciplinary researchers since interdisciplinary research is often related to complex systems.
3.2 Defining traits of Complexity in De Nieuwe Kern
The defining traits of complexity that are the most relevant for De Nieuwe Kern are path dependency, interconnectivity and hierarchy.
Path dependency is about the limiting effect on a current state of a system by cause of previous circumstances (Menken & Keestra, 2016). This issue is present in multiple parts of the research, e.g. the valuation of ecosystem services is frequently not integrated in the interests of the stakeholders, due to a traditional view to the environment.
Interconnectivity and hierarchy are also present, in the form of delayed feedbacks, competing reinforcing and balancing feedback loops. The incomprehensible number of interconnections between components are in a general sense all true characteristics of life itself. One point of concern may be how tree health will be affected by air pollution for example: pollutants may be absorbed through stomata once inside the tree, it is thought that these pollutants are stored into intracellular spaces. It is not yet known if this is correlated with decreased tree health. If unforeseen processes like these are not taken into account, the system will not behave in the deterministic way we designed it: hence, ecosystem services may be insufficiently provided.
To conclude, the interdisciplinary research of De Nieuwe Kern is accompanied by the complexity of the integration process and the complexity of the problem itself. By analysing these complexities in an interdisciplinary manner, a more comprehensive understanding is obtained so that more adequate recommendations can be provided.
Figure 6: Visualisation of the integrated theoretical framework.
4. Problem definition
The extent of the noise and air pollution at De Nieuwe Kern and the possible effect on the future residents are assessed in this chapter. In order to do this properly, a combination of literature, existing laws and measured data is used to provide both qualitative and quantitative results.
4.1 Noise pollution
Noise is an unwanted, unexpected, loud or unpleasant sound. More specifically, it is environmental noise which is annoying and can have harmful effects on those exposed to it (Singh & Davar, 2004; Stansfeld & Matheson, 2003). The effects of noise pollution applicable to this case study can be seen in Table 1 below.
General effect Side-effects Sound level
(dB) Source(s) General annoyance Anxiety WHO, 2011
Stress Cohen & Weinstein, 1981
Exhaustion Basner et al., 2014
Anger Stansfeld & Matheson,
2003
Increased blood pressure
Sleep disturbance Decreased productivity 35 WHO, 2011
Decreased concentration Muzet, 2007 Shorter attention span Sleep inducing medication 40 WHO, 2009 Insomnia Same as sleep disturbance, but worse 42 WHO, 2009 Impaired cognitive
development in children Reduced general cognitive performance of children Basner et al., 2014 Reduced reading and language comprehension Stansfeld & Matheson, 2003 Worse long-term memory Evans & Hygge, 2007 Hygge, Evans & Bullinger, 2002 Bronzcraft, 1981 Lercher, Evans & Meis, 2003 Increased risk of developing
cardiovascular diseases Hypertension Stansfeld & Matheson, 2003
Arteriosclerosis Ising & Kruppa, 2004
Myocardial infarction Geranvandi et al., 2014
Strokes Babisch, 2011
A general impression of the current levels of noise pollution caused by the highway and railways can be seen below (Figure 7).
Figure 7: A general impression of the average levels of noise pollution at De Nieuwe Kern (Rijkswaterstaat, 2011; 2016).
Balance (2017) claims that about 4500 houses will be built in the area delineated in Figure 7. Assuming that the above-mentioned calculations, visualized in the map, and data are correct, 2700 houses will be affected by noise exceeding 54.5 dB. The average size of a household in 2017 in The Netherlands is 2.16 (CBS, 2017), which means that about 5832 of the 9720 future inhabitants of De Nieuwe Kern will be exposed to a noise level of 54.5 or higher.
Figure 8: The number of future households and residents per noise exposure category (usable only).
Note that the figures above can be deceiving. For the highways, the effects of noise pollution do not stop at 54.5 dB. The dataset for the noise pollution caused by the railways adds two additional categories, but these do not solve this problem. The effects of noise pollution do not start neither at 1 dB, nor at 49.5 dB, but somewhere in between (WHO, 2009).
In addition, there are some regulations concerning construction in areas affected by noise pollution. Section one of article 82 of the Wet geluidhinder (2017) (the law concerning noise pollution), mentions that the maximum level of noise pollution for housing is 48 dB when the noise is caused by a road. However, article 83 mentions that this value can be disregarded and that either 58 dB (section 1) or 63 dB (section 2) are the maximum values. According to article 107, the values for railways are the same as those for roads. Though, article 4.10 of the Besluit geluidhinder (2015) mentions that the maximum value is 68 dB. The highest values are used for the following calculations.
4.2 Air pollution
Air pollution is a general term, which includes several types of pollutants. The most important of these can be seen in Table 2. An important distinction to make in these pollutants is the difference between primary and secondary pollutants. Primary pollutants are directly emitted into the air, while secondary pollutants form from chemical reactions between primary pollutants or other secondary pollutants and atmospheric gases (Chan & Yao, 2008).
Name Pollutant Primary Secondary Sulphur dioxide SO2 x Nitrogen dioxide NO2 x x Carbon monoxide CO x Volatile organic compounds VOC's x Ozone O3 x Particulate matter PM10 & PM2.5 x Table 2: The main air pollutants (Bernstein et al., 2004; Holgate et al., 1999).
Long-term exposure to air pollution is linked to natural-cause mortality (Beelen et al., 2014). This applies to both particulate matter (Brunekreef & Holgate, 2002; Brook et al., 2010) and nitrogen dioxides (Beelen et al., 2008; Nafstad et al., 2004; Filleul et al., 2005), even at very low concentrations. However, not all studies found statistically significant correlations (Beelen et al., 2014). The main causes of this increase in naturally caused mortality can be viewed in Table 3. Note that for the cardiovascular diseases, only the correlation between air pollution and ischemic heart disease is relatively strong (Brook et al., 2010). In addition, the exact mechanisms behind asthma development due to air pollution require further research (Guarnieri & Balmes, 2014).
Increased risk of: Quantification (for each 10 microgram PM10 or PM2.5/m3
increase)
Source(s)
Lung cancer 148% prevalence Pope et al., 2002; Raaschou-Nielsen et al., 2013
112% lung cancer mortality
Ischemic heart disease 118% ischemic heart disease
mortality Pope et al., 2002; Jerrett et al., 2005; Krewski, 2009; Pope et al., 2004
Cardiopulmonary disease 109% cardiopulmonary
mortality Krewski et al., 2009; Pope et al., 2002; Gehring et al., 2006
Heart failure 113% heart failure mortality Pope et al., 2004; Pope et al., 2002
Coagulation and thrombosis Up to 170% prevalence of
deep vein thrombosis
Baccarelli et al., 2008
Cardiac arrhythmias and
Asthma 118% asthma hospitalisations Guarnieri & Balmes, 2014; Aris et al., 1993; Frampton et al., 2002; Tecer et al., 2008
Table 3: The general health effects of long-term exposure to air pollution.
As can be determined from Table 3, the severity of the health effects depends on the average concentration of pollutants. The average concentrations of NO2 and two types of particulate matter can be seen in Figure 9. According to the air quality index (LKI) (RIVM, 2015), the values are relatively low (2-4 out of 12), which means that the level of air pollution at De Nieuwe Kern is limited, as are its effects. This is corroborated by data from Luchtmeetnet (2016), which can be seen in Table 4.
Figure 9: Average NO2, PM10 and PM2.5 concentrations at De Nieuwe Kern (RIVM, 2015).
Pollutant Average value (microgram/m3) Average LKI value
NO2 32.75 3.46
PM10 17.34 2.23
O3 33.11 2.81
Table 4: The average pollutant concentration for the year 2016 at the A2 near Breukelen (Luchtmeetnet, 2016).
However, studies concerning the proximity of highways and the average health of residents indicate that there will be significant consequences. The effects for certain distances from the highways can be viewed in Figure 10 and Table 5. The figure indicates the different zones in which different effects caused by air pollution from the highway can be expected and the effects for these zones can be found in Table 5. This Table includes the literature backing up each claim.
Table 5: The quality of life zones and their effects (see also Figure 10).
Quality of life zone (m)
Increased risk
of: Quantification -Remarks Source(s) 100 Chronic respiratory issues 164% chronic coughing prevalence Hartog et al., 1997; van Vliet et al., 1997 200% chronic wheeze prevalence 200 Asthma 193% hospitalisation (asthma symptoms in children) Lin et al., 2007; Coronary heart diseases 170% cardiopulmonar y mortality 300 Minimum distance to highways for public buildings and vulnerable groups according to Dutch law. Besluit gevoelige bestemmingen (luchtkwaliteitseisen) , 2015 400 Decreased respiratory health in children 800% wheeze prevalence Jansen et al., 2003 400% asthma prevalence 300% bronchitis prevalence 500 Impaired development of respiratory system in children 93.4% lung function Gauderman et al., 2007 1000 Up to this point pollutants from the highway can be found. Fischer et al., unknown >1000 Out of range of pollutants from the highway. Fischer et al., unknown
Assuming that 4500 houses will be built in De Nieuwe Kern (Balance, 2017) and that the average household size is 2.16 (CBS, 2017), the number of houses which will be constructed and the number of future residents in the zones can be calculated. The results of these calculations can be seen in Figure 11.
Figure 11: The number of future households and residents per health effect zone.
In conclusion, thousands of future residents could potentially be exposed to noise and air pollution at De Nieuwe Kern if no measures are taken to mitigate these issues. The aim of this report is to investigate if it is possible to solve this problem in a circular way by using ecosystem services. The ways in which ecosystem services can be used for this purpose, will discussed in the following chapters.
5. Selected methods
In this chapter, the selected methods are described. These include a scenario analysis, a multi-criteria analysis and a sensitivity analysis.
5.1 Scenario Analysis
Decisions in spatial development projects in the Netherlands are, at least partially, dependent on the demands of different stakeholders. Each stakeholder has specific interests and some will be more influential than others. Therefore, it is complicated to accurately predict which project will be implemented. In order to account for the different perspectives of stakeholders in De Nieuwe Kern, a scenario analysis will be conducted. A scenario analysis is a strategic tool that is used in situations that are uncertain at the moment. It is often used as a tool of analysis to forecast several possible outcomes of a temporal development (Schoemaker, 1995). In this case the scenario analysis is applied in the context of the spatial development in De Nieuwe Kern. More specific, it is applied to the development of noise and air pollution mitigation methods. The concept of scenario analysis is relevant for this case because the final outcome of the decision-making process is uncertain. Moreover, this process is subject to the demands of the different stakeholders at De Nieuwe Kern. The scenario analysis is plotted in a matrix with four quadrants, each quadrant containing a scenario. The axes of the matrix are determined by selecting two variables of which the temporal development is unpredictable and which have a significant impact on the research subject (Schoemaker, 1995).
Four scenarios for noise and air pollution mitigation in De Nieuwe Kern have been derived from the scenario analysis. Each scenario contains an alternative noise and air pollution mitigation methods in accordance with the value of the selected variables. The two selected variables for this scenario analysis are the economic paradigm and the degree of innovation in the construction technique. The economic paradigm ranges between ‘linear economy’ and ‘circular economy’, which is plotted on the X-axis of the matrix. On the Y-axis, the degree of innovation is plotted with the range reaching from ‘traditional techniques’ to ‘innovative techniques’. The economic paradigm will affect the design of the mitigation method. The techniques chosen for each scenario represent the most viable options. This means that these might not be the most extreme ones or the most suitable for the scenario. This decision was made because it is essential if the techniques are to be implemented. The data was gathered using of models, case studies and self-reported data. The data itself can be viewed in Appendix 1.
Although the municipality of Amsterdam endeavours to become the first circular city, the final decision has to be made in cooperation with other stakeholders that might value other criteria. The degree of innovation that is used for the construction also
depends on the preferences of the stakeholders. To conclude, the mitigation method that will be implemented depends largely on the preferences of the different stakeholders. To examine these preferences a multi-criteria analysis for noise and air pollution barriers is conducted. These criteria will be explained in more detail in the next paragraph.
5.2 Multi-criteria analysis
The final result of this research will be a recommendation regarding the most feasible scenario for solving the problem: the use of ecosystem services in order to solve the issue surrounding noise and air pollution at De Nieuwe Kern. This can only be achieved by comparing the different possibilities. This means that advantages and disadvantages of all possible solutions need to be gathered and assessed, after which a ranking can be formed. The selected mitigation methods have been grouped in four alternative scenarios through a scenario analysis. The next step will be the comparison of the four scenarios using a multi-criteria analysis, which is a type of analysis used to score alternatives based on a list of weighted criteria. This type of analysis is best suited for our research because not all criteria for noise and air pollution mitigation methods can be expressed in monetary units (De Brucker, Macharis & Verbeke, 2013).
The criteria and the weights which will be used to conduct the multi-criteria analysis are selected by examining literature on the implementation of noise and air pollution mitigation methods, as well as the policies of the municipality and in consultation with Balance. To underline the differences in importance, the criteria have been attributed a weight expressed as a percentage. The weight that is attributed to the criteria in Table 6 is an estimation of the ‘general’ weights of all the stakeholders relating to De Nieuwe Kern. The attribution of weights is a subjective procedure, which is a disadvantage of this method. It is therefore essential that a sensitivity analysis is performed afterwards. The list of criteria and the attributed weights is shown in Table 6, with a brief explanation per criterion stated below Table 6.
Criteria Weight (%) Noise pollution mitigation 20 Air pollution mitigation 20 Aesthetics 15 Costs (placement and maintenance) 15 Space and location requirements 20 Degree of circularity 10
Table 6: Weighted baseline for multi-criteria analysis
5.2.1 Criteria specifications
The used unit is different for each criterion, which means that the data had to be transformed into a general score in order to compare the scenarios. In addition, some of the criteria are qualitative, e.g. aesthetics. These scores have been determined by ranking the four options against each other. Using these methods, the criteria are given scores between 0 and 1, which means that they are assigned to a general category. An elaborate description of each criterion can be seen below.
Noise pollution mitigation
This criterion expresses the effectiveness of the method to mitigate noise pollution. The data on the effectiveness is explained in more detail in the next chapter. The score of this criterion is based on four proportional scales ranging from the lowest value in decibels (dB) to highest value in dB.
Air pollution mitigation
This criterion expresses the effectiveness of the method to mitigate air pollution. The data on the effectiveness is explained in more detail in the next chapter.
Aesthetics
This criterion expresses the level in which the method is considered aesthetic. Aesthetic is an intrinsic value and it is expected to be considered less important by stakeholders that are not directly located near the construction site. This criterion is
measured with a qualitative score from 1 to 4. The assessment of the aesthetic value is highly subjective, in this case the aesthetic value of vegetation or organic material is assumed to have a higher aesthetic value compared to non-organic materials like concrete (Jorgensen & Gobster, 2010).
Costs
The total costs of each method are the sum of the placement and maintenance costs. The data on the placement and maintenance costs is extracted from similar cases. The costs of the amount of space that each method requires are not included in this criterion.
Space and location requirements
Each mitigation method defers in the amount of space that is needed in order to have significant impact. Also, some of the methods have particular location requirements. This criterion is measured with a qualitative score from 1 to 4, depending on the number of limitations for the placement of the method.
Degree of circularity
This criterion stems from the objective of the municipality of Amsterdam to become the first circular city. This objective has also been affirmed in Appendix six of the cooperation agreement between the stakeholders in De Nieuwe Kern (Municipality of Amsterdam, 2017a). The degree of circularity is in the MCA measured as a relative score between the four scenarios. Ranging from 1 as not circular nor sustainable, 2 as relatively more sustainable, 3 as partially circular through reuse/recycling of material and 4 as the most circular solution. Circular solutions should be able to be constructed out of material from which the value remains also after deconstruction. In addition, a circular solution should not harm, or can even contribute to ecosystems and ecosystem-services (Webster, 2015).
Criterion Scale Score Noise pollution mitigation 0-5 dB 0.25 5-10 dB 0.50 10-15 dB 0.75 15-20 dB 1.0 Air pollution mitigation 3.00 - 6.75 μg/m3 0.25 6.75 - 10.50 μg/m3 0.50 10.50 - 14.25 μg/m3 0.75 14.25 - 18.00 μg/m3 1.0 Aesthetics Relative to each other 0-1 Costs (placement and maintenance) > € 1500 per m2 0.25 €1000-1500 per m2 0.50 € 500-1000 per m2 0.75 € 0 - 500 per m2 1.0 Space and location requirements Relative to each other 0-1 Degree of circularity Relative to each other 0-1 Table 7: Scales of the multi-criteria analysis
5.3 Sensitivity analysis
The estimation of the general preferences is very subjective. Therefore, a second analysis will be conducted, which is a sensitivity analysis. A sensitivity analysis is used to test the robustness of a certain analysis by changing a certain variable. In this case, the robustness of the multi-criteria will be tested by altering the weights given to the criteria. If the results differ greatly depending on the weights given to each criterion, the analysis is not robust. However, if the outcome does not change a great deal if the weights are altered significantly, it can be assumed that the analysis is robust and so are the results.
In this case, the analysis will be executed by looking at the preferences of the most important stakeholders. This means that the sensitivity analysis will not only provide an estimation of the robustness of the general analysis, it also serves as a stakeholder analysis. The group of stakeholders that have been selected are the ones most affected by noise and or air pollution. Besides, these stakeholders will have a significant influence in the decision-making process in De Nieuwe Kern project. The weights of the six criteria will be adjusted to the individual interests of each stakeholder. These interests are determined by data from public reports, geographical maps and information from Balance. The sensitivity analysis will give an overview of the preferred scenario per selected stakeholder. These results will eventually be compared with each other and with the results from the baseline multi-criteria analysis, leading to the key recommendations for noise and air pollution mitigation methods in De Nieuwe Kern.
6. Technical Data
In this chapter, several techniques for air and noise pollution mitigation are analysed and summarized in Appendix 1. For these techniques, multiple criteria (air/noise pollution mitigation, costs, space requirements, aesthetics, and degree of circularity) are quantified. These particular techniques are chosen because their efficacy is well-known, they are achievable, and they are comparable to one another. In the following paragraphs, these techniques will further be elaborated upon.
6.1 Green walls
A green wall is a vertical construction on which vegetation directly grows (Perini & Rosasco, 2013). Creating a green wall can be achieved by using both new and existing structures. A common plant used for green walls is Ivy (Hedera Helix) (Pugh et al., 2012). Ivy can remove 60% of air pollution per unit volume of air to which it is exposed (Ottelé et al., 2010; Pugh et al., 2012).
Costs for planting green walls are low, around €75 per square meter (Perini & Rosasco, 2013). In addition, green walls require no extra space other than the initial space required for the wall it grows on. Furthermore, green walls are more pleasant to look at than concrete walls, which means they can be used to increase the aesthetic value of existing concrete sound barriers.
The degree of circularity of green walls highly depends on the kind of resources used for the wall on which the vegetation will grow. If Ivy is grown on a concrete sound barrier the carbon footprint of the construction as a whole will be large since concrete production causes the emission of vast amounts of carbon dioxide (Marinkovic et al., 2010). Creating green walls on existing structures requires no nonrenewable resources. No extensive measures need to be taken if a newly constructed wall is made green. Finally, if excess plant material is composted and used as fertilizer for new plants, it could be considered as a circular technique, since no waste is generated and new resources are created at the end of the product life cycle.
Figure 12. Example of a green wall, planted with Ivy (Hedera Helix).
6.2 Trees
Planting common urban trees such as oaks, beech and poplar can mitigate air pollution and moderately mitigate noise pollution (Pauleit et al., 2002; Mo et al., 2015; Kuypers & de Vries, 2007; Theoretical Framework).
Trees have the capacity to adsorb 20% of particulate matter per each unit of air volume it comes into contact with (Kuypers & de Vries, 2007). Since trees have an extensive leaf surface area, they can come into contact with a large volume and are thus able to adsorb a large amount of particulate matter.
The space a tree occupies (36,4 square meters) is derived from the mean tree crown area above the ground plus the distance left between each planted tree (10m) (Agentschap voor Natuur en Bos, 2008). Finally, trees can attenuate sound moderately. For example, if two rows of trees were to be planted in a crossed pattern, they can reduce sound levels by 3 dB (Fan, 2010). Trees can be a viable technique if space is not a limiting factor. In case of De Nieuwe Kern, a considerable
number of trees could be planted alongside the A2, since no houses will be built directly next to the highway (Municipality of Ouder-Amstel, 2017). In addition, trees are generally appreciated by inhabitants, creating a more pleasing living area. More importantly, trees are able to sequester carbon dioxide during their growth and if a tree dies, it can be used in the hardwood industry or composted, therefore it could be considered as a circular method to mitigate noise and air pollution.
Figure 13: Trees planted alongside the highway A2 near De Nieuwe Kern. Image Retrieved from Google Maps (2016).
6.3 CityTree
CityTree is an invention of Greencity Solutions, which can be as efficient as 275 trees (Greencity Solutions, 2017). This innovative technique may improve urban air quality in where planting trees is impossible. The first CityTree is already installed in Amsterdam (Municipality of Amsterdam, 2017b), meaning that this technique has already caught the attention of Amsterdam and possibly could be extended to De Nieuwe Kern. These CityTrees have a modern and pleasing design and it is made out of completely recyclable materials (Greencity Solutions, 2017).
Figure 14: CityTree on the Markenplein in Amsterdam. Retrieved From https://www.amsterdam.nl/actueel/nieuws/city-trees/
6.4 Air filtering sound wall
This sound barrier is made out of special recycled concrete aggregates that are able to remove pollutants such as nitrous oxide particles and particulate matter
allowing polluted air to diffuse through the barrier. It is estimated that these sound walls are able to filter 20% of pollutants out of the air and that they will fall into the same range of production costs as conventional sound barriers (Hollandscherm, 2006). Because the main building material for this construction is industrial waste, no carbon is emitted for mining resources. In fact, a moderate amount of carbon is stored by recycling rubble this way (Bribián et al., 2011). Therefore, this sound barrier can contribute to both noise attenuation and air pollution mitigation. This technique could be considered circular, since the stone aggregates that filter the air are industrial waste. However, it is not clear into which extent the stones are recyclable at the end of their lifetime.
Figure 16. Schematic drawing of the air filtering sound wall (Hollandscherm, 2006).
6.5 Bamboo sound wall
Living sound barriers of bamboo may be a feasible option for mitigating noise pollution. A pilot version of this technique is in development in the province of North Holland (Bamboe Informatiecentrum (BIC), 2017). It is expected that these bamboo walls are able to attenuate noise as effectively as concrete sound barriers of 3 meters high, and that they will be twice as cheap as a traditional sound barrier (BIC, 2017; van Leeuwen & Waarts, 2013). It will provide an aesthetically pleasing view for both commuters and residents.
Furthermore, bamboo plants have the potential to sequester a considerable amount of carbon, namely 0,51 kg per square meter per year (Song et al., 2011). In addition, they have the capacity to adsorb 4-8g airborne dust particles per square meter (Li et al., 2017). It must be stated however that in research the of Li et al. (2017), it is not specified how much of this dust is composed of particulate matter.
To be fully functional, the bamboo wall must be 5 meters high and planted in hedges of 6 meters thick. The growing process is estimated to last up to 4 years, and the lifetime of bamboo, if well maintained, can last up to 30-40 years (BIC, 2017). After
its lifetime, or when the plants need to be cut, the bamboo can be used for construction material or its fibers can be harvested and turned into high-value end products.
Figure 16: The pilot bamboo sound barrier in North Holland, 2015. Estimated is that the bamboo will be mature in 2019. Image retrieved from bamboegeluidsscherm.nl (2017).
6.6 Conventional and recycled concrete
Lastly, concrete sound barriers are researched for their efficacy, costs and carbon footprint. Calculations are done for concrete sound barriers that are 3 meters high, so that they could be compared to bamboo sound barriers. According to the Dutch ministry of Infrastructure and Environment, a sound barrier must at least attenuate noise by 5 to 10 dB (Ministerie van Infrastructuur en Milieu, 2014). These sound barriers cost up to 924 euros per meter and they are made from nonrenewable resources. This creates a significant amount of carbon emission per unit volume of concrete, as can be seen in Appendix 1.
Concrete sound barriers can also be made from completely recyclable concrete (De Schepper et al., 2014). This way, carbon emissions of recycled concrete are 52,5% less than that of newly produced concrete (De Schepper et al., 2014), whilst costs of production are similar to that of traditionally produced concrete (Marinković et al., 2010). Research mentioned previously stated that recycled concrete has similar qualities as traditional concrete. Therefore, it is assumed that the noise attenuation capacities of recyclable concrete are comparable to that of traditional concrete. Thus, recycled concrete may be a circular variant of a traditional technique.
7. Results
This chapter describes the results of this comprehensive research. These include the results from the scenario analysis, the multi-criteria analyses and the sensitivity analysis as well as the economic valuation of the ecosystem services.
7.1 Scenario Analysis
Possible techniques, described in the previous paragraphs, will be divided into the scenarios they best fit in (Figure 17).
Figure 17: Scenario analysis matrix.
7.1.1 Promethean Environmentalism
In this scenario, noise and air pollution mitigation will rely heavily on technological innovations. Circular area development will not be a high priority in this scenario. Instead, high efficiency and minimizing costs will be the main focus in this scenario. Therefore, the air filtering sound barrier may fit well in this scenario. This technique mitigates both noise and air pollution whilst it comes at the same price as a conventional sound barrier. In addition, it can remove 20% of air pollution per unit volume of air it comes into contact with. This means it is as effective as the two techniques of the Business as Usual scenario combined. Important to note is that the stone aggregates responsible for air pollution reduction, are industrial waste being
reused. Therefore, this technique could also be applied in circular scenarios. However, it was chosen for this scenario, since it relies heavily on technological innovation rather than it strives for a circular economic paradigm.
7.1.2 Business as Usual
This is the business as usual scenario: no new techniques will be applied aiming to contribute to circularity or to mitigate noise and air pollution in a circular context. Instead, conventional, existing technique will be chosen, like placing concrete sound barriers to mitigate noise and trees to mitigate air (and in a moderate extent noise) pollution. Both techniques will effectively mitigate noise and air pollution. It must also be noted that in order to mitigate air pollution in de Nieuwe Kern, trees should also be planted throughout the area to locally adsorb particulate matter.
These methods can be advantageous, since their efficacy is well studied and techniques are widely used. Therefore, no unforeseen risks will arise when these techniques are applied. In addition, there are already trees standing alongside the A2 where it passes de Nieuwe Kern. If these trees are left there, air pollution will be mitigated without any costs for placing new trees.
7.1.3 Potential of Plants
In this scenario, innovative experimental and circular techniques will be applied in de Nieuwe Kern. Examples of such techniques are the living bamboo sound walls and city tree for noise and air pollution mitigation respectively. Bamboo sound walls, which are actually densely planted hedges of bamboo, require no non-renewable resources. Moreover, their fast growth allows them to grow to lengths in which they become effective sound attenuation barriers within a few years. During growth, they sequester carbon dioxide from the air, thereby contributing to climate change mitigation as well. Lastly, when the bamboo needs to be cut, or at the end of its lifetime, the harvested bamboo can be used in the construction sector or its fibres can be used to create a wide variety of high value end products. Thus, no non-renewable resources are needed and no waste is created if this technique is applied. CityTree is a novel air filtering technique. This technique uses the high leaf surface area of various moss and lichen species which can effectively filter air. Due to it having a higher leaf surface area than the average tree, and that it only requires a few square meters of space, CityTrees can improve air quality in busy areas where there’s no space for trees. In addition, it is completely made from recycled and recyclable materials, therefore it fits in the circular economic paradigm.
7.1.4 Play it Safe
Here, the circular economic paradigm is adopted. However, instead of focusing on novel techniques to noise and air pollution mitigation, the focus lays upon adjusting existing production processes and techniques to become circular. For example, completely recycled concrete can be used instead of newly made concrete. This minimises waste production of the concrete production cycle. In addition, no new cement needs to be produced to create concrete if concrete noise barriers were made out of completely recyclable concrete. In order to improve the aesthetic value of the recyclable concrete barriers, the barriers could be planted with Ivy, a climbing plant. These plants also have the capacity to filter 60% of pollutants out of the air it comes into contact with. However, there will still be a significant amount of carbon emitted during the process of complete concrete recycling.
To mitigate air pollution, just as in the Business as Usual scenario, trees could be planted behind the noise barrier. In addition, trees and public green will be a high priority in this scenario.
7.2 Results multi-criteria analysis
The multi-criteria analysis (MCA) and the sensitivity analysis have been conducted using the data described in Appendix 1. The data has been analysed in accordance with the method described in paragraph 5.2 of this report. In Table 8, which is depicted below, an overview is given of the scores per criterion, as well as the end scores of the MCA. The end scores of the four scenarios have been visualised in Figure 18. The end scores of the MCA reflect the baseline that is used for the sensitivity analysis in the next section.
There are two main findings that have been derived from this MCA. First of all, according to the end scores of the MCA, scenario C is the most desirable scenario for De Nieuwe Kern. This finding rests on the weighting of the criteria that was set to be the reflection of the general interests of all stakeholders in De Nieuwe Kern. The second main finding is that the choice to transform the data of the criteria into discrete scores from 0 to 1 has let to less precise results, but this trade-off was made to accurately compare the data of the six criteria.
Table 8: Scores weighted baseline multi-criteria analysis
Figure 18: The baselines of the four scenarios
7.3 Stakeholders Analysis
A stakeholder analysis is conducted for each scenario to provide the feasibility of the implementation of the scenarios from the perspective of the most important stakeholders. The identification of the most important stakeholders is therefore the
first step in the analysis. Please note that it was not possible to execute interviews with the potential stakeholders therefore information provided by Balance and public documents are used.
The principle agreement regarding De Nieuwe Kern contains of an overview of the most important stakeholders (Gemeente Amsterdam, 2017b; Figure 19). The horizontal axis displays the attitude towards the whole Nieuwe Kern project and the vertical axis displays the scale of the stakeholders’ interests in Nieuwe Kern. The topic of this research is a specific part of the whole Nieuwe Kern project and because of this not all the stakeholders are of relevance for this research. Therefore the following question is investigated: which actor(s) will be most prominent in the decision-making process on spatial development in De Nieuwe Kern? The stakeholders that have been included in the sensitivity analysis are displayed in the upper-left corner of Figure 19. Amsterdam, Ouder-Amstel, Ajax, NS and VolkerWessels are the stakeholders that most likely will contribute to the decision on the implementation of the noise and air pollution mitigation methods. This conclusion is based on the fact that these stakeholders are actively participating in the development of De Nieuwe Kern and have major interests through land ownership or other financial interests. This paragraph will conclude with an overview of some factors that determine the preferences of the stakeholders. In the next paragraph, the sensitivity analysis, the specific interests of each stakeholder will be discussed in more detail.
Figure 19: Stakeholder matrix De Nieuwe Kern (Gemeente Amsterdam, 2017b)
The criteria (Table 6) that have been used in the multi-criteria analysis are also used in the sensitivity analysis to identify the different interests of the most important
stakeholders. For the reason that the most relevant aspects of the research are presented in the criteria. In summary, the first two criteria concern the effectiveness of the mitigation methods. These criteria will be of greater importance to the stakeholders that share a social responsibility for the inhabitants and the livability in De Nieuwe Kern. The required space criterion is in addition to the first two criteria important for identifying the stakeholders, since the techniques need to be implemented within De Nieuwe Kern, in which the competition of space is significant. This results in a higher degree of influence for the landowners: NS, the municipalities, Borchland and AFC Ajax (Gemeente Amsterdam, 2017b). Borchland owns in comparison to the other landowners a smaller amount and recently sold the land to VolkerWessels and for that reason is Borchland not an import stakeholder for this study (Gemeente Amsterdam, 2017b). The other criteria are of less importance for the identification phase of the stakeholder analysis, due to the fact that the criteria discussed above are the incentive of mitigation the problem and the practical requirement to implement these mitigation techniques. This leads to the identification of the municipality of Amsterdam, the municipality Ouder-Amstel, AFC Ajax, NS and VolkerWessels as the most important stakeholders. The scenarios are investigated from the perspectives of these stakeholders.
7.4 Sensitivity analysis from the perspective of the most
important stakeholders
In Paragraph 7.3 five stakeholders were identified on their significant level of interest in De Nieuwe Kern, as well as their positive and cooperative attitude towards the development of De Nieuwe Kern. This paragraph discusses the interests of the Municipality of Amsterdam, the municipality of Ouder-Amstel, AFC Ajax, NS and VolkerWessels. Per stakeholder the weighting of the criteria is adjusted to their particular interests. It is important to note that the weight per criterion has been adjusted by the relative higher or lower importance to the particular stakeholder compared to the baseline weights. Public documents and the policy documents on De Nieuwe Kern form the bases for this analysis. Thus, the weights below are based on qualitative literature research.
Municipality of Amsterdam
Figure 20: Weighted criteria for the municipality of Amsterdam
The municipality of Amsterdam endeavours to become the first circular city. The area of De Nieuwe Kern is among others appointed to be a test site for circular area development. Therefore, the degree of circularity of the project will be of a greater importance to the municipality.
In the cooperation agreement on De Nieuwe Kern, the municipality of Amsterdam states that cost neutrality is the precondition of its involvement in the area development of De Nieuwe Kern. It is also explicitly stated that the municipality does not strive to maximize its profits, the project should cover their expenses (Gemeente Amsterdam, 2017a). The municipality will cover the expenses of projects within the public space in the exploitation area of De Nieuwe Kern. Based on the statements in the cooperation agreement it is concluded that the municipality of Amsterdam has relative low interest in the costs for placement and maintenance of the mitigation methods. Respected that all of the proposed mitigation methods would be at least cost-neutral.
Municipality of Ouder-Amstel
Figure 21: Weighted criteria for the municipality of Ouder-Amstel.
In the principle agreement on De Nieuwe Kern it is indicated that the municipality of Ouder-Amstel carries the responsibility for the reduction of particulate matter and noise hindrance from the A2 highway and alongside the railway (Gemeente Amsterdam, 2017b). This results in the estimation that the first two criteria, namely noise and air pollution mitigation are strongly emphasised in the weighting of the criteria for the municipality of Ouder-Amstel.
AFC Ajax
Figure 22: Weighted criteria for AFC Ajax.
Ajax is developing and renovating its sports complex De Toekomst. Ajax has stated in the cooperation agreement on De Nieuwe Kern that they have sustainability ambitions (Gemeente Amsterdam, 2017a). Because Ajax is planning on expanding its sports complex and parking space, the club would probably prefer a mitigation method that will require minimal space.
The sports complex of Ajax is an open area and is located next to the A2 highway, therefore it is expected that Ajax would have relatively high interest in the mitigation of air pollution in De Nieuwe Kern to protect the health of its soccer players. The noise hindrance would also be of importance to Ajax, but in relatively lower degree with regards to air pollution. It is also expected that the aesthetics of the mitigation method would not be an interest of the club because their players are not residents of the area and would therefore be less affected by the aesthetic value of the mitigation methods. The costs for placement and maintenance of noise and air pollution mitigation methods will probably not be paid by VolkerWessels, because it is a public good.
Figure 23: Weighted criteria for the NS.
In the cooperation agreement between the stakeholders in De Nieuwe Kern the NS has stated that the sustainability criterion is yet to be determined (Gemeente Amsterdam, 2017a). This has led to the conclusion that the NS does not necessarily prioritise sustainability nor circularity.
Besides, the NS does not have direct interest in the liveability within the area, this has resulted in the relatively low weighting of the noise and air pollution mitigation criteria. However, a report about their vision for the railways the NS has formulated three principles for development, one of them concerns the wellbeing of their passengers. In which the NS specifically refers to the obstructed view caused by sound barriers or other visual obstacles (Nederlandse Spoorwegen, 2012). Therefore, it is expected that the aesthetics would be one of the main interests for the NS, as they want to provide a certain travel experience to their passengers. The space and location requirements are expected to be highly relevant for the NS because they would prefer to have a low risk at railway damage, delays through construction work or maintenance of the mitigation methods.
