Self-presentation on Facebook and Instagram: An Investigation Into the Relation Between Different Photo-Related Activities and the Users’ Self-esteem
Marije Mulders 10420185
University of Amsterdam
Master’s programme Communication Science Master’s Thesis: Youth and Media
Graduate school of Communication, University of Amsterdam Supervisor: Dian de Vries
Abstract
Research on social network sites (SNS) in relation to the users’ self-esteem has largely focused on the users’ SNS behavior in general. Furthermore, most research within this field has ignored the different domains of the users’ self-esteem. In response to these gaps, the present study aimed to investigate the relation between specific photo-related activities on Facebook and Instagram and different domains of the users’ self-esteem. A survey was conducted among 236 emerging adults (18-25) who are a member of Facebook and/or Instagram. Overall few relationships were found. Positive relationships were only found within the domain of the users’ romantic self-esteem. The level of editing and selecting the photos before sharing them served to moderate the relationships between the frequency of sharing photos and one’s romantic self-esteem. Results also showed that this relationship was positively moderated by the percentage of photos of their romantic life that were shared on their profile. Altogether, the results suggest that the relationship between the frequency of sharing photos and the different domains of the users’ self-esteem is not moderated by the different photo-related activities.
Keywords: Facebook, Instagram, online self-presentation, photography, self-esteem,
Self-presentation on Facebook and Instagram: An Investigation Into the Relation Between Different Photo-Related Activities and the Users’ Self-esteem
Due to the rise of social network sites like Facebook, Instagram and Twitter there has been a shift in the way people present themselves. Nowadays anyone can ‘broadcast’ himself or herself by sharing content online (Kramer & Winter, 2008). To present themselves online people use their profiles to post pictures, share personal information and post status updates for others to see and comment on (Gentile, Twenge, Freeman, & Campbell, 2012).
These online profiles offer the opportunity for selective self-presentation (Amichai-hamburger & Vinitzky, 2010). Boyd (2007) describes these profiles as a form of digital body where individuals must write themselves into being. This means that users now have the opportunity to think about which aspects of their personalities they want to present (Boyd, 2007). They have the opportunity to think about what information and which photos to share and therefore how to present themselves to the world (Boyd, 2007). Furthermore, they are provided with the tools to edit these photos and therefore decide what aspects of themselves they would like to emphasize (Gonzales & Hancock, 2011). People now can manage their self-presentations more strategically than in face-to-face situations (Ellison, Heino, & Gibbs, 2006).
One of the motivations for users to manage their self-presentation is to enhance their self-esteem (Gonzales & Hancock, 2011). Findings from their research suggest that managing one’s self-presentation online may actually improve one’s self-esteem (Gonzales & Hancock, 2011). The relation between online self-presentation and self-esteem has been confirmed by a body of research (Mehdizadeh, 2010; Gentile, et al., 2012; Valkenburg, Peter, & Schouten, 2006).
These studies have focused on social network sites’ behavior in general. Very little research however has explored the individual features that these platforms have to offer.
Facebook for example, offers the possibility to share personal information, list one’s
preferences, join common interest groups, add friends and post status updates and photos for others to see and comment on (Ong, et al., 2010). These individual features all contribute in their own way to the users’ self-presentation. An investigation into the specific features will therefore provide a better insight into their relation to the users’ self-esteem.
Sharing photos is one of the main features offered on SNS (Vivienne & Burgess, 2013). Especially on Instagram sharing photos plays a key role (Solomon, 2011). Every photo that the user decides to share online shapes the individual’s representation (Rubinstein & Sluis, 2008). People use photos to help express their ideal selves and are therefore often used for a positive self-presentation (Pempek, Yermolayeva, & Calvert, 2009). We however do not know how sharing photos is related to one’s self-esteem. The first aim of this research is therefore to focus on this specific feature and investigate its relation to the users’ self-esteem.
Previous research has investigated the impact of social network sites on the users’ self-esteem. However, most research on SNS in relation to the users’ self-esteem has focused on Facebook (Forest & Wood, 2012; Gonzales & Hancock, 2011; Meier & Gray, 2013). However, it seems that these days, next to Facebook, Instagram is one of the most popular social network sites used for sharing photos and other personal information (Solomon, 2013). The main difference between these platforms is that within Instagram the complete focus is on photography. Instagram offers different manipulation tools, which provides users the
possibility to instantly take pictures and transform the appearance of a photo before sharing it (Hochman & Schwartz, 2012). Whereas within Facebook, sharing photos is just one of the many features that are offered. This might lead to a difference in the way people use
photography to present themselves on both SNS. This, in its turn, might result in a difference in its relation to the users’ self-esteem. The second aim of this research is therefore to
difference between both Facebook and Instagram.
Zhao, Grasmuck and Martin (2008) investigated the varied numbers of photographs that users share on their Facebook profile. Findings from their research showed that most common shared photos are pictures of the users themselves, their social life and their
romantic partner (Zhao et al., 2008). These different photos are related to different aspects of the image the user wants to present (Zhao et al., 2008). They therefore may also have an effect on different domains of one’s self-esteem. We however do not know what photos have an effect on which domains. The third aim of this study is therefore to fill this gap by
investigating the relation between different photo categories and different domains of the users’ self-esteem.
In their research to online dating environments, Ellison, Heino and Gibbs (2006) found that the greater control people have over their self-presentation, the better they are able to present their ideal-self. By providing the possibility to select what photos to share and the possibility to edit them, people now have the possibility to carefully think about how to present themselves. Therefore SNS can be seen as an ideal tool for impression management (Kramer & Winter, 2008). Ellison et al. (2006) state that this selectivity and edibility of one’s profile is a leading factor in idealizing one’s profile. Because creating a profile and therefore creating one’s presentation is related to the users’ self-esteem, these factors might also be leading in raising one’s esteem. The relations between posting a photo and the users’ self-esteem are thus thought to be stronger when the photos are more carefully selected and/or edited. However, this is just a presumption. Therefore this research aims to investigate these thoughts. The third aim of this research is namely to investigate whether the relations between the users’ self-esteem and social network sites are indeed influenced by the degree to which users carefully select and/or edit a photo before sharing it online.
persons’ self-esteem. The different domains of self-esteem are an important predictor of a persons’ well being (Mehdizadeh, 2010). Furthermore by focusing on both Instagram and Facebook, previous findings related to self-presentation on SNS are extended beyond Facebook. Users can learn what SNS can mean for their self-esteem. Also, web developers can use this information to modify the features of SNS to further attract users and help them present themselves in a beneficial way and with that help them to raise their self-esteem.
Self-Presentation
The opportunity to present oneself online already exists since the mid-1990s when personal homepages started to become popular (Kramer & Winter, 2008). Chandler (1998) describes these personal homepages as “online multi-media texts that address the question ’Who am I?’ ”. Erikson (1996) adds that these personal pages are the first platforms where individuals can use information to construct desirable portrayals of themselves. Users can influence the way other people see them. Creating this desired image of oneself is one of the most important motives for hosting a homepage (Chandler, 1998).
Self-esteem
Research conducted by Leary and Kowalski (1990) explains the process of people trying to control the impressions that other people form of them. Their theory about impression management suggests that people’s self-esteem is enhanced when they believe they are making a good impression on others. Leary and Kowalski (1990) argue that by creating a certain impression in the eyes of others, people can influence the way others perceive and evaluate them. This will influence the way they see themselves. Therefore according to their theory when people portray their desired image on a particular audience, their self-esteem is enhanced (Leary & Kowalski, 1990).
One of the most pervasive facts regarding self-esteem is that because humans have a need for self-esteem, it is vital to maintain and/or raise this (Schlenker, 1985; Steele, 1988). As a result, people often try to make positive impressions on others (Leary & Kowalski, 1990). This fact explains most clearly why it is expected that people will strive for a positive self-presentation and therefore strategically create a positive image of themselves (Kramer & Winter, 2008).
Social Network Sites, Self-Presentation and Photography
Social network sites are particularly interesting for self-presentation because they provide people the possibility to create images of themselves without being constrained by time or space (Rosenberg & Egbert, 2011). SNS provide the tools to create the impressions an individual wants to portray (Zhao et al., 2008). Users can select the information they want to share and therefore make a desired impression on a broad audience (Zhao et al., 2008).
Zhao et al. (2008) examined identity construction on Facebook and found that users have a preference for ‘‘show’’ versus ‘‘tell’’. On social network sites, as part of their profiles, users frequently present a varied number of photographs (Zhao et. al, 2008). They also found that on average users share 88 photos on Facebook. Also 90% of the users display their profile photos for others to see. Further, most of the users were happy to share a broad range of photos showing happiness and enjoyment.
The shift in the way people present themselves is accompanied with a shift in the way photography is used. Due to the fact that people now have the opportunity to share images online, snapshot photography is transformed from an individual to a communal activity (Rubinstein & Sluis, 2013). The widespread use of content-sharing platforms can be seen as a distinctive shift from archiving photos in photo albums and mostly keeping them private to archiving our lives via online platforms like Facebook and Instagram (Vivienne & Burgess, 2013).
Sharing photos on one’s profile is one of the main tools used for self-presentation (Vivienne & Burgess, 2013). Users of SNS often select photos in which they perceive themselves as more physically attractive (Siibak, 2009). According to Leary and Kowalski (1990) people want to present themselves in a positive way because it serves to enhance one’s self-esteem. Furthermore, Pempek et al. (2009) found that this is one of the most important reasons for using SNS. They also found that sharing photos on SNS helps the users express themselves and create their ideal identity by presenting themselves in a positive way (Pempek et al., 2009). It is therefore that the users’ photos are mostly displaying a positive image. According to this theory it can be expected that managing one’s impression trough sharing photos online is positively related to the users’ self-esteem.
Specific Domains of Self-Esteem
Self-esteem consists of multiple components, which each may be influenced by one’s SNS use. In her work The Construction of The Self: A Developmental Perspective (1999), Harter describes the self-perception profile for adolescents. She states that it has become increasingly important to make a distinction between self-esteem that represent global characteristics of the individual and those that reflect the individual’s sense of adequacy across specific domains (Harter, 1999). Harter’s Self-Perception Profile for Adolescents contains 9 domains. Harter states that a persons’ overall sense of worth is derived from a persons’ self-concept in each of these domains (Harter, 1988). Taking the different domains into account will provide a better insight into an individuals’ level of self-esteem.
The different photos that people use to present themselves online might be related to these different domains. The most commonly shared photos are photos of the user him- or herself in which they believe they look good and photos of the users’ friends or romantic partner (Zhao, 2008). The 3 domains that seem most relevant to these categories are body self-esteem, romantic self-esteem and social self-esteem. A persons’ body self-esteem is
based on one’s appearance. It is based on whether people believe they look good and are satisfied with their body (Harter, 1988). Therefore sharing a photo, in which he or she is satisfied with his or her looks, can be positively related to their body self-esteem. This leads to the following hypothesis:
H1a: A higher frequency of shared photos is positively related to one’s body self-esteem.
H1b: The relation between the frequency of shared photos and one’s body self-esteem is positively moderated by the percentage of photos the user shares of one’s appearance.
A persons’ social self-esteem is based on being popular and having friends (Harter, 1988). Therefore photos that include friends can be positively related to the users’ social self-esteem. This leads to the third hypothesis:
H2a: A higher frequency of shared photos is positively related to one’s social self-esteem.
H2b: The relation between the frequency of shared photos and one’s social self-esteem is positively moderated by the percentage of photos the user shares of one’s social life.
Finally, photos of a romantic partner can be linked to the users’ romantic self-esteem. This domain of self-esteem is based on the belief that other people think you are attractive and think you are lovable (Harter, 1988). Sharing a photo of your romantic partner shows that you believe you are fun to date with. Therefore the fourth hypothesis is formulated:
H3a: A higher frequency of shared photos is positively related to one’s romantic self-esteem.
H3b: The relation between the frequency of shared photos and one’s romantic self-esteem is positively moderated by the percentage of photos the user shares of one’s romantic life.
Selective Self-Presentation
Selective self-presentation provides users the opportunity to carefully think about how they want to present themselves. Users have the possibility to select and edit the photos they want to present. This way they can present themselves in a positive way, which might positively influence one’s self-esteem (Ellison et al., 2006). However, people might
differently use these options. If selecting one’s photos influences one’s self-esteem, we can hypothesize that the activity of sharing photos online will have a stronger positive effect on the different domains of one’s self-esteem when the photographs are more carefully selected. The following hypotheses are therefore formulated as the following:
H4a: A higher frequency of shared photos is positively related to one’s body self-esteem.
H4b: The relation between the frequency of shared photos and one’s body self-esteem is positively moderated by the level of selecting photos before sharing them.
H5a: A higher frequency of shared photos is positively related to one’s social self-esteem.
H5b: The relation between the frequency of shared photos and one’s social self-esteem is positively moderated by the level of selecting photos before sharing them.
H6a: A higher frequency of shared photos is positively related to one’s romantic self-esteem.
H6b: The relation between the frequency of shared photos and one’s romantic self-esteem is positively moderated by the level of selecting photos before sharing them.
If editing one’s photos influences one’s self-esteem, we can hypothesize that the activity of sharing photos online will have a stronger positive effect on the different domains of one’s self-esteem when the photographs are more carefully edited. The final hypotheses are therefore formulated as the following:
H7a: A higher frequency of shared photos is positively related to one’s body esteem.
H7b: The relation between the frequency of shared photos and one’s body self-esteem is positively moderated by the level of editing photos before sharing them.
H8a: A higher frequency of shared photos is positively related to one’s social self-esteem.
H8b: The relation between the frequency of shared photos and one’s social self-esteem is positively moderated by the level of editing photos before sharing them.
H9a: A higher frequency of shared photos is positively related to one’s romantic self- esteem.
H9b: The relation between the frequency of shared photos and one’s romantic self-esteem is positively moderated by the level of editing photos before sharing them.
Method
An online survey was conducted among emerging adults (18 - 25). They were asked to answer questions regarding their social network site behavior in general and their photo related activities on these platforms in specific. This research was embedded in a larger research that aims to investigate the relationship between Facebook and Instagram use and well being of emerging adults.
Participants
The survey was conducted among 236 Dutch and Bulgarian emerging adults, aged 18 to 25 years. The participants were approached by e-mail and on several social network sites. They were asked to participate in this survey and answer questions about their SNS behavior. If they agreed on participating, they could click on a link that directed them to the survey. The sample comprised 68.6 percent females (N = 162), with an average age of 22 years (SD = 2.10) and 31.4 percent male (N = 74) with an average age of 21 (SD = 2.18). The sample consisted of a diverse range of ethnicity (78% Bulgarian, 15.25% Dutch and 6.75% from other countries). The biggest part of the participants had an education level of either Bachelor (35.17%) or Master (26.27%). Almost half of the participants indicated being single (47.40%,). A somewhat bigger part of the participants indicated being in a relationship (52.60%).
Procedure
Participants were recruited over 3 weeks time in the months of April and May 2014. The invitation to participate included a short summary of the research. First the participants entered a page with instructions. This information page provided them information regarding the study as well as a guarantee of their anonymity. All participants must agree before participating in the study and they all had the right to stop participation at any point.
required. In order to be sure that only participants above 18 were included everyone had to agree with the statement „I am above 18”. After that the participants were directed to the survey that consisted of a range of open- and closed-ended questions.
First the participants were asked to complete a measure about romantic self-esteem, body self-esteem and social self-esteem. Thereafter they were asked to answer several questions about their general use of social network sites. Next, in order to measure their specific photo related behavior they responded to questions about their photo-related activities on these social network sites. Finally they answered some demographic questions like age, gender, education and nationality. The survey took about 5 to 10 minutes to complete. Measurements
Social network site use. The participants were asked whether they are a member of Facebook, Instagram and other SNS. Further questions were specified on Facebook and Instagram. Whenever a participant indicated that he or she is not a member of Facebook and or Instagram, he or she would not be presented with any further questions concerning this SNS.
Photo related activities. To get an insight into the participants’ photo-related
behavior the participants were asked 9 questions. First the participants were asked to answer the question “Do you ever upload a new photo to a social networking sites such as …?” The question could be answered with a ‘yes’ or ‘no’. If the participant indicated he or she never uploads any photos they were not exposed to the next questions concerning their photo- related activities.
Facebook and Instagram frequency. To measure the frequency of posting photos, the participants were asked to answer how often they post a photo on Facebook and/or Instagram. The response categories ranged from 1(= never) to 5(= very often). This question concerning Facebook was computed into a new variable called ‘FB frequency’ (M = 2.81; SD
= .84). The variable showed 24 missing values. The data showed that 24 participants reported not using Facebook. They are therefore deleted from the analyses concerning Facebook. The question concerning Instagram was computed into a new variable called ‘Insta Frequency’ (M = 2.66; SD = 1.02). Here the data showed 159 missing values, which where all participants who are not a member of Instagram and were therefore deleted from the analyses concerning Instagram.
Level of selecting and editing. Further photo-related activity questions were asked to measure the participants’ level of selecting and editing the photos before sharing them. The participants were asked to rate their level of agreement for 2 questions with 1(= totally
disagree) to 5(= totally agree). The question concerning selectivity of the photos was
computed into a variable called ‘Selecting’ (M= 4.21; SD = .96). The question concerning the editing of the photos was computed into a variable called ‘Editing’ (M = 2.67; SD = 1.36).
Photo categories. The final questions concerning the participants’ photo-related behavior were asked to investigate what kind of photos the participants share on their profile. They were presented with 3 photo categories and asked to indicate a percentage of the photos on their profile that include photos that belong to each of the presented categories. The participants were asked to indicate these percentages for Facebook and Instagram separately. The presented categories were photos of ‘myself’, ‘me and my friends’ and ‘me and my partner’.
The percentage of photos that the participants indicated having on their Facebook profile concerning photos of themselves was computed into a variable called ‘Perc FB body’ (M = 31.39; SD = 25.64). The percentage of photos on Facebook concerning their friends was computed into a variable called ‘Perc FB social’ (M = 45.27; SD = 22.39). Finally the
percentage of photos on Facebook concerning their romantic partner resulted in a variable called ‘Perc FB romantic’ (M = 19.20; SD = 26.44). The questions concerning the percentage
of photos on their Instagram profile resulted in the variables ‘Perc Insta Body’ (M = 28.87;
SD = 29.51), ‘Perc Insta social’ (M = 33.21; SD = 32.24) and ‘Perc Insta Romantic’ (M =
12.27; SD = 22.25).
Body self-esteem. A third subscale of the Harters’ self-perception profile for adolescents (1988) was used to measure the participants’ body self-esteem. Again they were asked to rate 4 items on a 5-point likert scale. An example of an item is “I am satisfied with the way I look,” to which responses could range from 1(= totally disagree) to 5(= totally
agree). This scale resulted in a Cronbachs alpha of .74. This means that these 4 variables form a reliable scale called ‘Body SE’ (M = 3.37;SD = .88).
Social self-esteem. As translated and adapted by Valkenburg, Peter, and Schouten (2006), a subscale of Harters’ self-perception profile for adolescents (1988) was used to measure the participant’s social self-esteem. In total 5 items were included to form the scale for social self-esteem. An example of an item is “I have a lot of friends,” to which responses could range from 1(= totally disagree) to 5(=totally agree). The 5 items resulted in a scale with a Cronbachs alpha of .71. Therefore these 5 items form a reliable scale called ‘Social SE’ (M = 3.57; SD = .74).
Romantic Self-esteem. Another subscale of Harter’s self-perception profile for adolescents (1988) translated and adapted by Valkenburg, Peter, and Schouten (2006) was used to measure the participants’ romantic self-esteem. The participants were asked to rate 4 items on a 5-point Likert scale. An example of an item is “Others fall in love with me easily,” to which responses could range from 1(= totally disagree) to 5(=totally agree). The items concerning the romantic self-esteem resulted in a scale with a Cronbachs alpha of .71 and form a reliable scale called ‘Romantic SE’ (M = 3,43; SD = .76).
Demographics. Finally at the end of the survey the participants were asked to answer several demographic questions concerning their age, gender, nationality and education-level.
Results Descriptive statistics
As shown in table 1, both users of Facebook and Instagram indicate posting photos sometimes. Furthermore, both Facebook and Instagram users indicate that around 30 percent of the photos on their profile include photos of themselves. Facebook users indicate having shared more photos of one’s social life (56.35%) than Instagram users (34.74%). They also indicate having shared more photos of one’s romantic life (19.40%) than Instagram users (12.38%).
Table 1 Descriptive statistics
Facebook Instagram Measure M SD M SD Frequency 2.81 0.84 2.66 1.02 Editing 2.62 1.34 2.62 1.34 Selecting 4.21 0.95 4.21 0.95 Body 31.39 25.63 29.54 29.24 Social 56.35 27.38 34.74 32.23 Romantic 19.40 26.41 12.38 22.40
Note. Frequency represents the frequency with which the participants post photos on SNS (1 = never, 5 = very often). Editing and Selecting represents the participants’ level of editing and selecting a photo before sharing it. (Editing and selecting were not measured for Facebook and Instagram separately; therefore the results for both SNS are the same). Body, Social and Romantic represents the percentage of photos on their profile that consists of photos of the users themselves, their friends and their romantic partner.
A series of multiple regression analyses were conducted to test the hypotheses. All analyses were controlled for age and gender.
Hypothesis 1
The first hypothesis predicted that a higher frequency of sharing photos is positively related to one’s body self-esteem, which is positively moderated by the percentage of photos the user shares of one’s appearance. To measure this relationship a multiple regression analysis was conducted.
Facebook. A multiple regression analysis was conducted with the users’ body self-esteem as independent variable. The percentage of posted photos of one’s body was used as moderator. Finally, the frequency of shared photos on Facebook was used as the independent variable.
The results showed a significant interaction b* = .70, t = 2,53, p = .012, 95% CI [.00, .01]. This means the effect of the frequency of posting photos on the users’ body self-esteem on Facebook is significantly different for people scoring low on the percentage of shared body photos than the people scoring high on percentage of shared body photos. This provides some support for the hypothesis.
Next the moderator was recoded into two groups. The results showed that the model for the lowest group is significant, F(3,103) = 3, 629, p = .015. Only for the group that indicated sharing a low percentage of body photos, b* = -.32, t = -3,21, p = .002, 95% CI [-.69, -.16], the relationship between body self-esteem and photo sharing is significant. This relationship is negative, which is in contradiction to the predictions. Therefore the hypothesis is rejected.
Instagram. A regression analysis was conducted with the frequency of sharing photos on Instagram as independent variable, the users’ body self-esteem as dependent variable and the percentage of shared photos of one’s body as moderator. The data showed that the
interaction is significant, b* = .79, t = 2,26, p = .027, 95% CI [.00, .01]. This means the effect of the frequency of posting photos on the users’ body self-esteem on Instagram is
significantly different for people scoring low on the percentage of shared body photos than the people scoring high on percentage of shared body photos. This provides some support for the hypothesis.
Next the moderator was recoded into two groups. The results showed that the model for the lowest group is significant, F(3, 35) = 4, 296, p = .011. Again only the group that
scored low on the percentage of shared body photos, b* = -.38, t = -2,65, p = .012, 95% CI [-.54, -.07], thus the people who indicate a small part of their shared photos consists of body photos has a negative significant relationship. This direction is negative, which is in contradiction to the predictions. Therefore the hypothesis, based on both Facebook and Instagram, is rejected.
Hypothesis 2
Hypothesis 2 predicted that a higher frequency of sharing photos is positively related to one’s social self-esteem, which is positively moderated by the percentage of photos the user shares of one’s social life. To measure the relationship a multiple regression analysis was conducted.
Facebook. A multiple regression analysis was conducted with the frequency of posting photos as independent variable, the percentage of photos of one’s social life as
moderator and social self-esteem as dependent variable. The data shows that the interaction is not significant, b* = .38, t = 1,42, p = .157, 95% CI [-.00, .01]. This means there is no
moderation effect for the relation between the frequency of posting photos and the users’ social self-esteem on Facebook.
Next another regression analysis was conducted without the product term to look at the effect of the frequency of posting photos on the users’ social self-esteem on the average level of the moderator. The results showed that this model is significant F(4, 207) = 3,43, p = .010. Further the results showed that on an average level of the moderator, the relationship between the frequency of posting photos on the users’ social self-esteem, b* = -.15, t = -2,17,
p = .031, 95% CI [-.25, -.01], is significant. The regression model can therefore be used to
predict the score for the users’ social self-esteem. However this relationship is negative. The fifth hypothesis, based on Facebook, is therefore rejected.
Instagram. A regression analysis was conducted with the frequency of posting photos on Instagram as independent variable, the percentage of posted photos of one’s social life as moderator and social self-esteem as dependent variable. The results showed that the
interaction is not significant, b* = .07, t = 0,18, p = .859, 95% CI [-.01, .01]. This means there is no moderation effect for the relationship of frequency of posting photos and the users’ social self-esteem on Instagram.
Next another regression analysis was conducted without the product term to look at the effect of the frequency of posting photos on the users’ social self-esteem on the average level of the moderator. The results showed that this model is not significant, F(4, 72) = .411,
p = .800. Both the independent variable, b* = .04, t = .29, p = .772, 95% CI [-.14, .19] and the
moderator, b* = -.11, t = -.90, p = .369, 95% CI [-.01, .00] have a non-significant relation with the dependent variable. This means the hypothesis, based on both Facebook and Instagram, is rejected.
Hypothesis 3
Hypothesis 3 predicted that a higher frequency of sharing photos is positively related to one’s romantic self-esteem, which is positively moderated by the percentage of photos the user shares of one’s romantic life. To measure the relationship a multiple regression analysis was conducted.
Facebook. The percentage of posted photos of one’s romantic life was used as the moderator. The frequency of posted photos on Facebook was used as independent variable and romantic self-esteem was used as dependent variable. A multiple regression analysis was conducted. The results showed that the interaction effect is not significant, b* = -.15, t = -.60,
p = .545, 95% CI [-.01, .00]
Next another regression analysis was conducted without the product term to look at the effect of the frequency of posting photos on the users’ romantic self-esteem on the
average level of the moderator. The results showed that this model is not significant, F(4, 207) = 2, 116, p = .080. Both the frequency of posting photos, b* = .12, t = 1,78, p = .076, 95% CI [-.01, .23], and the percentage of posted photos, b* = .11, t = 1,55, p = .124, 95% CI [-.00, .01] have no significant effect on the users’ romantic self-esteem. Therefore the hypothesis is rejected.
Another multiple regression analysis, without the product term, was conducted with a split file of relationship status to investigate the possible difference between the users who are in a relation and who are single. The results showed that for the single users of Facebook the model is significant F(4, 93) = 2, 877, p = .027. The frequency of posting photos, b* = .25, t = 2,40, p = .018, 95% CI [.04, .01], has a significant positive association with the users’
romantic self-esteem. This means the fourth hypothesis, based on the single users of Facebook, is accepted.
Instagram. The percentage of posted photos of one’s romantic life was used as the moderator. The frequency of posting photos on Facebook was used as independent variable. A multiple regression analysis was conducted. The results showed that the interaction is not significant, b* = -.20, t = -.44, p = .660, 95% CI [-.01, .01]. This means there is no moderation effect of the frequency of posting photos on the users’ romantic self-esteem on Instagram.
Next another regression analysis was conducted without the product term to look at the effect of the frequency of posting photos on the users’ romantic self-esteem on the
average level of the moderator. The results showed that this model is not significant, F(4, 72) = .585, p = .674. Both the independent variable, b* = .17, t = 1,44, p = .153, 95% CI [-.05, .32] and the moderator, b* = -.09, t = -.75, p = .453, 95% CI [-.01, .01] have a non-significant relation with the dependent variable.
Another multiple regression analysis was conducted with a split file of relationship status to investigate the possible difference between the users who are in a relation and who
are single. The results showed that the relationship between the frequency of posting photos and one’s romantic self-esteem for both single users the, b* = .04, t = .22, p = .827, 95% CI [-.25, .31] and users who are in a relationship, b* = .30, t = 1, 66, p = .108, 95% CI [-.05, .53], is not significant. Also the relationship between the percentage of romantic photos and the users romantic self-esteem both for the single users, b* = .01, t = .05, p = .959, 95% CI [-.02, .02], and the users who are in a relationship, b* = .26, t = -1,53, p = .136, 95% CI [-.02, .00], is not significant. Therefore, based on both Instagram, the hypothesis is rejected.
Hypothesis 4
Hypothesis 4 predicted that a higher frequency of shared photos is positively related to one’s body self-esteem, which is positively moderated by the level of selecting the photos. To test this hypothesis a multiple regression was conducted.
Facebook. The variable selecting was used as the moderator, the frequency of posting photos on Facebook was used as the independent variable and body self-esteem was used as the dependent variable. The results showed that the interaction is not significant, b* = -.28, t = -.76, p = .448, 95% CI [-.20, .10].
Next another regression analysis was conducted without the product term to look at the effect of the frequency of posting photos on the users’ body self-esteem on the average level of the moderator. The results showed that the relationship between the frequency of posting photos, b* = -.12, t = -1,66, p = .099, 95% CI [-.27, .02], and the users body self-esteem is not significant. This means this hypothesis, based on Facebook, is rejected.
Instagram. To measure if the relationship between the frequency of sharing photos on Instagram and the users’ body self-esteem is stronger when the photos are more carefully selected, another multiple regression was conducted with the level of selecting as the moderator, frequency of posting photos on Instagram as independent variable and body
self-esteem as dependent variable. The results showed that the interaction is not significant, b* = - .92, t = -1,39, p = .166, 95% CI [-.39, .07].
Next another regression analysis was conducted without the product term to look at the effect of the frequency of posting photos on the users’ body self-esteem on the average level of the moderator. The results showed that the relationship between the frequency of posting photos, b* = -.12, t = -1,00, p = .321, 95% CI [-.30, .10], and the users body self-esteem is not significant. This means this hypothesis, based on both Facebook and Instagram, is rejected.
Hypothesis 5
Hypothesis 5 predicted that a higher frequency of shared photos is positively related to one’s social self-esteem, which is positively moderated by the level of selecting the photos. To test this hypothesis a multiple regression analysis was conducted.
Facebook. The variable selecting was used as the moderator, the frequency of posting photos on Facebook was used as the independent variable and social self-esteem was used as the dependent variable. The results showed that the interaction is not significant, b* = -.38, t = -1,04, p = .298, 95% CI [-.19, .06].
Next another regression analysis was conducted without the product term to look at the effect of the frequency of posting photos on the users’ social self-esteem on the average level of the moderator. The results showed that the relationship between the frequency of posting photos, b* = -.16, t = -2,38, p = .018, 95% CI [-.26, -.02], and the users’ social self-esteem is significant. However this relation is negative. This means the hypothesis, based on Facebook, is rejected.
Instagram. To measure if the relationship between the frequency of sharing photos on Instagram and the users’ social self-esteem is stronger when the photos are more carefully selected, another multiple regression was conducted with the level of selecting as the
moderator, frequency of posting photos on Instagram as independent variable and social self-esteem as dependent variable. The results show that the interaction is not significant, b* = - .31, t = -. 46, p = .650, 95% CI [-.24, .15].
Next another regression analysis was conducted without the product term to look at the effect of the frequency of posting photos on the users’ social self-esteem on the average level of the moderator. The results showed that the relationship between the frequency of posting photos, b* = .01, t = .10, p = .919, 95% CI [-.16, .17], and the users’ social self-esteem is not significant. This means this hypothesis, based on Instagram, is rejected. Hypothesis 6
Hypothesis 6 predicted that a higher frequency of sharing photos is positively related to one’s romantic self-esteem, which is positively moderated by the level of selecting the photos. To test this hypothesis a multiple regression analysis was conducted.
Facebook. The variable selecting was used as the moderator, the frequency of posting photos on Facebook was used as the independent variable and romantic self-esteem was used as the dependent variable. The results showed that the interaction is not significant, b* = .01, t = .03, p = .980, 95% CI [-.13, .13].
Next another regression analysis was conducted without the product term to look at the effect of the frequency of posting photos on the users’ romantic self-esteem on the average level of the moderator. The results showed that the relationship between the frequency of posting photos, b* = .14, t = 1,99, p = .048, 95% CI [.00, .24], and the users’ romantic self-esteem is significant. This means this hypothesis, based on Facebook, is accepted.
Another multiple regression analysis was conducted with a split file of relationship status to investigate the possible difference between the users who are in a relation and who are single. The results showed that only for single users the relationship between the
frequency of posting photos, b* = .28, t = 2,79, p = .006, 95% CI [.07, .43], and their romantic self-esteem is significant. This means this hypothesis, based on single users of Facebook, is accepted.
Instagram. To measure if the relationship between the frequency of sharing photos on Instagram and the users’ romantic self-esteem is stronger when the photos are more carefully selected, another multiple regression was conducted with the level of selecting as the
moderator, frequency of posting photos on Instagram as independent variable and romantic self-esteem as dependent variable. The results showed that the interaction is not significant,
b* = .10, t = .15, p = .880, 95% CI [-.19, .23].
Next another regression analysis was conducted without the product term to look at the effect of the frequency of posting photos on the users’ romantic self-esteem on the average level of the moderator. The results showed that the relationship between the frequency of posting photos, b* = .15, t = 1,32, p = .191, 95% CI [-.06, .30], and the users’ romantic self-esteem is not significant.
Another multiple regression analysis was conducted with a split file of relationship status to investigate the possible difference between the users who are in a relation and who are single. The results showed that both for single users, b* = .05, t = .27, p = .788, 95% CI [-.24, .31], and the users who are in a relationship, b* = [-.24, t = 1,36, p = .184, 95% CI [-.10, .50] the relationship between the frequency of posting photos and one’s romantic self-esteem is not significant. This means this hypothesis, based on Instagram, is rejected.
Hypothesis 7
Hypothesis 7 predicted that a higher frequency of sharing photos is positively related to one’s body self-esteem, which is positively moderated by the level of editing the photos. To test this hypothesis a multiple regression was conducted.
Facebook. The variable editing was used as the moderator, the frequency of posting photos on Facebook was used as the independent variable and body self-esteem was used as the dependent variable. The results showed that the interaction is not significant, b* = .19, t = .66, p = .511, 95% CI [-.07, .14].
Next another regression analysis was conducted without the product term to look at the effect of the frequency of posting photos on the users’ body self-esteem on the average level of the moderator. The results showed that the relationship between the frequency of posting photos, b* = -.10, t = -1,38, p = .170, 95% CI [-.25, .04], and one’s body self-esteem is not significant. This means this hypothesis, based on Facebook, is rejected.
Instagram. To measure if the relationship between the frequency of posting photos on Instagram and the users’ body self-esteem is stronger when the photos are more carefully edited, another multiple regression was conducted with the level of editing as the moderator, frequency of posting photos on Instagram as independent variable and body self-esteem as dependent variable. The results showed that the interaction is not significant, b* = .06, t = -.11, p = .910, 95% CI [-.20, .18].
Next another regression analysis was conducted without the product term to look at the effect of the frequency of posting photos on the users’ body self-esteem on the average level of the moderator. The results showed that the relation between the frequency of posting photos, b* = -.13, t = -1.08, p = .283, 95% CI [-.31, .09], is not significant. The relation between the moderator and the users’ body self-esteem is also non-significant, b* = .10, t = .80, p = .427, 95% CI [-.10, 24]. This means this hypothesis, based on both Facebook and Instagram, is rejected.
Hypothesis 8
Hypothesis 8 predicted that a higher frequency of shared photos is positively related to one’s social self-esteem, which is positively moderated by the level of editing the photos. To test this hypothesis a multiple regression analysis was conducted.
Facebook. The variable editing was used as the moderator. The frequency of posting photos on Facebook was used as independent variable and the social self-esteem was used as dependent variable. The results showed that the interaction is not significant, b* = .22, t = .76, p = .446, 95% CI [-.05, .12].
Next another regression analysis was conducted without the product term to look at the effect of the frequency of posting photos on the users’ social self-esteem on the average level of the moderator. The results showed that the relationship between the frequency of posting photos on Facebook, b* = -.16, t = -2,37 p = .019, 95% CI [-.27, .02], and one’s social self-esteem is significant. However this relationship is negative. This means that the
hypothesis, based on Facebook, is rejected.
Instagram. To measure if the relationship between the frequency of sharing photos on Instagram and the users’ social self-esteem is stronger when the photos are more carefully edited, another moderation analysis was conducted with the level of editing as the moderator, frequency of posting photos on Instagram as independent variable and body self-esteem as dependent variable. The results showed that the interaction is not significant, b* = .60, t = 1,10, p = .275, 95% CI [-.07, .24].
Next another regression analysis was conducted without the product term to look at the relationship between the frequency of posting photos and the users’ social self-esteem on the average level of the moderator. The results showed that this relationship for the frequency of posting photos on Instagram, b* = -.01, t = .06, p = .952, 95% CI [-.16, .17], is not
Hypothesis 9
Hypothesis 9 predicted that a higher frequency of shared photos is positively related to one’s romantic self-esteem, which is positively moderated by the level of editing the photos. To test this hypothesis a multiple regression analysis was conducted.
Facebook. A multiple regression analysis was conducted with the level of editing as the moderator, frequency of posting photos on Facebook as independent variable and romantic self-esteem as dependent variable. The results indicated that the interaction is not significant, b* = .42, t = 1, 46, p = .147, 95% CI [-.02, .15].
Next another regression analysis was conducted without the product term to look at the relationship between the frequency of posting photos on the users’ romantic self-esteem on the average level of the moderator. The results showed that the relationship for the frequency of posting photos on Facebook, b* = .14, t = 2,04 p = .042, 95% CI [.01, .25], and one’s romantic self-esteem is significant.
Another multiple regression analysis was conducted with a split file of relationship status to investigate the possible difference between the users who are in a relation and who are single. The results showed that only for the single users of Facebook, b* = .27, t = 2,65, p = .010, 95% CI [.06, .42], the association between the frequency of posting photos and their romantic self-esteem is significant. This means this hypothesis, based on Facebook is accepted.
Instagram. To measure if the relationship between the frequency of sharing photos on Instagram and the users’ romantic self-esteem is stronger when the photos are more carefully edited, a moderation analysis was conducted with the level of editing as the moderator,
frequency of posting photos on Instagram as independent variable and romantic self-esteem as dependent variable. The results showed that the interaction is not significant, b* = .61, t = 1,14 p = .257, 95% CI [-.07, .27].
Next another regression analysis was conducted without the product term to look at the effect of the frequency of posting photos on the users’ social self-esteem on the average level of the moderator. The results showed that the relationship between the frequency of posting photos on Facebook, b* = .14, t = 1,18 p = .243, 95% CI [-.08, .29], and one’s romantic self-esteem is not significant. This means this hypothesis, based on Instagram is rejected.
Another multiple regression analysis was conducted with a split file of relationship status to investigate the possible difference between the users who are in a relation and who are single. The results showed that only for the single users of Facebook the frequency of posting photos, b* = .27, t = 2,65, p = .010, 95% CI [.06, .42], the association with the users’ romantic self-esteem is significant.
The results showed that both for single users, b* = .04, t = .23, p = .819, 95% CI [-.24, .30], and the users who are in a relationship, b* = .26, t = 1,46, p = .154, 95% CI [-.09, .52] the relationship between the frequency of posting photos and one’s romantic self-esteem is not significant. This means this hypothesis, based on Instagram, is rejected.
Discussion
The purpose of the current study was to investigate the relationship between photo-related activities on both Facebook and Instagram and the users’ self-esteem. According to Amichai-Hamburger & Vinitzky (2010) these online profiles offer the opportunity for selective presentation. By presenting a desirable image of themselves, the users’ self-esteem is enhanced (Gonzales & Hancock, 2011).According to Zhao et al. (2008) users post a varied number of photos to present themselves online. These different photos might be related to different aspects of their self-presentation and therefore may differentially impact the users’ self-esteem. Furthermore, users have the possibility to select and edit the photos they want to
present (Ellison et al., 2006), which might be positively related to one’s self-esteem. Because these ideas have not been tested empirically this study aimed to do just that.
Overall the results showed few relationships between photo-related activities on SNS and the different domains of the users’ self-esteem. For the domain of body self-esteem a negative relationship was found for both Facebook- and Instagram users. The results showed that the relationship between the frequency of posting photos and one’s body self-esteem is negatively moderated by the percentage of photos that users post of their body. This means that sharing photos on one’s profile, of which few photos are of the users themselves, is related to lower body self-esteem. These results are in contradiction to the predictions.
More negative relationships were found for the domain of social self-esteem. For instance, the results showed a negative relationship between the frequency of sharing photos and one’s social self-esteem. This relationship is negatively moderated by the percentage of photos the user shares of one’s social-life. This means that when people share more photos of their social life, the less their social self-esteem is influenced by the frequency of posting photos. The results also showed that both selecting and editing the photos before sharing them online, negatively moderates the frequency of posting photos and the users’ social
self-esteem. This means that for people who select and edit their photos more carefully before sharing them, the less frequency of posting photos is associated with their social self-esteem.
Different results were found for the third component of one’s self-esteem. The results showed that on average, when people select and edit their photos more carefully before sharing them, the frequency of sharing photos is more positively associated with their romantic self-esteem. The results also showed that this was only the case for single users of Facebook. The results indicated the same relationship for the percentage of romantic photos one shares on his or her profile. This means when single people more carefully select and/or edit their photos, or more frequently share photos of a romantic partner, they might, when
sharing photos more frequently, score higher on their romantic self-esteem.
In general, the results showed that the different categories of photos that people share are not positively related to their self-esteem, which is in contrast to the expectations. These results might have occurred as a result of the measurements. The different kinds of photos were roughly classified into 3 categories. The variables concerning the percentage of photos were all constructed of merely 1 question per variable. Thus, if the same hypothesis were tested with more extensive scales, including multiple items concerning each photo category, the results might be different.
The results might also be different when the direct feedback of others is taken into account. The present study investigates whether there is a relationship between the activity of sharing photos and one’s self-esteem. However, according to Valkenburg, Peter en Schouten (2006) people with low self-esteem are looking to enhance it by hoping to receive positive feedback. They state that feedback from peers is an important predictor of one’s self-esteem (Valkenburg, Peter, & Schouten, 2006). Future research could aim to take this into account. Furthermore, the results indicated that, for single users, sharing photos is positively related to their romantic self-esteem when photos in general are more carefully selected and edited before sharing them. In addition, sharing photos is positively related to their romantic self-esteem, when users more frequently share photos of a romantic partner. Single people might be searching for a relationship and therefore desire a positive self-presentation about their romantic life (Ellison, Heino, & Gibbs, 2006) even more than people who are already in a relationship. This motive for a highly positive presentation can be explained by self-presentational efficacy, which represents the extent to which people believe that they can successfully make certain impressions on others (Schlenker & Leary, 1982). According to Harter (1988) one’s romantic self-esteem is, amongst others, based on being liked by people that one thinks are attractive and being able to easily get a date with a nice person. In the
context of the present study this might mean when single people edit, select and share specific photos, they are more likely to successfully convey the impression that he or she is someone that other people like and that he or she is fun to date with. According to Leary and Kowalski (1990) the way one presents the self can influence the way one thinks about oneself. Making this impression on others might therefore positively influence one’s self-esteem. Thus, in addition to the idea that single people might have a higher desire for positive self-presentation than people that are in a relationship, the theory about self-presentational efficacy might explain why these results for single people were found. The present study did not investigate these thoughts and future research could aim to confirm these ideas.
Overall the results showed a remarkable difference between Facebook and Instagram. As predicted based on research conducted by Zhao et al. (2008) and Solomon (2013) within both platforms photography plays a different role. This might lead to different relationships to the different domains of the users’ self-esteem. However in contrary to our predictions, the results showed some positive relationships between the frequency of posting photos on Facebook and the users’ romantic self-esteem. For Instagram however, only one single negative relationship was found. These results might be explained by the fact that Facebook offers the users more tools to present their ideal self (Zhao et al., 2008). Next to sharing photos, the users are provided with more textual possibilities to present themselves (Zhao et al., 2008). Within Instagram on the other hand, photography is the key feature for presentation (Solomon, 2013). Therefore Facebook users might feel their online
self-presentation is more complete than Instagram users. This might lead to a higher self-esteem. These thoughts could be an explanation for the fewer relations with the users’ self-esteem on Instagram in comparison to Facebook, but should be investigated in future research.
The results of the current study need to be seen in the context of several limitations. First of all, the fact that only correlations were tested, means we do not know if one variable
causes the other to change. For example, we do not know whether people with a low self-esteem post little photos about themselves because they are not confident about the way they look, or that because they post little photos of themselves they result having a low self-esteem. An experimental study could investigate this. Secondly, the present study did not incorporate the different motives for presenting one-self online between people with high and low self-esteem. By measuring the users’ self-esteem before and after posting photos the present study could be extended. This way self-esteem is not only treated as an effect, but also as a personality trait.
Because we do not know the direct effect of posting photos the different domains of self-esteem, the present study could be improved with an experimental study. In this case the participants’ self-esteem could be measured before and after posting the photos. Also, the present study investigated the effect of posting photos on the users’ self-esteem without looking at direct feedback from others. According to Valkenburg, Peter and Schouten (2006) positive feedback enhances the users’ self-esteem. It would therefore be interesting to extend this study by looking at the effect of direct feedback.
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Appendix
Subscales self-esteem as translated and adapted by Valkenburg, Peter, and Schouten (2006)
Body Self-esteem
To what extent do you agree with the following statements: In general I have the feeling that …
1) I want to look different.
2) I want my body to be different. 3) I am satisfied with my appearance. 4) I am satisfied with the way I look.
1( = totally disagree) to 5( = totally agree). Social Self-esteem
To what extent do you agree with the following statements: In general I have the feeling that …
1) Other people do not like me.
2) It is hard for me to make new friends. 3) I have a lot of friends.
4) I am accepted by others. 5) I am popular.
1( = totally disagree) to 5( = totally agree). Romantic Self-esteem
To what extent do you agree with the following statements: In general I have the feeling that …
2) I am interesting and fun on a date. 3) I can easily get a date with a nice person.
4) The person that I like and think is attractive, likes me too. 1( = totally disagree) to 5 (= totally agree).
SNS behavior
1. Are you a member of Facebook? 2. Are you a member of Instagram?
3. Do you use any other social network sites? If yes, which?
4. Do you ever upload a new photo to Facebook, Instagram or another SNS? Facebook Frequency
1. How often do you post photos on Facebook? 1 ( = never) to 5( = very often)
Instagram Frequency
1. How often do you post photos on Instagram? 1 ( = never) to 5( = very often)
Selecting
1. I carefully select the photo’s before sharing them online 1 ( = never) to 5 ( = very often)
Editing
2. I often use picture enhancement (photo editing techniques) before posting a photo 1 ( = totally disagree) to 5 ( = totally agree).
Percentage of shared photos on Facebook/Instagram
Concerning the following 3 questions, please estimate the percentage of photo’s on your profile that include:
1. Photos of (me and) my friends 2. Photos of myself
3. Photos of (me and) my partner Demographics
1. What is your age?
2. What is your nationality? 3. What is your education level? 4. What is your relationship status?
