Reforestation in Madre de Dios

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Reforestation

in Madre de

Dios

An effectiveness study on

reforestation strategies

Jonghe, Merlijn de

BSc student Tropical Forestry Richard Kraaijvanger

University of applied sciences Van hall Larenstein, Velp, the Netherlands

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Reforestation in Madre de Dios

An effectiveness study on reforestation strategies

Jonghe, Merlijn de

Studentnumber: 911012101

Thesis for the degree of BSc Tropical Forestry June 1, 2017

Thesis supervisor: Richard Kraaijvanger Supervisor at SPDA: José Vargas

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I

Acknowledgements

This thesis is written as a final product for my study Tropical Forestry at van Hall Larenstein University of Applied Sciences. This report is written for those who are interested in the current environmental issues that are occurring in Madre de Dios and how reforestation techniques can help to restore environmental damage that is caused by deforestation.

I would like to express my gratitude to the people who provided insight, expertise, information and guidance that greatly assisted the research.

I wish to express my gratitude to the teachers of van Hall Larenstein University for everything I learned from them during my study. A special thanks for Richard Kraaijvanger, my supervisor during this research, for his knowledge, comments and guidance that tremendously improved the report. I would also like to thank the SPDA staff, for providing information and contacts and the support they gave me during this research. I also want to thank Demetrio Pacheco in particularly, who helped me enormously collecting the field data.

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Abstract

In this research different reforestation techniques are investigated in relation to its effectiveness in restoring the natural forest ecosystem. The location where the research is conducted is the Peruvian region Madre de Dios, which is on the Amazonian foothill of the Andes. There are great deforestation threats because of gold mining. Also illegal farmers and loggers are threatening the resilience of the forest ecosystem. The government developed some policies to combat the unsustainable use of the land in Madre de Dios. This includes the possibility to apply for concession ownership and the control on concession management. Different concession were granted, one of which with as purpose to reforest a degraded area; reforestation concession.

In this research a focus on the techniques “enrichment planting”, “natural regeneration”, and plantations is made. These techniques are compared to primary forest and to each other. An indication is given on which reforestation method is most effective to invest in, in Madre de Dios. SPDA (Peruvian Society for Environmental Laws) wants to know if the reforestation techniques are effective, so that they can advise the government in policy development.

To obtain the desired results, a literature research is conducted to obtain information about reforestation techniques and possible influences on the effectiveness of these techniques. Field research is done where sample sites were investigated on tree species and DBH-classes. Key-informants have been questioned about site history and management, and a data analyses is conducted using the Simpsons Biodiversity Index and comparing this formula to the species and tree individual occurrence.

Plantations were not found to be effective, because of the low / absence of structure in canopy layers. Only 140 tree individuals were found in the plantations. According to literature interventions in the forest management can make the plantation technique effective as well, which calls for further research where the management of single species plantations contains a higher focus on biodiversity. The results indicated that enrichment planting is the most effective technique. Diameter-class 20-30 cm DBH (Diameter at Breast Height) was exceptional where 20 individuals were counted of which 15 were from different species. In comparison, in primary forest - in the same diameter class - 14 trees were counted of which 13 were from different species. Literature indicated that the implementation of the enrichment planting technique, calls for high financial investments.

Natural regeneration has been identified as an effective reforestation technique as well. In natural regenerated areas, in the same diameter class as above mentioned for enrichment planting and primary forest (20-30 cm DBH), 45 trees were counted of which 14 different species. Here, the high amount of tree individuals count for a high amount of pioneer species (Achihua and Achiotillo / Huberodentron swietenioides and Bixa urucurana). When taking these species out of the data the amount of trees counted drops by more than half, from 45 to 22. The amount of species than end up with 12 different species in the diameter class 20-30 cm DBH. This technique costs more time but less financial resources are needed than in the enrichment planting technique.

When choosing between natural regeneration and enrichment planting, a desired timeframe and available financial resources should be weighted up against each other. When financial resources are of issue to select a reforestation technique, the natural regeneration technique is recommended for usage because with less financial resources, greater areas are possible to reforest using this technique. A condition that should be met when implementing natural regeneration to reforest is, according to this research, that old growth forest is nearby and the topsoil maintained its intactness.

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III

List of Figures, Tables and Equations

Figure 1: Reforestation in Madre de Dios, Peru (Dourojeanni, 2016) ... 1 Figure 2: Typical Western- Amazonian pioneer species Cetico (Cecropia sciadophylla) (Quintana Roo, 2010) ... 1 Figure 3: Tropical forests' goods and services that contribute to development (Seymour & Busch, 2016) ... 3 Figure 4: The relation between the increase of gold prices, deforestation, and mercury import over time. (Swenson, Carter, Domec, & Delgado, 2011) ... 4 Figure 5: An overview of trade-offs between financial and livelihood benefits and biodiversity. (Lamb, Erskine, & Parrotta, 2005) ... 6 Figure 6: Stratification of Specialized Plant and Animal Niches in a Tropical Rain Forest (Baker, 2016) 7 Figure 7: Location of Madre de Dios, Peru (Google Maps) ... 10 Figure 8: Forest types in Madre de Dios (SIGMINAM, 2010) ... 11 Figure 9: The amount of tree-species and –individuals in relation to the SBI (Simpsons Biodiversity Index) number.. ... 17 Figure 10: The amount of tree-species and –individuals in relation to the SBI (Simpsons Biodiversity Index) number when leaving out the two most common pioneer species Achihua (Huberodentron swietenioides) and Achiotillo (Bixa urucurana). ... 17 Figure 11: Tree species abundancy in primary forest ... 18 Figure 12: The amount of tree-species and –individuals and the SBI (Simpsons Biodiversity Index) number in relation to the diameter classes of primary forest ... 18 Figure 13: The amount of tree-species and –individuals and the SBI (Simpsons Biodiversity Index) number in relation to the diameter classes of enrichment planting. ... 19 Figure 14: Tree species abundancy in natural regeneration ... 20 Figure 15: The amount of tree-species and –individuals and the SBI (Simpsons Biodiversity Index) number in relation to the diameter classes of natural regeneration. ... 21 Figure 16: The amount of tree-species and –individuals and the SBI (Simpsons Biodiversity Index) number in relation to the diameter classes of natural regeneration when the two main pioneer species, Achihua and Achiotillo, are left out.. ... 21 Figure 17: The amount of tree-species and –individuals and the SBI (Simpsons Biodiversity Index) number in relation to the diameter classes of single species plantations.. ... 22

Table 1: Sites or landscape areas to target for forest landscape restoration (Lamb & Gilmour, 2003) . 5 Table 2: The sequence of steps, followed in this research ... 13 Table 3: Calculation example of the Simpsons Biodiversity Index... 14

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Abbreviations

NTFP = Non Timber Forest Product

SPDA = Sociedad Peruana de Derecho Ambiental / Peruvian Society of Environmental Law SBI = Simpsons Biodiversity Index

DRFFS = Dirección Regional Forestal y Fauna Silvestre / Regional Forestry and Wildlife Management OSINFOR = Organismo de Supervisión de los Recursos Forestales / Government Agency for Wood Resources in Forests

IUCN = International Union for Conservation of Nature WWF = World Wide Fund for Nature

NGO’s = Non-Governmental Organisation GPS = Global Positioning System

DBH = Diameter at Breast Height cm = centimetre

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1 Introduction

1.1 Reforestation possibilities

1.1.1 Natural regeneration

Extensive land clearing in many parts of the global tropics is a major threat to forest ecology, and techniques are urgently needed to reinstate forest. There are different techniques to reforest on a degraded forest. The two basic methods of reforestation are natural regeneration and artificial regeneration (North Carolina Forestry Association, 2015). Selecting the right method of reforestation depends on the forest cover, degree of fragmentation and the extent of which biodiversity has been lost (Lamb, Erskine, & Parrotta, 2005). When selecting tree species to reforest by tree planting, factors that should be considered are:

- Site capabilities

- Existing natural regeneration - Historical vegetation

- Variation in growth rate and seed production - Mixture of species of different niches

- Sunlight requirements

Tree planting is a commonly used technique to rapidly restore forest to degraded landscapes. However, tree planting is expensive, time consuming, and in most cases financial constraints prevent its use at a scale needed to address the ongoing legacy of land clearing. Less intensive interventions (i.e. non-planting) aimed at stimulating natural regeneration of forest is an interesting approach on behalf of low financial inputs that are needed (Shoo & Catterall, 2013). Main focus lies in overcoming barriers to native plant regeneration that predominate in the earliest stages of succession (figure 1 & figure 2). Common interventions include varied techniques to suppress herbaceous vegetation (e.g. cutting or herbicide treatment), and measures to bolster propagule supply (e.g. direct seeding and artificial bird perches) (Shoo & Catterall, 2013).

Figure 2: Typical Western- Amazonian pioneer species Cetico (Cecropia sciadophylla) (Quintana Roo, 2010)

Figure 1: Reforestation in Madre de Dios, Peru (Dourojeanni, 2016)

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1.1.2 Enrichment planting

Enrichment planting is a technique used to increase densities of native tree species when natural regeneration does not meet land management goals (Keefe, 2008). Types of enrichment planting include line, strop, gap, group, and diffuse plantings as well as underplanting (Costa, 1995; Mayhew & Newton, 1998; Schulze, 2003; Silva, 1989; Souza, Válio, Silva, & Rodrigues, 2004). Selecting commercially interesting species in enrichment planting can result in economic as well as aesthetic value (Browder, Matricardi, & Abdala, 1996; Salleh, 1997).

1.1.3 Single species plantation

Using one single species to reforest is a more market-oriented approach of reforestation (Carrere, 1993). Site preparation in single species use is less complex than site preparation for enrichment planting. This practice does not require careful attention to the special needs of each species (i.e., different site requirements, special handling and planting, and different vegetation management techniques) (Rose & Haase, 2006).

Using single species to reforest on large scales brings some risks. One disease can be fatal for the whole stand. It is very common that the tree species consume huge volumes of water. Although the trees will control erosion, there are concerns about the possible irreversible changes of soils under plantations of exotic species, which could lead to desertification processes. Furthermore, it modifies the wildlife substantially (Carrere, 1993). These risks depend on the scale of single species reforestation. On small scale, negative effects of single species usage can be negated on behalf of the surrounding primary or secondary forest.

Forest conservation is highly dependent on national and international policies and local forest management. In land use planning a balance is needed between the maintenance of the resilience in the ecosystem and on the other hand the production of resources needed.

1.2 Deforestation threats

When cases are presented to policy makers where a choice needs to be made between the conservation of an ecosystem or economic growth. In many cases economic growth gets the highest priority (Church, 1992). Not only policy makers, but also gold miners know very well that their activities are contaminating the environment. Many gold miners see their activities as the only option to maintain their livelihood. Deforestation poses different threats to the well-being of life on our planet. International concern about biodiversity is based on four major considerations: economic, cultural, health and ecological.

Ecosystems underpin all human life and activities. The goods and services they provide are vital to sustaining well-being, and to future economic and social development. The benefits ecosystems provide include food, water, timber, air purification, soil formation and pollination. But human activities are destroying biodiversity and altering the capacity of healthy ecosystems to deliver this wide range of goods and services. The loss of services from natural ecosystems will require costly alternatives. Investing in our natural capital will save money in the long run, and is important for our welfare and long-term survival. Greater awareness of the economic value of ecosystem goods and services is needed among decision-makers and the public at large. If we fail to act now to stop the decline, humanity will pay a high price in the future (European Commission, Directorate-General for the Environment, 2009).

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3 Deforestation threatens forest diversity all over the world. And because forests are habitats for all kind of different organisms, the threat is extended to all the flora and fauna associates with forests. International concern about species diversity is a result of three major considerations -economic and ecologic.

Figure 1: Tropical forests' goods and services that contribute to development (Seymour & Busch, 2016) A practical example of economic value of species diversity is in the medical world where species diversity is of high importance; the National Cancer Institute took 25 years to test 35.000 species for antitumor activity. Ecologic concerns arise because the loss of species could mean the loss of entire ecosystems through a cascade effect (Ehrlich & Ehrlich, 1981). (Terborgh, 1986) provided an example from the tropics. Less than one percent of the local plant diversity in the Amazon of Peru seems to support almost all the frugivorous for three months of the year. The frugivorous include the primates, birds and rodents. If the keystone plant species were lost, the frugivorous would be lost and subsequently, most of the other species that depend on them for seed dispersal would be lost. Forests also have cultural values (historical-, archaeological-, and recreational -value, and for some groups religious importance), and aesthetic values (the emotions of people when walking through a forest). Ethical considerations can also be made when thinking about the motives for forest conservation; can we destroy the habitat of our fellow-beings. Some tropical forests’ goods and services that contribute to development can be observed in Figure 1.

The poorest people in the world are dependent on forests for income, food and medicine (Vedeld, Angelsen, Bojö, Sjaastad, & Kobygabe Berg, 2007). Policies that seek to improve reforestation management should be informed by a clear understanding of the advantages of the forest for those who rely directly on forest for their livelihoods to seek for effective reforestation techniques (Lambin & Geist, 2001; Sunderlin, et al., 2005).

1.3 Deforestation drivers

Lambin & Geist (2001) categorized deforestation drivers, as ‘proximate’ (direct) or ‘underlying’ (distant). Proximate drivers are human activities which have direct impact on forest cover and underlying drivers are processes that can be shown to have an indirect impact on forest cover. In spatial explicit models, deforestation occurrence is associated with deforestation drivers like roads, for example. Using this technique with Remote sensing founded that 75 percent of forest damage in

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4 the Peruvian Amazon was detected within a 20-kilometre distance from the nearest road (Oliveira, et al., 2007).

Underlying drivers effecting deforestation are policy and institutional failure such as poorly defined property rights (de Oliveira & Antonio, 2008), demographic variables (White & Martin, 2002; Cubbage, Harou, & Sills, 2007), and national policies and remote influences (Lambin & Geist, 2001).

In Madre de Dios, Peru deforestation increased during 1986-1991 when rural credit and guaranteed markets were available. After 1991 deforestation dropped and agricultural lands were abandoned (Alvarez & Naughton-Treves, 2003). Also gold prices are linked with exponential growth of mining areas (Figure 2). Another underlying driver of deforestation are the poorly defined property rights. There can be an overlap between mining concessions and reforestation concessions (or Brazil nut concessions and timber concessions), with the soil contracted to the miners and everything above the soil for the reforesters (Chavez, et al., 2012).

Figure 2: The relation between the increase of gold prices, deforestation, and mercury import over time. (Swenson, Carter, Domec, & Delgado, 2011)

Financial benefits can make it attractive to manage or reforest a degraded area, but also to deforest an existing forest. When managing a forest a balance should be sought between the financial benefits and the ecological services a forest can provide (Lamb & Gilmour, 2003). When forest management can be financial beneficial it gets more interesting to reforest which means that a wider range of degraded areas can be considered to be reforested. Right now, as can been seen in above figure (Figure 2), last decades gold mining has been highly increasing. These miners want to maintain their livelihood and they see gold mining as a way to gain this. Other people see sustainable forest management as a way to maintain in their living. Investing in education and poverty could give these miners, or the possible future generation of miners a basis, so that in difficult financial times, there is no need to fall back on gold mining. Investments can also be made in forestry projects; i.e. investing in employment and business opportunities in sustainable forestry.

The simplest way to make forest management beneficial is by the use of monocultures of tree species. At first the ecological benefits are small but environmental conditions are created which make it possible for nearby forest to recolonize the site. In this case it is important to use native species which create way better environmental conditions to seed dispersers than exotic species. Another approach is planting a mixture of species. The benefit of this approach is that it provides the landowner of some kind of insurance to protect them from uncertain future market. Other benefits of using mixtures of species are production gains and reduced insect damage (Leopold, Andrus, Finkeldey, & Knowles, 2001).

Landscape modelling techniques indicated that pointing areas out as protected areas is effective against deforestation (Vuohelainen, 2012). Highest scores were with the ecotourism and conservation concessions and lowest scores with native community areas. Interviews with key-informants indicated

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5 that deforestation was mainly driven by internal resource use and population growth (Vuohelainen, 2012). Underlying factors that decreased the effectiveness of protected areas were weak local governance and immigration. Although information about the relation between the protected area types and control on forest management (governance) plays an important part in reforestation effectiveness, this has not been the focus of this study.

Different drivers can influence deforestation rates. Means are available to mitigate these drivers. However, these are highly dependent on local governance and the effort the concessionaries put to protect the forest.

1.4 Key-elements in reforestation effectiveness

Restoring the natural forest ecosystem of a tropical area depends on different environmental conditions. Factors that determine the velocity of natural regeneration are forest cover, degree of fragmentation, extent on which biodiversity has been lost, and the capacity to recover unaided if further disturbances can be prevented. Natural regeneration can be rapid when some residual trees, seedling banks, soil seed stores composed of native

species are still present. When intact, biodiversity-rich native forest is still present in the landscape this can strongly accelerate the process of natural reforestation. In this case, a way to increase forest cover is to protect the large areas of secondary or regrowth forest now present (Folke, et al., 2004). Well-documented examples where natural regeneration has occurred over large areas are Puerto Rico (Aide, Zimmerman, Pascarella, Rivera, & Marcano-Vega, 2000), Tanzania (Barrow, Timmer, White, & Maginnis, 2002), Costa Rica (Arroyo-Mora, Sánchez-Azofeifa, Rivard, Calvo, & Janzen, 2005), and Brazil (Uhl, Buschbacher, & Serrao, 1988).

Table 1 shows some common locations for restoration and rehabilitation with its possible reasons to reforest (Lamb & Gilmour, 2003)

One common approach to reforest with plantations is by using fast-growing but short-lived tree species to create a canopy cover. These shade out grasses and weeds and facilitate the colonization of the site by species from a nearby intact forest (International Tropical Timber Organization (ITTO), 2002; Elliott, et al., 2003). The possibilities of this approach depends on the distance in which a nearby intact forest is present. Another approach uses a much greater number of species. The species are selected to represent more mature successional stages of a forest and bypasses a natural successional sequence. Usually species are planted in high densities (>2500 trees per ha). Species unable to grow in open areas can

be planted when canopy closure occurs (Parrotta & Knowles, 1999). Only in small number of situations

Table 1: Sites or landscape areas to target for forest landscape restoration (Lamb & Gilmour, 2003)

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6 reforestation plantings can be applied due to its high costs (Erskine, 2002). Reforestation plantings do not supply sufficient volumes of forest products like timber and the markets for ecological services it provides are limited.

Natural regeneration can develop species-rich forests, but the plant and wildlife species composition of such forests often still differ in comparison with old-growth forest sites (Aide et al., 2000; Martin, Sherman, & Fahey, 2004). It is difficult to determine the missing plant species in a successional developed forest, although the most common absentees are large-fruited plant species because the appropriate seed dispersers are absent (Lamb et al., 2005). This suggests that enrichment planting is necessary to restore the original forest composition (Aide et al., 2000). Enrichment planting can be used to improve biodiversity, by adding species that are vulnerable, threated or unable to colonize and regenerate the disturbed area by themselves.

An ecological threshold can complicate the recovery of degraded areas. When degradation leads to topsoil loss and a reduction in soil fertility, the recolonization for many of the original species complicates (Folke, et al., 2004; du Toit, Walker, & Campbell, 2004). Another threshold is the occupation of grasses. This can increase the risk of wild fires, which reduce woody plant recruitment and favours the further spread of grasslands (MacDonald, 2004). Before selecting a reforestation technique, it is always important to take into account if ecological thresholds and further disturbances can be excluded (du Toit et al., 2004).

When an ecological threshold has been passed, there is need for restoration plantings. There are different ways to approach this technique, which depend on the landowner socioeconomic circumstances and the ecological situation (soil fertility, the distance in which the site being treated is from a source of colonists etc.). An ultimate objective of restoration plantings can be to re-establish the original forest ecosystem or maximize biodiversity and at the other site a goal can be to maximize financial and livelihood benefits (Figure 3). In this figure, arrow 1 resembles traditional monoculture plantations of exotic species. Arrow 2 resembles the maximization of diversity that yields few direct financial benefits to landowners. Protecting forest regrowth (arrow 3) generates improvement in

biodiversity as well as livelihoods but depends on the population density of commercially or socially important species; these can be increased by enrichment of secondary forest with commercially attractive species (arrow 4). In many situations, it may be necessarily to give initial priority to forms of reforestation that improve financial benefits, such as woodlots (arrow 5). With proper forest management this balance can change over time moving to arrow 6 and eventually to arrow 7.

Figure 3: An overview of trade-offs between financial and livelihood benefits and biodiversity. (Lamb, Erskine, & Parrotta, 2005)

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7 A natural distribution of forest niches

are of big importance for the naturalness of the forest and the forest ecosystem. Different niches attract different animal species, which in turn are responsible for seed distribution. So when a complete niche is not or in lesser extent present in a forest, this will result in absence of certain animals and thereby in the absence of certain plant species. Thus, it will slow down the reforestation process. An example of the relation between forest niches and animal occurrence is illustrated in Figure 4.

1.5 Reforestation effectivity

Reforestation effectivity can be defined in different ways. In this chapter is explained how reforestation effectivity is defined in this research

The reforestation technique that is most commonly used by concessionaries in Madre de Dios is natural regeneration. Less common are enrichment planting, single tree plantations and agroforestry. The lesser use of certain reforestation methods doesn’t mean that it is less effective, and reforestation effectivity can be interpreted from different perspectives. Some examples about how reforestation effectivity can be investigated are in relation to erosion control, biodiversity increase, tourist attraction, Non Timber Forest Products (NTFP) supply, to maximize income and/ or to minimalize costs.

Information about reforestation effectiveness is useful for SPDA (Sociedad Peruana de Derecho Ambiental) to advise policy makers about strengths and barriers of their policies.

Information needed to be able to analyse the reforestation effectiveness are the following; - Forest type; to compare reforested areas with primary forest.

- Species selection; to point out the differences between initial circumstances.

- Maintenance activities and frequency; to point out at what moment decisive interventions are made.

- Tree -diameter and –heights in combination with species diversity and abundancy show forest recovery rates.

- Niche levels; to analyse the naturalness of the forest structure.

- Soil formations; indicates in which extend natural processes are taking place.

- Financial outcomes to show the economic sustainability of different reforestation techniques. - Biodiversity index number, calculated by a formula

In this research a reforestation approach is considered to be most effective when the reforestation area comes closest to a natural forest ecosystem. Aspects that are considered to determine the effectiveness are tree biodiversity and forest structure.

Figure 4: Stratification of Specialized Plant and Animal Niches in a Tropical Rain Forest (Baker, 2016)

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1.6 Simpsons Biodiversity Index number

Species richness as a measure on its own takes no account of the number of individuals of each species present. It gives as much weight to those species which have very few individuals as to those which have many individuals. So, one Orange (Citrus sp.) has as much influence on the richness of an area as 30 Achihua’s (Huberodentron swietenioides).

Simpson's Diversity Index (SBI) is a measure of diversity. In ecology, it is often used to quantify the biodiversity of a habitat. It takes into account the number of species present, as well as the abundance of each species.

Biological diversity can be quantified in many different ways. The two main factors taken into account when measuring diversity are richness and evenness. Richness is a measure of the number of different kinds of organisms present in a particular area. For example, species richness is the number of different species present. However, diversity depends not only on richness, but also on evenness. Evenness compares the similarity of the population size of each of the species present.

The SBI calculates how probable is it to find two individuals from the same species. This has to be seen in the perspective; how many individuals are expected to be found? When 80 species are possible to be present in a forest and only two individual trees are present, it is very likely that the two individuals are from different species. While when 90 individuals are present, it is certain that some species will occur more than once. According to the SBI the site where two different species are found is most diverse because no species occurs more than once. However, it is evident that in this case the forest with 90 individual trees contains more structure than the site with only two individual trees. Therefore the Simpsons Biodiversity Number provides an indication of the biodiversity but should always be seen in relation to the amount of tree-individuals and -species counted.

When all the individual trees are from different species, the formula calculates an SBI of zero. When the SBI number is zero this actually means there is a maximal biodiversity. The SBI number gives an indication of the tree biodiversity but always has to be seen in comparison to the tree individuals and tree species counted because the SBI number gets more accurate when the amount of tree individuals get higher or is similar between two comparisons.

1.7 The policy context of sustainable forestry

On 16 July 2000 the Peruvian law changed with regards to forest management. The reason to bring up a new law was the unsustainable use of the forest. Multiple people used resources out of the same forest area and there was no control on the sustainability in which the forest was managed. The new law gave the responsibility of a specific area to a single person who got to own a concession. The concession could either be for the use of gold mining, ecotourism, Brazil nut harvesting, timber harvesting or reforestation. Since this policy entered into force many areas recovered. Ownership rights improved and overexploitation decreased. Deforested areas recovered quickly because of old-growth forest sites which were still present in the landscape.

‘The DRFFS (Dirección Regional Forestal y Fauna Silvestre) is the authority responsible for distributing concessions, monitoring royalty payments from concessionaires, managing the concession solicits, and pre and post inspection of the concessions. They approve demarcation of concessions in the form of a technical proposal which is a document elaborated by a forestry engineer that outlines the use of the concession for the duration of the contract. A yearly forest management plan is also submitted upon payment of the annual royalties which outlines the planned location and amount of resource extraction for approval by the DRFFS (Dablin, 2014).

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9 Overseeing the contractual process and checking for breaches of concession contracts or corruption in the reporting process by either the concessionaires or the forestry engineers’ is the responsibility of the autonomous government supervisory body Organismo Supervisor de los Recursos Forestales (OSINFOR).

In the yearly forest management plan harvesting numbers, biodiversity maintenance and illegal invasions are outlined. The objective of the forest management plan is to maintain and/or restore the canopy level. In 2000, when the concessions were granted, a lot of old rice fields, wheat fields and other agricultural lands have been left fallow and natural regeneration took place. Now, after 25 years these fields have converted into forest again.

The control and law enforcement remains parts to improve. Right now satellite images are used to map deforested land, related to gold mining. When gold miners reach a natural reserve, the police acts quickly to get the gold miners out of the reserve. However when gold miners are illegally infiltrating into a reforestation concession, it can take months before the police makes time to take measures. The reforester also has to insist that the police takes the miners out of his concession. Reporting the presence of illegal invaders into a reforestation concession to OSINFOR is sufficient for the reforester to fulfil its obligations as concession-holder. So when the police does not make time, and the concession holder does not want to put time in insisting, there will not be done anything to get the miners out of the concession. In addition, many reforestation-concession-holders feel threated by the gold-miners. Reforesters who make an effort out of protecting their concessions can be threatened with their live. This discourages reforesters to insist at the police to get the miners out of his concession.

SPDA stands for Peruvian Society of Environmental Law. SPDA assist concessionaries and local forest owners legally, which strengthens their positions in relation to juridical issues. When a concession gets invaded by illegal gold miners, loggers or farmers, SPDA gives legal assistance to retain ownership of the concession. They also help concession holders to communicate with the local authorities. This helps to provoke a quick response by the authorities when illegal activities take place in a concession. SPDA reports about current important environmental issues, which give insight to policy makers on which causes are urgent to react on.

A forest site can contain the name of reforestation concession and mining concession at the same time. The forester has the authority to use the land between the topsoil and canopy level and the miner is allowed to use the subsoil to mine for gold. This is a system that was implemented for the mountain area of Peru, where it is possible to mine in the subsoil while the forest remains untouched. In the lowlands it is not possible to mine gold and maintain the forest. This brings considerable ambiguities in relation to land ownership rights. Some change should be made into the policy rights, but miners, farmers as well as reforesters might not agree to change these rights, because that would mean they lose a parts of their concessions. So apart from reforestation effectiveness the effect of forest management is highly dependent on policies. When considering policies in relation to reforestation, land ownership rights and control on forest management are important factors to consider when developing new policies.

1.8 Current conditions of concessions in Madre de Dios

In Madre de Dios, a reforestation concession does not directly mean that the whole concession has been depleted and needs to be restocked with trees. Parts of a concession can be primary forest and other parts old agricultural lands that after being abandoned are recovering with trees. A reforestation-concession holders task is to maintain the existing forest ecosystem and lead the degraded parts of the concession towards an ecosystem with the same quality as the primary forest

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10 its ecosystem. Actions to reforest are not only planting and/or maintaining. Due to threats of illegal activities like mining and agriculture, but also unclear ownership rights of concessions, an important part is also guarding the concession and reporting abhorrent activities.

Most reforestation concessions are owned by individuals. Some are owned by associations or NGOs (Non-Governmental organisations). A concession-holder owns the concession for 40 years. The concession-holder is obligated to use the forest’s natural resources in a sustainable way. In the five-year plan, agreements are made about what and how many trees can be harvested. An example of an agreement between the concession-holder and authorities is that for every particular species that is harvested, 9 similar trees of the same species need to be present in the concession to use as seed disperser (Pacheco, 2016).

‘Under the terms of a concession contract, the concessionaires have responsibility of ensuring forest cover is maintained. Any illegal breaches of this must be denounced (reported) to OSINFOR, or the concessionaire may face a fine in a subsequent review of the status of the concessions. No new agricultural land can be allocated within the Permanent Production Forests, other than that which existed when the concession was awarded. No titles or possession may be awarded within Permanent Production Forests’ (Dablin, 2014).

1.9 Madre de Dios

Madre de Dios is the region where this research has been done (Figure 5). In this chapter is explained how deforestation threats are related to this area and why sound reforestation techniques are required

The area that is investigated is located within Peru’s Madre de Dios region. ‘The IUCN (the International Union for Conservation of Nature) and WWF (World Wide Fund for Nature) have identified Madre de Dios as a World Centre for Plant Diversity. Records like these, and the resultant boom in ecotourism, led the Peruvian government to pass a decree declaring Puerto Maldonado the “biodiversity capital of Peru”’ (Kent, 2000). The forests of Madre de Dios are cited as a conservation priority as they are recognized as a global epicentre for biodiversity, harbour globally important carbon stocks and are home to tribes that live in voluntary isolation (Asner, et al., 2010; Rosenthal, Stutzman, & Forsyth, 2012; Scullion, Vogt, Sienkiewicz, Gmur, & Trujillo, 2014).

Madre de Dios is an area that used to have very low deforestation rates. The construction of the transoceanic highway, however, brought change to this. The interoceanic highway goes straight through the Amazonian jungle, and connects the ports of Brazil at the Atlantic Ocean to the ports of Peru at the Pacific Ocean. The presence of the highway caused people from other regions to migrate to Madre de Dios, which resulted in an increase of illegal logging, illegal gold mining and illegal agriculture. This brought increasing deforestation rates to Madre de Dios (CeroCO2, sd).

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11 Gold mining in Madre de Dios has rapidly deforested wide swaths of lowland Amazonian rainforest. Destructive mining methods raze trees, devastate habitat, contaminate waterways used by communities and fauna alike, and endanger public health (Amazon Conservation Association, 2013). The completion of the Interoceanic Highway has increased access to the area and today more than 30.000 miners are estimated to be operating without legal permits (Amazon Conservation Organization, 2015).

Since Puerto Maldonado has been identified as the biodiversity capital of Peru, the government is doing an effort to counterbalance the deforestation. Between 2002 and 2004 the Peruvian government granted concessions to individuals with the purpose to reforest degraded forest areas. Main forest types in Madre de Dios are low terrace forest, high terrace forest, low hill forest, high hill forest, mountain forest, swamp forest and savannah (Figure 6). Figure 6 represents the Potential Natural Vegetation (PNV). In la Pampa originally existed low terrace forest and swamp forest around the rivers and high terrace forest in between the rivers. These are still the forest type that should be found where the forest is not degraded in a too extensive degree.

The Madre de Dios region thus serves different purposes. On the one hand it is identified as a biodiverse area where forest conservation is considered highly important. On the other hand the land is rich in valuable resources, attracting people to exploit, with as consequence deforestation. To be able to restore degraded forests, reforestation techniques can be used like natural regeneration, enrichment planting and single species plantations.

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1.10 Research questions

The goal of this research is to indicate which reforestation technique(s) is / are most effective in the forest of the Madre de Dios region. This leads to the following research question and sub-questions. The main question is:

What is the relation between different reforestation techniques and effectiveness in restoring the natural forest ecosystem on degraded forests in Madre de Dios?

The sub questions are:

- Which reforestation techniques are currently used to rehabilitate degraded forest areas in Madre de Dios?

- What is the effectiveness of different reforestation techniques used in restoring the natural forest ecosystem in Madre de Dios according to literature?

- What is the actual effectiveness of different reforestation techniques in restoring the natural forest ecosystem in Madre de Dios?

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2 Methods

In this chapter will be elaborated about the methodology that is applied to obtain the desired results. Major parts of the methodology were literature research, key informant questioning field research and data processing. The sequence of steps to be able to answer the main and sub questions are shown in Table 2.

- Literature research

- Planning the field research with key informants

- Collecting field data

- Questioning key informants

- Process the data

- Reporting the findings

Table 2: The sequence of steps, followed in this research

2.1 Literature research and key informants

In literature previously conducted effectiveness studies about reforestation techniques are reported. This information is used to inform about conclusions that could be drawn when analysing the field data. Literature is also used to explain why specific reforestation techniques can be effective and others not, and how this is related to the forest cover, degree of fragmentation and biodiversity loss. Google and Google Scholar were used to find relevant literature. Some examples of terms that helped to find relevant research are “reforestation Madre de Dios”, “reforestation effectiveness”, “deforestation Madre de Dios”, “reforestation techniques”, “forest policy Peru”, “statistical methodology forestry” and “Biodiversity index number”. Some examples of literature that are consulted during the research are (Lamb et al., 2005), (Chiara AR Corradi, 2013) and (Schwartz, Lopes, Mohren, & Peña-Claros, 2013).

Key informants were used for site selection, site history (anterior forest degradation, forest management), tree knowledge (tree names and behaviour), and to indicate which reforestation technique was applied in the different sample sites.

The first part and mainly the natural regeneration technique have been studied in and around one key informant’s concession. Also a single species plantation has been investigated at about 40 km from this key informants concession. Alongside the ‘Corredor Tambopata’, which is a road that follows the Tambopata river towards a native community, enrichment planting was investigated at the private conservation area of ‘Fundo Refugio K’erenda Homet’. One sample site of enrichment planting, and a teak plantation were investigated at ‘Botafogo’ which is a recreational area. Environmental circumstances were important to select the research sites, indicators which were used to select the study area were the following:

- Same soil type;

- same forest type (high terraced forest); - degraded to similar extent; and

- the reforestation had been implemented around the same year (around 1990).

According to geographical information, provided by SPDA, the studied areas was situated in high terraced forest and human influenced forest (see annex II to VI). This geographic information indicates an estimation of the forest types. Off course the investigated reforestation techniques were situated in human influenced forest and the investigated primary forest in not-human influenced forest. Interpolating the data, the map indicates that the human influenced forest would originally be high terraced forest. The key informants confirmed this.

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2.2 Field research

Six sample sites of primary forest have been investigated. Primary forest is used as a reference in relation to the naturalness of the forest. Data from the three reforestation techniques is compared to the data from primary forest. Seven sample sites were taken in enrichment planting forests, fourteen in natural regeneration forests and six in single species plantation forests. Four of the six sample sites that have been investigated were in Tornillo (Cedrelings catenaeformis) plantations. The two other plots were taken in a Teak (Tectona grandis) plantation.

When a sample site was selected to collect data from, with a GPS (Global Positioning System) coordinates were taken. The sample sites were circular with a diameter of 20 meters which makes a total surface of 314,16m2_{. The centre of the sample site was marked with a pole. A rope was bound}

to the pole where the end of the rope marked the radius of exactly 10 meters (Gregoire, 2002). Within the sample site tree species, tree height, DBH (Diameter at Breast Height) and if the tree is planted or not planted is noted. Trees below 5 cm (centimetre) DBH are not reported (McRoberts, Tomppo, Vibrans, & de Freitas, 2013). Environmental conditions like slope, canopy coverage, forest stratification and remarkably conditions are noted. The data is noted in a form (annex I) that is printed out on forehand.

Details, that the data could not comprise, are represented by field observations. Field observations were noted and / or drawn during the field work. Sketches of the sample sites were used for schematic representations. These sketches represent the different layers that are present (emergent layer, canopy layer, understory layer, shrub layer and ground layer). Notations described remarkable details in different sample sites. Whether every layer is present throughout the whole forest stand and whether the layers are distributed throughout the sample site is reported (Ellenberg, Esser, Kubitzki, Schnepf, & Ziegler, 2012). Species that could not be identified were called “nn (nomen nescio)”. When in the same sample site multiple unidentifiable species were found and it was sure they were from a different species they were called “nn1,nn2, nn3 etc.”.

2.3 Data analysis

The data is analysed and illustrated using the Simpsons Biodiversity Index number(SBI) (Hunter & Gaston, 1988), number of tree individuals and tree species. The SBI formula (Equation 1) calculates the probability that two individuals randomly selected from a sample will belong to the same species. An example of how a calculation can look like is given in Table 3. When using the SBI to determine biodiversity, the lesser individuals counted, the more probable it is that the SBI number is high. This means that it is possible that a sample site with 4 tree individuals and 4 species gets a higher SBI than a sample site with 40 tree individuals and 20 species. Because the SBI number should always be seen in relation to the amount of tree species and tree individuals, the SBI number is illustrated in relation to tree species and tree individuals.

Equation 1: Simpsons Biodiversity Index (SBI) formula n = the total number of organisms of a particular species, N = the total number of organisms of all species

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15 The data were analysed in Microsoft Access (an example of how this data looked like in Microsoft Access can be observed in Annex VII and Annex VIII). The outcomes of this analyses were exported to Microsoft Excel and from there illustrated using graphs. The difference is made between reforestation techniques (and primary forest) in one graph. To illustrate how the naturalness of the forest applies to different forest niches, difference is made between diameter classes for the different reforestation techniques and primary forest. Height was noted during the field work, but not used in the data analyses because it did not add relevant information about the biodiversity or forest structure; the amount of tree-species and –individuals counted in combination with the field observations and DBH of the trees were a sufficient indicator for the naturalness of the forest.

To illustrate the effect of pioneer species on forest composition, the data is resembled with and without the two most common pioneer species; Achihua (Huberodentron swietenioides) and Achiotillo (Bixa urucurana). The data is interpreted on behalf of the field observations that were made. Because twice as much sample sites were investigated in natural regeneration than in primary forest, the data has been randomly separated into two parts. An average is taken from these two parts, and this average is applied in the data analyses. This average indicated an area of 2199 m2_{. Which is similar}

to the amount of area investigated in primary forest and the other reforestation techniques.

To give an overview of where the sample sites were positioned, GIS (Geographic Information System) is used to illustrate the location of the plots. Data given by SPDA is used for the background layers (forest types, reforestation concessions, paths etc.). The taken coordinates in the field are represented in relation the background layers.

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3 Results

In this chapter will be elaborated about the results that are obtained during this research. Literature provided information about variables that are possible to have influence on the reforestation techniques. Key informants provided information about the sample sites that have been investigated and the field data indicated the actual forest composition within the sample sites.

3.1 Reforestation techniques used in Madre de Dios

Key informants indicated that following reforestation techniques were present and able to investigate in the Madre de Dios region; natural regeneration, enrichment planting and single species plantations. To be able to relate the effectiveness of the reforestation techniques to the naturalness of the forest, primary forest has been investigated to serve as a reference.

Key informants indicated the following about the sample sites’ history: Since the concessions were granted a lot of old rice fields, wheat fields and other agricultural lands have been left fallow and natural regeneration took place. Now, after around 25 years these fields have converted into forest again. These areas represent the natural regeneration and single species plantation sample sites. The enrichment planting sample sites were taken in an area which was part of a project; In 1989 a project started to finance a farmer who was willing to reforest an area of 5 hectares by using enrichment planting.

3.2 Literature in relation to reforestation techniques in Madre de Dios

In the introduction a perspective about literature on reforestation techniques is given. In this chapter is resumed about how this literature relates to the reforestation techniques, investigated in Madre de Dios.

Most important conclusion that can be drawn from literature research is that all the three reforestation techniques can be effective. One condition to be met is that primary forest is close to use as seed disperser. This applies for natural regeneration. Even though the natural regeneration technique is highly dependent on nearby primary forest, also when natural regeneration is used in enrichment planting or plantations to favour the naturalness of the forest it is of great influence. Another condition that is important to be met for a sound reforestation effectivity is the intactness of the topsoil; if the top soil loses its fertility and its seed bank, this can complicate reforestation effectiveness. In the sites that have been investigated above mentioned conditions were no obstruction for the reforestation effectiveness. These conditions were actually very extensively present.

Difficulties in reforestation effectiveness as determined in this research are the absence of specific trees. According to literature it is difficult to determine which trees are missing. Though commonly absent species are large-fruited plant species. To meet this complication in reforestation effectiveness, literature suggests enrichment planting. The reforesters is asked if they knew about this and if they took this knowledge into account. None of the reforesters knew about it, so they also did not take this into account. The enrichment planting reforesters goal was to meet common native climax species. He also choose species that attract birds, with the idea of attracting tourism.

Also the natural regeneration reforester, used enrichment planting at open areas to grow financial attractive tree species “Tornillo”, to make his work in the forest financial beneficial. In one of the single species plantations (Tornillo plantation), no room was given to natural regeneration. The reforester indicated that his plan was to cut down all the trees that were not financially attractive. The reforester from the teak plantation, planted the teaks as an experiment to see how Teak grows in Madre de Dios.

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17 He did not found his experiment a success, which was a reason to leave the site and let natural reforestation take place. The Teak plantation owner indicated that he let natural regeneration take place from about 2008.

Ecological threshold can complicate a reforestation process. These ecological thresholds like grass dominance, topsoil loss and a reduction in soil fertility were not passed in the investigated sites. There was still a high intactness of the topsoil, and biodiversity-rich native forest was still present in the landscape around the investigated areas.

3.3 Actual reforestation effectiveness

In following chapters per technique the data analyses and field observations are presented. These results give answer to the last sub-question of this research; What is the actual effectiveness of different reforestation techniques in restoring the natural forest ecosystem in Madre de Dios? When comparing tree abundancy and biodiversity, it can be observed that according the Simpsons Biodiversity Index biodiversity is relatively highest in primary forest and plantations (Figure 7). Most trees are found in natural regeneration forest, and least in plantations. Most species were found in primary forest. In the three reforestation techniques, the amount of tree species is similar, but in enrichment planting somewhat (11,36%) higher.

Figure 7: The amount of tree-species and –individuals in relation to the SBI (Simpsons Biodiversity Index) number. The blue line represents the SBI number on the right. The orange and green bars the amount of species & individuals on the left.

Achihua and Achiotillo make up for 100 individuals in natural regeneration which accounts for 36% of all species. When taking these two pioneer species out of the forest, a change is observed in natural regeneration forest (Figure 8). The number of tree individuals gets more similar to the other techniques and primary forest, as well as the SBI number does.

Figure 8: The amount of tree-species and –individuals in relation to the SBI (Simpsons Biodiversity Index) number when leaving out the two most common pioneer species Achihua (Huberodentron swietenioides) and Achiotillo (Bixa urucurana) The blue line represents the SBI number on the right. The orange and green bars the amount of species & individuals on the left.

190 165 278 140 62 49 44 43 0 50 100 150 200 250 300

Primary forest Enrichment planting Natural regeneration Plantation

0 20 40 60 80 100 A m o u n t o f sp e ci e s & in d iv id u al s SB I

Individuals Species Simpsons Biodiversity Index

190 165 178 128 62 ₄₉ ₄₂ ₄₂ 0 50 100 150 200

Primary forest Enrichment planting Natural regeneration Plantation

0 20 40 60 80 100 A m o u n t o f sp e ci e s & in d iv id u al s SB I

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18 Figure 10: The amount of tree-species and –individuals and the SBI (Simpsons Biodiversity Index)

number in relation to the diameter classes of primary forest. DBH = Diameter at Breast Height. The blue stacked area represents the SBI number on the left. The orange and green bars the amount of species & individuals on the right.

3.3.1 Primary forest

A total of 1885 m2_{of primary forest were investigated. A total of 190 trees were found of which 62}

different species. The six most occurring species in primary forest were following; - Copal (20) (Protium punciculatum);

- Copal macho (15) (Protium sp); - Moena (13) (Ocotea sp);

- Isma Moena (12) (Endlicheria williamsii); and - Uvilla (11) (Pourouma minor).

A total of 23 species could not be identified. Four trees were noted that were death (Copal, Isma Moena, Tamarindo and one which could not be identified). In Figure 9 can be observed how abundant specific tree species occur. Every color resembles a different species and in which extent it occurs. The species that occurred 6% or more are outlined with the species name and the percentage in which it occurred.

Figure 9: Tree species abundancy in primary forest

Most species were found in the lower diameter classes (5-20cm DBH) (Figure 10). Biodiversity – according to the SBI - was highest in the diameter class 20-30cm DBH. The SBI number is remarkably high (91) in the diameter class 20-30 cm DBH; 14 tree individuals were found of which 13 were from all different species.

Following observations were made in the different sample sites. Typical for the most sample sites in primary forest was the density of different niches. Niches were very equally distributed; every 2 meters in height a different canopy was observed. In sample site 9.3 the canopy and emergent layer were dominant in comparison to the understory layer. More low growing plants (2-4 meter in height) were observed of which many were palms. For sample site 9.3 there has to be taken into account that two of the accounted trees were exceptionally tall, wide and old trees which caused lower tree density in the lower canopy levels.

Copal, 11% Copal macho, 8% Isma Moena, 6% Moena, 7% Uvilla, 6% 78 64 14 15 5 7 31 36 13 10 5 7 0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100 5-10 cm DBH 10-20 cm DBH 20-30 cm DBH 30-40 cm DBH 40-50 cm DBH >50cm DBH _Am o u n t o f sp e ci e s & in d iv id u al s SB I Diameter class

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19

3.3.2 Enrichment planting

A total of 2199 m2_{of enrichment planting have been investigated. A total of 165 trees were found of}

which 49 different species. The five most occurring species in enrichment planting were following: - Moena (31) (Ocotea sp);

- Pashaco (12) (schizolobium amazonicum); - Cumala (8) (Virola sp);

- Lagarto caspi (7) (Calophyllum brasiliense); and - Remo Caspi (7) (Aspidosperma parvifolium).

A total of 44 species could not be identified. Four trees were noted that were dead, of which one was identified as Naranja (Orange) (Citrus sp).

In enrichment planting, most trees and tree species were found in the lower diameter class (5-20 cm DBH) (Figure 11), which is in line with the findings from the data of primary forest. The species and individuals found in the lowest diameter class (5-10 cm DBH) was low in comparison to the data of primary forest ). The amount of tree individuals and tree species counted is similar to the data from primary forest. Though in the diameter class 20-30 cm DBH, the SBI number is lower than in the same diameter class in primary forest but six more tree were found and two more tree species.

Figure 11: The amount of tree-species and –individuals and the SBI (Simpsons Biodiversity Index) number in relation to the diameter classes of enrichment planting. DBH = Diameter at Breast Height. The blue stacked area represents the SBI number on the left. The orange and green bars the amount of species & individuals on the right.

In the higher diameter class (>20cm DBH) a high amount of individual trees were found accompanied by a high tree biodiversity. One outstanding observation that has been made was the width of the canopies in the canopy layers from 10 meters and higher; big canopies were present at the low-growing trees.

In general the forest had a dense structure as well in distances between trees as in canopy layers. In some sample sites the structure was denser than in the other. Sample site 9.2 was exceptional. Here the lower canopy layers were little present. Instead of trees that could be available in these layers, 18 palms were present with a width of more or less 40 cm DBH and a height of 3 to 9 meters. The palm trees were locally known as Shiwong, Wasai and Ungurahua. The understory and canopy layer were present but in large distance from each other.

Sample sites 9.1 also showed some influence by palm trees. Niches were present but with some distance to each other. Within this distance, palms were present. In other sample sites palm occurrence was remarkably as well, but in these sample sites it did not seem to have influence on the distance between trees and niches.

53 67 20 ₁₃ ₅ ₄ 20 33 15 10 3 4 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 0 20 40 60 80 100 5-10 cm DBH 10-20 cm DBH 20-30 cm DBH 30-40 cm DBH 40-50 cm DBH >50cm DBH A m o u n t o f sp e ci e s & in d iv id u al s SB I Diameter class

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20 In sample site 10.1, 11.2 and 11.5 many layering was observed. Trees grew close to each other and these trees grew in different niches. Some trees in the diameter-class of 20 to 40 grew twisted to reach the sunlight. Especially in these places remarkably few vegetation was found on the ground layer. In sample site 11.5 the ground was covered with plants and in sample site 11.1 the ground was covered with leafs, which left little room for natural regeneration.

3.3.3 Natural regeneration

A total of 4398 m2_{of natural regeneration have been investigated. A total of 555 trees were found of}

which 58 different species. The six most occurring species in enrichment planting were following: - Achihua (115) (Huberodentron swietenioides);

- Achiotillo (84) (Bixa urucurana); - Moena (41), (Ocotea sp);

- Coloradillo (27) (unknown scientific name) - Cetico (22) (Cecropia sciadophylla); and - Copal (20) (Protium puncticulatum).

When separating the data from natural regeneration into two parts, to make the area investigated similar to the other investigated techniques , and primary forest an average of 278 trees are found of which 44 different species. This would count for an area coverage of 2199 m2_.

Cecropia (including Cetico) is a major pioneer tree genera in regions of the Neotropics with wet lowland and montane forest (Berg, Rosselli, & Davidson, 2005). Areas in Madre de Dios that are left fallow start being occupied by Cetico in the first stage of natural regeneration. A total of 19 trees could not be identified. 16 death trees were noted of which 5 could not be identified. In Figure 12 can be observed how abundant specific tree species occur based on one of the two natural regeneration data parts. Every color resembles a different species and in which extent it occurs. The species that occurred 4% or more are outlined with the species name and the percentage in which it occurred.

Figure 12: Tree species abundancy in natural regeneration

An example of the forest composition is shown in Figure 12. This figure resembles one of the two parts of which averages are used in the data analyses. Therefore it does not correspond with the numbers of most occurring species counted, given in the above mentioned paragraph.

In natural regeneration forests, high numbers of trees were found in the lower and middle diameter class (5-30 cm DBH). This results in a low SBI number (Figure 13). When taking out the two most common pioneer species there are still high amounts of individual trees found in the lower diameter

Achihua, 23% Achiotillo, 16% Cetico, 6% Coloradillo, 4% Copal, 4% Moena, 6% Palta Moena, 4%

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21 class (5-20cm DBH). Tree biodiversity according to the SBI increases (Figure 14). Especially in the lower and middle diameter classes (10-40cm DBH) numbers change drastically; tree individuals drop more than 50% while the SBI increases clearly in all diameter classes. These observations correspond with the field observations mentioned in the paragraph below.

Typical for the natural reforestation sample sites was that all layers were extensively present, on short distance from each other and with gradual transitions. The understory was abundantly present and low amount of trees were found in the higher diameter classes. At some sample sites a low distribution between tree species evenness was noted clearly because of the high amounts of pioneer species that were present. In some sample sites open areas were present, caused by fallen trees.

Figure 13: The amount of tree-species and –individuals and the SBI (Simpsons Biodiversity Index) number in relation to the diameter classes of natural regeneration. DBH = Diameter at Breast Height. The blue stacked area represents the SBI number on the left. The orange and green bars the amount of species & individuals on the right.

Figure 14: The amount of tree-species and –individuals and the SBI (Simpsons Biodiversity Index) number in relation to the diameter classes of natural regeneration when the two main pioneer species, Achihua and Achiotillo, are left out. DBH = Diameter at Breast Height. The blue stacked area represents the SBI number on the left. The orange and green bars the amount of species & individuals on the right.

78 63 22 11 3 2 27 27 12 10 3 1 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 0 20 40 60 80 100 5-10 cm DBH 10-20 cm DBH 20-30 cm DBH 30-40 cm DBH 40-50 cm DBH >50cm DBH A m o u n t o f sp e ci e s & in d iv id u al s SB I Diamter class

Simpsons Biodiversity Index Individuals Species

91 112 45 19 9 3 29 29 14 11 4 3 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 0 20 40 60 80 100 5-10 cm DBH 10-20 cm DBH 20-30 cm DBH 30-40 cm DBH 40-50 cm DBH >50cm DBH A m ou n t of sp ec ies & in d iv id u al s SB I Diameter class

Reforestation in Madre de Dios

Reforestation

in Madre de

Dios

An effectiveness study on

reforestation strategies

Reforestation in Madre de Dios

An effectiveness study on reforestation strategies

Acknowledgements

Abstract

Table of contents

List of Figures, Tables and Equations

Abbreviations

1 Introduction

1.1 Reforestation possibilities

1.1.1 Natural regeneration

1.1.2 Enrichment planting

1.1.3 Single species plantation

1.2 Deforestation threats

1.3 Deforestation drivers

1.4 Key-elements in reforestation effectiveness

1.5 Reforestation effectivity

1.6 Simpsons Biodiversity Index number

1.7 The policy context of sustainable forestry

1.8 Current conditions of concessions in Madre de Dios

1.9 Madre de Dios

1.10 Research questions

2 Methods

2.1 Literature research and key informants

2.2 Field research

2.3 Data analysis

3 Results

3.1 Reforestation techniques used in Madre de Dios

3.2 Literature in relation to reforestation techniques in Madre de Dios

3.3 Actual reforestation effectiveness

3.3.1 Primary forest

3.3.2 Enrichment planting

3.3.3 Natural regeneration