Role of women as peacebuilders in The Netherlands

i Research Project-CRG

University of Amsterdam

Role of women as peacebuilders in The Netherlands

(Proposal)

Submitted To

Dr. Gijsbert van Iterson Scholten

(G.M.VanItersonScholten@uva.nl)

By

Shumaila Anwar

(shumaila.anwarkhan@yahoo.com) Student No. 11177284

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION ... 1

1.1 Introduction ... 1

1.2 Background of the Study ... 3

1.3 The case study of peacebuilding in the Netherlands ... 5

1.4 Role of women in Peacebuilding ... 7

1.5 Women peacebuilding initiatives in Netherlands ... 8

1.6 Relevance of Peacebuilding in Dutch case ... 9

1.7 Research Questions ... 11

1.8 Research Objectives ... 11

1.9 Structure of the Thesis ... 12

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW ... 12

2.1 Introduction ... 12

2.2 An overview of peace building ... 13

2.3 Street level peace building adding up to peace ... 15

2.4 Gender and Peacebuilding ... 16

2.4.1 Social Identities and Gender Roles ... 17

2.4.2 Gender relations ... 17

2.5 Women’s Roles in Peacebuilding ... 19

2.5.1 Role of women in peacebuilding ... 19

2.5.2 Exclusion of women’s roles in peacebuilding ... 21

2.6 Theoretical Framework ... 23

2.6.1 Multiculturalism: a set of ideas and politics ... 23

2.6.2 Multiculturalism and conflicts ... 25

iii CHAPTER 3-METHODOLOGY ... 28 3.1. Introduction ... 28 3.1. Methodology ... 28 3.2. Interviews ... 29 3.3. Selection of Respondents ... 29 3.4. Data Analysis ... 30 3.5. Data coding ... 31 3.6. Ethics ... 31 CHAPTER 4 – FINDINGS ... 32 4.1 Introduction ... 32 4.2 Demographic Characteristics ... 33

4.3 Meaning of Peace in Netherland’s non conflicting society ... 33

4.4 Meaning of peace in local setting ... 35

4.5 Need of peace in non-conflicting society of Netherlands ... 37

4.6 Ethnic issues in Netherlands ... 38

4.7 Role of women in peace building ... 44

4.8 Government Policies and Political & Structural Framework ... 52

CHAPTER 5 – CONCLUSION ... 58

5.1 Conclusion ... 58

5.2 Limitations of the study ... 61

5.3 Directions for future research ... 61

References ... 62

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CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction

Netherlands is a multicultural society due to which the native Dutch people often face conflicts with the non-native Dutch people belonging to different cultural backgrounds (Schalk-Soekar, Van de Vijver & Hoogsteder, 2004). Due to immigration, there is diversity of ethnicities, religions and cultures in Netherlands. Further, there are more chances for conflicts reason being these diversities (De Dreu et al, 2007). At times, Netherlands was defined by the white, Dutch and Christian people but now it has changed to a mix of creeds, cultures and identities from all around the world. This has now become complacent to the Dutch life that such demographic diversity is possible which was never thought to be possible. Multiculturalism is term which appeals for such demographic diversity and the role of the politicians, legal system and theoretical debates to respond to this diversity as the governments promote the cultural diversity and ask for support to accommodate them. The new challenges posed by the modern era such as economic, financial and security issues pose challenge to the officials to gain support for the diverse people. Many politicians and the journalists are negating the support for them and the key issues associated with this support. However, the debate of retreating from immigration policy at national level is still the talk of the day. But it is certain that reevaluation of Dutch multiculturalism is in place. The issue of practical and theoretical questions is still unresolved till today in Netherlands.

The conflicts between the Dutch natives and immigrants are often reported by the Daily newspapers and magazines (Hermans, 1999; Damhuis, 2019). The conflicts can become very serious as discussed above which is due to different people dealing with conflicts in different manner. The individuals have their own way of resolving conflicts but it can be easily generalized as well depending on the cultural background. Some other factors can also come into play such as personal characteristics, conflict type, the involved people and their relationship with each other, the existing circumstances and the individual interests etc. (Wielders, 2011). But the brought up of an individual in a specific culture determines the strategy used by the people to resolve conflict which is broadly categorized into either collectivistic or individualistic (Ting-Toomey & Oetzel, 2001).

This is a norm in Netherlands to face conflicts and tensions between the natives and non-natives. The immigrants have a negative image in Netherlands in general (Veldhuis &

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Bakker, 2009).the gap between Dutch and non-Dutch has expanded due to the negative sentiments propagated by the media and the migration and immigration politics. The media coverage in the past has further fueled the tensions and weakened relationship between Dutch and non-Dutch people. The formation of groups and people living in groups is explained by De Dreu et al., (2007) as the group offers them aids and protections in learning each other’s experiences. It can easily give rise to conflict in the group members as they tend to focus on creation of positive identity and their tilt to subordinate the other groups present (we and them). It is furthermore, asserted that as the conflicts arise between the people from different cultural backgrounds, they are more intense in nature as there is a shift of conflict towards the group from the individual. No matter the nature of origin of conflict the group starts showing cohesion to maintain their position in the society and protect their people. Mostly the conflicts arise due to the cultural differences, differences in behaviour and attitudes, discrimination, fight for the resources, ethnocentrism etc. At the societal level, the driving force for change is the conflict. It is deduced from De Dreu et al. (2007), that a window of opportunity opens with the rise of conflicts. There is a chance provided to the multicultural society of Dutch to alter the rules and regulations related to ethnic conflicts. Boundaries can be redefined, and societal problems can be solved with the aim of improving the opportunities for peacebuilding.

At present, many crises in Europe gave the right wing parties to get fame and backing in West. The crisis related are refugee crisis, economic and financial crisis, the Brexit and increasing racial discrimination. The research on populism increased in wake of these crisis. The newspapers and news started using dramatic headlines, like “Europe on the Precipice: The Crisis of the Neoliberal Order” (Baier 2016), and “Populism on the March: Why the West is in Trouble” (Zakaraia 2016). In response, angry white men aiming to bring change in Europe through altering the political landscape.

It was witnessed that the left wing democrats received only 11 percent of votes in 2015 during Switzerland EU elections while 22 percent votes were received by the radical right parties (Baier 2016, 49). The rhetoric of far-right was becoming mainstreamed, so to attract more people same tactics and arguments were used by right wing extremist groups. The growing polarization in West because of the anti-racist movements have won elections as well on this rhetoric. In March 2017, the 2nd major party in the Parliament was represented by PVV which is right-wing populist party.

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Hence, it can be deduced that in Netherlands, the citizens have very strong intergroup tensions amongst them. In such scenario, it is important at local level to strive for peacebuilding. The objective of the current study is to analyze the role of women at local level in the peacebuilding and to make it more sustainable in Netherlands

1.2 Background of the Study

Adapting diversity in the frameworks of politics and government is a big challenge for the modern states including Netherlands. Such liberal states identify themselves as the states preserving culture and accommodating culture. To become a state where the individuals are free to adopt their culture and identity, the liberal multiculturalism asserts that states must mot politicize the culture and identity. However, the larger apparatus of rule of law is to be adhered in wake of institutions and customs that are beyond the traditional culture to become content-free and neutral state (Randazzo & Pol Bargués, 2012).

It is of vital importance in the peacebuilding process to deal with the differences as any issue of violence breaks due to ethnicities. There are very little chances of outbreak of violence in Netherlands, however, it is essential to sustain the peace among the societal groups. Thus, it can be argued that although chances of an outbreak of violence are rather small, peace is more than the absence of violence and hence there is still a need for peacebuilding activities. The benefits of sustaining peace lies in the no tensions among the social groups as well as offers support to the national actors in becoming more resilient nation and enhance the capacities to deal with the structural inequalities and exclude all those that are responsible for creating tensions and negate social cohesion. The neglection of this leads to the violent conflicts (Coning, 2018). Hence Netherlands, must strive for peacebuilding which is of vital importance.

The peacebuilding scholars Oliver Richmond and Roger Mac Ginty have conceptualized the concept to clarify the limits and boundaries of liberal peace building and to unsettle the hegemonic status of peacebuilding for peace. The proponents of local turn have the common trait of criticizing the liberal approach and their practices that are hierarchical, exclusionary and hegemonic in nature. This is termed as technocratic approach by Mac Ginty (2012). He asserts that in the peacebuilding contexts, the locus of power is shifted away from the locals due to the technocracy. So the liberal peace and

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technocracy is in resonance such as the productive capacity of the societies is minimized through economic reforms and encourages consuming the export goods. The external interests are given preference over the local interests which is facilitated by the technocracy. However, this does not remain true for a long time as local actors cannot be underestimated, and they play a pivotal role in this. Hence, the institutions are given importance by the technocrats by diverting the local agency towards them (Mac Ginty, 2012). Often the institutions prefer external interests and values which is not due to conspiracy but being driven in a complex process as local actors are involved in this complexity.

Those who oppose and criticize liberal peace often associate it with the emancipatory peace which will facilitate the forces to reemerge to pursue for emancipatory governance which takes the solidarity of the governed at its base. However, this is still subjected to scrutiny and it is assured that this study does not intend to save the liberal through this research.

However, the way the Netherlands is dealing with the rising tensions is reminiscent of this same technocratic, content-free liberal approach. Perhaps there is so little attention for grassroots peacebuilding because western states are often not considered peacebuilding cases at all. Same is the case with Netherlands. In the contemporary Netherland there is multifaceted concept of Multiculturalism. The multiple debates highlight this in terms of dress mode, policy of language/education, race and ethnic relations, religious freedom, the procedures of court and immigration. Hence it cannot be said the exact model being followed in Netherlands for sustaining peace and peacebuilding. Here, in the current study, I will explore the models of street level peacebuilding that are applied by the local organisations and women peace builders and investigate their aims, claims and strategies for this purpose. In this case study, I will analyze the place of these assumptions in reality and practice. I will also evaluate the practices, discourses, models and policies of peacebuilding and their significance in the everyday practice by the women and local organisations. In my opinion, organisations are shaped by the peacebuilding practices which aids in their development and its multiple perceptions as well from the perspective of diverse parties.

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1.3 The case study of peacebuilding in the Netherlands

Throughout the world, the most debated and researched topics are multiculturalism and integration. As the setting of this research thesis is based in Netherlands and this topic has its tone in the concept of multiculturalism and integration which has become centre of attention since the 9/11 terrorist attacks. Several painful incidents occurred at the same time in Netherlands which involve the murder of the Pim Fortuyn (Political leader) and the Theo van Gogh (director of films) in May 6, 2002 and November 2, 2004 respectively. There is high tension between the native Dutch and non-native Dutch people which is mostly Muslims and it concerns the policymakers, politicians and the journalists.

The origin of this can be traced to the increasing multicultural aspects in the western societies. A large number of ethnic groups have migrated to the West due to the circumstances in their countries. The largest minority groups in Netherlands are from Morocco, Turkey, Suriname, South Asian countries and the Dutch Antilles and it has become a multi-ethnic society. It is stated by the CIA world fact book (2019) that the Dutch people in Netherlands contribute to 76.9% of population, EU 6.4%, Turkish 2.4%, Moroccan 2.3%, Indonesian 2.1%, German 2.1%, Surinamese 2%, Polish 1% and others 4.8%.

Since 1945, there have been different waves of immigration in Netherlands and each wave had its own attributes and characteristics. The immigrants came from Indonesia during the period 1945 till early 1960s. It also hired guest workers from southern Europe, Turkey and Morocco. Suriname and Antilles had huge outflow of people towards Netherlands. The period of 1980s is marked with the immigration of refugees and asylum seekers from Yugoslavia and Africa. This altered the homogenous ethnicity of Netherlands towards diverse ethnicities. This situation arises the need of peacebuilding in such diverse and multicultural society.

The condition is quite different for the minorities belonging to different cultural backgrounds in Netherlands. They prioritize the preservation of their own culture for multiple reasons such as social, political and psychological. In theory there is no contradiction in culture maintenance and the cultural adaptation. These are considered two different processes and have no dependence on each other and give birth to bi-cultural positions. The people of minority ethnic groups not only follow their group norms but are

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also cognizable of the majority ethnic group in the society. Hence the preservation of their own culture and cultural adaptation is difficult. So, the peacebuilding is essential as the natives and non-natives may come into conflicts.

It is shown in the research that there are negative sentiments by the Dutch people for the non-native Dutch (for instance see Tolsma, Lubbers & Gijsberts, 2012; Gijsberts and Vervoort, 2007). According to one research most of the Dutch people believe that one of the biggest mistake of Netherlands post-war is the taking refugees from other countries (Rath, 2009: 674). The famous politicians, such as Geert Wilders, Pim Fortuyn and Rita Verdonk started the populist movements which led to no backing for migration and negating the religious diversity (Rath, 2009: 674). Resultantly, there is a shift away from multiculturalism towards national assimilation in most of the western countries including Netherlands. It is also emphasized that the responsibility for ethnic integration lies with the individuals and the community (Mitchell, 2004:645). This led to further confusions and tension between the different cultures increased giving more space to the debate on the said issue.

The tensions gave rise to the differences among various groups in society. This shifted the efforts and focus to the sociocultural integration instead of socio economic integration which would focus on the provision of better education, jobs and housing (Gijsberts and Dagevos, 2007). At local level shared values can be created through the peacebuilding. The vision of the Dutch civil society workers is to bring peace which is contradictory to that of diplomats as per van Iterson Scholten (2018) but most of these workers are working outside Netherlands. Their idea of peace is holistic and all-encompassing as compared to its limitation to the institutional goal. Therefore, the notion of peacebuilding at the local level relates to the greeting and mutual understanding. Hence, the importance of meeting other people and to create such opportunities is stressed in the policies at local and national levels. The emphasis is on meeting people from multiple ethnic backgrounds in schools, districts and in free time (Peters, 2011).one of the best ways to integrate non-native Dutch people is through peacebuilding and contact between the multiple ethnicities which will ease the tensions amongst the Dutch people. On these lines, the current study will analyze the role of women in peacebuilding in Netherlands.

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1.4 Role of women in Peacebuilding

There is a great importance of peacebuilding not only in international relations but also the academic conflict resolution. It is equally and greatly accepted both by the academicians and the practitioners alike. It is studied by the peace and conflict studies scholar’s and developed a link between the gender equality and sustained peace. Durable peace is not considered the negative aspect but the positive one with focus on long term peace through reconstructing the inclusive and equal society. This is supported by other scholars as well and no study was found negating this positive relationship. (Bjarnegärd et al. 2015). Caprioli (2005) provides evidence for such studies. The author also concludes that those states which have higher gender equality levels tend to resolve disputes in pacific manner and they are least likely to get involved in the intrastate conflicts.

The international community acknowledges the principle of gender equality and this has also been institutionalized for peacebuilding and the concept of gender mainstreaming is brought up. Notwithstanding the recognitions of gender equality by the peacebuilding actors, still there is very limited research available on this subject. It is illustrated by the feminist academicians that the gender equality cannot be improved unless the power structures and gender norms are changed. However, there is a very limited research on this topic in non-violent conflict areas such as Netherlands.

There is an increase in the feminist scholarship for the conflict and peacebuilding, in the last few decades (for instance Mazurana et al, 2005; Adeogun & Muthuki, 2018). It is varied and considers the aspects to examine women not only as victims but agents and the advocacy for women inclusiveness in the peacebuilding processes. The gender has been used as analytical tool by the feminists so that the unequal distribution of power can be uncovered and reveal the privileges which result in the conflicts upsurge (Sharon, 2010). As the gender perspective is greatly involved in the peacebuilding which has got due recognition in international arena, this has led to the propagation of non-governmental organisations NGOs.

There is availability of immense literature on the women in peacebuilding pertaining to post conflict zones (Issifu, 2015), and the main focus of discussion is the empowerment of women at the lowest grassroot levels. However, the role of women peacebuilders in the societies marked by ethnicity issues and social groupings is often

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ignored as they do not belong to the conflict zones and one such example is Netherlands. Peacebuilding has worked well at grassroot levels, but it can be made more fruitful through women inclusion.

As the unofficial processes are used to represent women, therefore, I chose to include this in the peacebuilding conceptualization. Unofficial processes comprise of harmony and tolerance through grassroot activities in the multicultural societies (Shepherd, 2015). The advocacy by women is restricted outside the formal structure for maintenance of peace and bringing social harmony. This advocacy is significant to build the relationship and reach at mutual understanding across multiple cultures (Shepherd, 2015). This study will evaluate the conflict level and the role of women peacebuilders in improving the current situation.

Through the adoption of informal processes women have made a significant difference. But the exaggeration on women participation in informal processes will lead to the least addressal of women’s long-term interests and concerns (Shepherd, 2015). The women’s perspective will be lost as the decision making is done. Therefore, their participation in the formal institutional process is essential through their participation at local levels for peacebuilding and to avoid their marginalization. This study will assess the role of street level peacebuilders in sustained peace through helping the decisionmakers and administration.

1.5 Women peacebuilding initiatives in Netherlands

During 2016-2019, a National Action Plan (NAP) was launched by the Netherlands on women, peace and security. It was third NAP which was developed after the co-operation between the 50 Dutch civil society organisations and government as well as the knowledge institutions with the same goal. Their goal was to breakdown the gender norms that were harmful, increase protection, to develop equal leverage for men and women in prevention of conflict, resolution, peacebuilding, relief and recovery. The first NAP was launched in Netherlands in 2007, second in 2011 during the period 2012-2015. Most of the women organisation in Netherlands are visible at the lowest level (McKay, 2004). These organisations use the bottom-up approach to empower the women, mediate their roles and raise awareness on peacebuilding amongst the multiple ethnicities. Such efforts are sustainable in bringing peace through bottom up approach but there is a need to amplify

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the efforts for involving women in policy making to better address the issue of gender inequalities. In the feminist theory of peacebuilding, it is emphasized by Hudson (2009) that peacebuilding process can be made more effective through consideration of gender. It not relates to the mere numerical representation but inclusion as well as implementation of policy. Hence, it is crucial to represent and recognize the women at all levels.

The resolutions of United Nations Security Council 1261 (1999), 1265 (1999), 1296 (2000), and 1314 (2000) pertain to this matter. It is acknowledged that the women and girls are differently affected by the armed conflict. It is essential to incorporate the gender outlook and to cater to the special needs of female gender during the conflicts and resettlement, rehabilitation and the post-conflict reconstruction. Porter (2003) asserts that the progress for women is still very limited despite the grave efforts the UN through BPFA in 1995 for their inclusion. Cultural stereotypes hinder the presence of women on the negotiation tables. It is, therefore, needed to implement the UN Security Council Resolution (UNSCR) 1325 which emphasizes the inclusion of women in decision making at all levels. It is further stated by Porter (2003:249) that there is a valid reason for engaging women in peacebuilding. Firstly, women are affected by the conflict and ethnic conflicts. Secondly, inclusive social justice demands their inclusion. As the women are equally affected, it is of great importance that the peacebuilding efforts are directed towards the organizing and inclusion of women at the grassroot levels in the peace processes. Al local level, the peacebuilding efforts involve women but as the formal structures and institutions are involved their presence is minimal. Hence, sustainable peacebuilding is not possible. At multiple levels the women’s involvement is required which ensures the addressal of their interests and special needs and give them due recognition. Although there are no recent events of conflict in Netherlands, but the sustainable peace is desirable in this multicultural society.

The current study will show that the women who have adopted the bottom-up approach are directing their efforts towards peacebuilding at the lowest levels, but as the higher tiers are considered they are excluded from decision making.

1.6 Relevance of Peacebuilding in Dutch case

Though, there are relatively very small issues of peacebuilding in Dutch Case. However, there is a rising tension among different cultures. On the top of that, increased

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inequality is also being considered as one of the significant threats to sustain peace in Netherlands. This is due to the reason that efforts are needed at local level to sustain peace. Further, there is also a tension, though little, among different cultures which is needed to be addressed. It is illustrated by Johan Galtung that intercultural conflict is often found between the two types of cultures, one being the dominant culture or the majority and the other is the immigrant culture which is the minority. Cultures are mostly deeply rooted in the program persons. As different cultures emerge, they imprint rules different to each other which is the main point of conflict and result in attitudes and behaviour that are termed conflicting. Culture defines the identity of a person. As plethora of cultures are involved, it leads to cross pressure and ultimately the identity crisis.

There are approaches defined for multiculturalism as explained by Galtung (2002:35). Firstly, intolerance approach which has its foundation in extremism to kill other cultures whether biologically or socially or suppress other culture through culture of power in forms of invader, colonizer etc.

Second, tolerance approach which is better than the first approach. It is passively peaceful as it believes in coexistence. This provides room to the nation-states that are dominant and are able to tolerate others, this is much superior to imperialism. Thirdly, dialogue approach which is based on the mutual respect and curiosity. The curiosity to learn new things from others and appreciating them for their good attitudes and behaviour. It is no debate of proving other wrong through verbal warfare. It is rather a step towards a more multicultural and tolerable society where mutual enrichment is dreamt of. Although there is no frequent example but still it is a big jump forward. Lastly the last approach is multicultural persons rather than multicultural societies and is still a transition phase. This will make possible the idea of coexisting more than one culture inside one person and not only the society.

Fourth stage is evolved in each culture through its different aspects. For instance, people are multilingual at home other than their mother tongue, they can passively read and understand but not right or speak. There are also multibody lingual persons who have mastered the art of multiple body languages. There are multiciliary persons who relish multiple culinary idioms. There are multireligious people as well who believe in more than one ideology or religion and their identity and guidance is received by more than one idea.

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This leads to another point to ponder on multiculturalism. People can really nurture and enrich themselves from multiple resources when they take on several aspects of culture rather than simply tolerating it. It also highlights the way to handle conflict not only through nonviolent means but also through creativity for joint enrichment. Violent acts mostly arise from the exclusion and marginalization of some against others. It can take the shape of suicide or homicide and in its extreme even war. There is major opportunity cost associated with the creative use of all cultures whether the major or minor, dominant or subordinate and making multiple culture the source of guidance and is considered the major act of omission. Thus, individuals acts determine peacebuilding in a multicultural society rather than the societal change. Hence peacebuilding in such multicultural society is of greater significance.

1.7 Research Questions

The main research question is

• What is the role of streel level women peacebuilders to sustain peace among multicultural ethnic groups in Netherlands?

The sub-questions of thesis are

I. What is the meaning of peace and sustaining peace in Netherland’s non-conflicting social settings?

II. Are there any ethnic, religious and cultural issues in Dutch society?

III. What are the current roles, challenges and potential prospects of street level women peacebuilders to sustain peace in Netherlands?

IV. What are the structural and political frameworks through which women peacebuilders and other NGOs work to sustain peace in Netherlands?

1.8 Research Objectives

The main research objective is

• To explore the role of streel level women peacebuilders to sustain peace among multicultural ethnic groups in Netherlands?

This study has the following research objectives to address the above sub-research questions.

I. To find out the meaning of peace and sustaining peace in Netherland’s non-conflicting social settings.

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III. To explore current roles, challenges and potential prospects of street level women peacebuilders to sustain peace in Netherlands.

IV. To evaluate structural and political frameworks through which women peacebuilders and other NGOs work to sustain peace in Netherlands.

1.9 Structure of the Thesis

This thesis comprises of five chapters. The first part is the introduction which explains the problem statement, research questions and objectives and the significance of research. The second chapter deals with the conceptual framework and the review of literature. The following chapter three delineates the research methodology. The findings of the study are discussed in the chapter four along with the contribution of this research in the body of knowledge. It also incorporates the limitations of the research as well as the provides insight for the future research. Lastly, the available literature and conceptual framework is discussed which also explores the theoretical narrative for the study.

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Introduction

This chapter reviews the research literature in order to conceptualize peace building. Specifically, this chapter aims to review the main concepts, theoretical approaches and prerequisites that define the peace building in Netherlands. This chapter is organized into three sections. The first section offers the overview and summary of key concepts in peace building by aligning the main concepts with the research objectives. The second section explains the gender roles in peace building. The third and final section familiarizes the readers to the fundamental theories and approaches used for this research study.

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2.2 An overview of peace building

The term ‘peace building’ became a common phrase as an outcome of the former UN Secretary-General Boutros-Ghali’s 1992 An Agenda for Peace. Boutros-Ghali defined peace building in ‘An Agenda for Peace’ as an attempt to disconnect peacekeeping (repression of physical or bodily violence) and peacemaking (looking for settlements) and once these processes successfully achieve their goals separately, then peacebuilding start (Boutros-Ghali 1992). In this agenda, peacebuilding is referred to as a mean of collaboration amongst conflicting countries via social and economic developments.

The present day peace building particularly after the conflicts and war is constituent of many threads of activity and ‘Utstein Palette’ is one way through which this is illustrated (Smith 2004: 28). This palette does the division of peacebuilding into four fundamental areas which can be explained as: security; establishment of social and economic foundations; formation of framework for political agenda; and creating reconciliation. Figure 1.1 provides an over-view.

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As per the proponents of Utstein Palette, which are engaged with the peacebuilding must work to bloc different strand of actions in a way which is precisely for states, regions and specific conflicts, pretty like ‘mixing paints’(Smith 2004: 10). John Paul Lederach (1997) advocated an alternate yet somehow different approach to peacebuilding as a developing ‘peace constituency’. He explained that building and sustaining peace as the long term commitments directed towards creating the indigenous infrastructures that is prominent in all levels of society and encourages the society to permits the resources from within society for reconciliation and maximizes the outside contribution into a society (1997: xvi). Likewise to Utstein Palette, John Paul Lederach explained that ‘peace constituency’ contains various actors and actions: including from elite leaders and top decision making authorities, to the directors and leaders of social institutions, religious institutions and journalists, and municipal leaders at the grassroots level. Figure 2.2

presents findings. .

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In the contemporary era, intense criticism is thrown at global peace building and peace keeping missions and methods by the scholars as well as professionals. The span of criticisms constitutes moderate complaints about the failure of peace building efforts to create constituency for peace (in the Lederach vain) particularly in societies which have emerged from violent conflicts which was also pinpointed in case of Kosovo; to the allegations that efforts for peacebuilding are merely the civilizing missions after the cold war scenarios (Oliver Richmond, 2009) that signify the evil forms of social engineering. Some scholars have also recognized that there is a lack of distinction which should be created amongst peacebuilding and state building (Michael Barnett & Christoph Zürcher 2009) and as far as Dutch society which has minimal or no conflicts, it can be argued that as there are less differences among Dutch people in regards to ethnic or religious issues, the process of peace building would be favored to sustain peace.

2.3 Street level peace building adding up to peace

The peacebuilding process can be greatly affected by the activities conducted at the lowest grassroot and street level. Many researchers around the globe have highlighted the importance of the activities at grassroot level and have been successful in peacebuilding. Lederach states that the changing trends for peace are initiated at the grassroot levels which pressurizes for this attainment of peace; for instance in El Salvador, Ethiopia and Philippines (Lederach, 1997: 52).

It is emphasized by Gawrec that efforts at grassroot level provide a base to the strengthening of civil society which brings peace and justice through negotiations at official level. Without these efforts this is not possible to bring peace and justice to the society. Furthermore, she states that the literature is witness to the efforts of the local actors who adopt solutions for peacebuilding as it cannot be dictated from above or the outside actors cannot force it (2006: 441). According to Curle, upon sharing his lifetime experience for peacebuilding, peace is the outcome of the social and spiritual efforts and development of the local people at large (2002: 307).

Several tools are developed for the practitioners to assess and evaluate the impact of peacebuilding efforts at the grassroot level on the peacebuilding at the larger scale i-e national level. It also aided in addressing the challenges that are inherent to the efforts of peacebuilding and addressed the issue of measuring peace as well.

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Similar impact has also been examined by CDA through its project Reflecting on Peace Practice (RPP) which entails the small interventions lead to bringing at larger level. The notion of peace writ large is used which determines the macro-scale peace. To increase the broader impact, CDA also suggested five measures to enhance the probable impact of peacebuilding programmes. Firstly, the participation from local actors should be continuous and ensure its sustainability even in the face of threats and dangers of discontinuing their engagement. Second, the efforts must be linked both upwards and downwards, to get the influential people in the picture through the former and gain support of local people in the latter. The aim is to link more and more people with the key people to increase the impact (CDA 2009). Third, the main cause of conflict must be found and analyze all the forces that drive the conflicts so that appropriate solutions must be reached at. Fourth, the institutional solutions must be created through these efforts defying the possibility of ad hoc initiatives only. Lastly, the response of people must be altered in wake of conflict. The resilience must be enhanced, and people shall not fall victim to manipulation. The changed attitudes must have the analytical abilities, management techniques and positive attitudes and behaviours when conflicts arise (CDA 2009).

Netherlands is a multicultural society. There are numerous forces behind the migration of different ethnicities to the West. The Netherlands became a multicultural society as individuals from Suriname, Morocco and Turkey, South Asian and Dutch Antilles migrated here and are biggest minority. As natives of Netherlands have negative sentiments for non-native Dutch, so street level peacebuilding is essential. Shared values can be created through local level peacebuilding as there is increased tension amongst different cultures. Therefore, in local and national policies the stress to create opportunities for the people to meet each other has increased ever since, which is possible through peacebuilding

2.4 Gender and Peacebuilding

The following section provide insight into published literature on gender and peacebuilding to analyze the obstacles and prospects for women involved in

peacebuilding. This gender aware analysis would assess the research questions on women’s role in peacebuilding.

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2.4.1 Social Identities and Gender Roles

The main obstacle faced by women peacebuilders is socially constructed gender role and characteristics that attributes precise gender role to males and females and thus ultimately rises to unequal gender value and positioning of roles of women to subordination (Lindsey, 2011). Essentially, these opinions comprehend the universally differentiated gender roles for women and men based on biological functioning of genders other than the socially constructed roles, for instance sex role theory of Gray provides the dichotomy of roles divided among women and men. Gray’s sex role theory assumes that men are tend to be naturally aggressive and demonstrate rationality and objectivity in judgments whereas women are submissive in nature and are more subjective (Lindsey, 2011).

Gender identity is defined for the purpose of this research as the various forms in which the aspects of masculinity and femininity are socially constructed across the different cultures, ages, time and space. During the time of social conflicts and peace in society, the identity of gender has an impact on the roles and positions of women and men (Brettell & Sargent, 2009:192). The socially constructed gender identity segregates the roles of women and men by ascribing certain particular behaviors and conduct, features and roles and define the ways of interaction among one another and within a broader society (Strickland & Duvvury, 2003). This study perceives that its not just the gender which give identity to individuals. Instead there are various other aspects and traits which establish individual’s identity as well as social place in society covering both religion and ethnic dimensions (Brettell & Sargent, 2009; Moser 1985). The distinctiveness of person’s social position, gender roles and manifold identities shape his/her actions, outlooks, attitudes and interest. For the purpose of this study, the perspective of multiple gender identities is adopted rather than classifying gender as a single unit.

2.4.2 Gender relations

Another foremost obstacle to role of women in peacebuilding is the unequal relation which give rises to violence and negation or denial of faith in women’s role in peacebuilding. It’s the gender relations that determine the level of influence of conflicts on women, men and regulate the roles to be played by different genders to either intensify conflicts or peace building in society which might not be case in Dutch society. Conflict and peace theorists like Jeong (2017) stressed that unequal relations should be examined which are responsible for promotion of structural violence and restricts the human beings

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to fully realize their potential. The dominant and disproportionate power relations are further supported by the structural violence which is the major factor in promotion of culture of violence (Jeong, 2017). Conflict and peace theorists argue that it is essential to develop sustainable relations among the conflicting parties in order to build and achieve peace (Lederach, 2000). But a gap exists in the assessment and analysis of the gender-relations. Nevertheless, gender is the social construction of imbalanced kindreds formed and intimidated via wide series of societal contexts, social relations and circumstances (Gerson & Peiss, 1985; Kabeer, 1994, p. 84).

Evidences exists which propose that unequal division of roles because of gender relations form and maintain gender inequalities among womankind and mankind (Kabeer, 1994; Young, 1997). This gender inequality is primarily attained with the support of formal resources, societal customs and ideals, civil rights which both the genders accessed, regulate and entitled (Kabeer, 1994:84-90). As the men and women are constantly involved in the intra groups or inter groups negotiation and renegotiation process, gender relations may comes up as conflictual or collaborative in nature (Miller & Rizavi, 1995). This is pertinent to analyze and decompose groups norms as well as institutional practices and look for the gender related social relations within them (Kabeer, 1994:84-90).

Gender relations concerning personal relations especially close relations are equally important where women role is left to act alone in relationships with the intimate or close family members specifically spouses, kids, parents, siblings and spouse’s family (Rowlands, 1998). The argument here is that the socio-political structures in a society and the institutions give shape to the personal relationships and experiences (Butler, 1988). It is because of the presence of gender norms which penalize or reward the specific behaviors to ensure that close relationships recapitulate, adjust and identify pre-defined cultural associations (Butler, 1988). The roles of females in peacebuilding are ascending outcomes of close individual relationships which are infact placed in pre-defined yet inadequate gender relation among men and women (Puechguirbal, 2010). Different women may act customarily in regard to definite retribution and prohibitions in society (Elson 1991).

Thus, it is pertinent to assess the power discrepancies which shape the gender relations and impact the roles of women and men, their reach to resource, the statuses and its distinguishability and the contribution for building peace. Here, resource includes both material resources as well as the non-material resources including spiritual, social and

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political connections, cultural links, time and human resource. This study attempts to explore to what extent the role of women in building peace is positioned in the milieu of gender relations marked by inequality at various levels including societal, formal and private in Dutch society.

2.5 Women’s Roles in Peacebuilding

The following section reviews the literature on role of women in building peace and obstacles related to their historic devaluing and segregation of roles. The group of women is reviewed in the following literature shorn of generating essential peculiarities in relation to religious characteristics. The aim here is to assess the literature on different roles played by women in war and peace and to discuss the resources, obstacles and prospects.

2.5.1 Role of women in peacebuilding

The current body of knowledge on current conflictual, non-conflictual events, building peace and reconstruction exhibits the growing appreciation and

acknowledgement of varied women’s roles in building peace, their perceptions and specific requirements (Anderlini, 2007). This acknowledgment given to women’s contribution is based on the real examples where women’s demonstrated efforts for peacebuilding through the organisations they have established either individually or in groups. Situations where women are not permitted to take part in political activities in relation to the post-conflict restoration and peacebuilding, these women have organized and participated in civic education while focusing on importance of voting for women and provided legal advising on rights (Sorensen, 1998).

The Resolution 1325 by UN recognizes women as peacebuilders, mediators, delegates and counsellors (United Nations, 2000). Soresen cited in Ogega (2015) states different women’s peacebuilding roles involving negotiating for peace, agriculture, advocating for rehabilitation, recuperation, establishing and nourishing peace in non-conflictual communities and reweaving the social elements. The women in Netherlands mobilized their agencies and created vision for peace through innovative ways which is exhibited from various cases where women in Dutch society repressed their religious and political identities in order to collaborate collectively as women to address the issues of social and religious integration.

In the Dutch society, women have also been involved in assimilated approaches like working with the local community in mediating and reconciling but such areas are not

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yet explored. The literature review has recognized that women’s roles in peacebuilding have included psychosocial support, advising and counselling, and providing basic needs to women who are victims of sexual abuse and stigmatization in their local communities. Women have worked along with men for the reconciliation of whole community in order to bring back the women and integrate them in the society (Ngongo-Mbede, 2003). For instance, new and different projects started by the women groups at grassroots level and movements by civil-society involving trainings of nurses, old styled attendants at time of births, healers/doctors for treating victims of sexual violence with warmth, reconciling ethnicity issues to establish and sustain peace, provision of suitable medical care, psycho-social counselling and mother-child care. This can lead towards inter-cultural harmony among different groups.

In cases of devastation, dislocation and to maintain peace in societies with no conflicts, the current literature demonstrate the pivotal role of women in peacebuilding which includes rehabilitation activities such as families reconsolidation, counselling related to health, job referrals, vocational and career oriented training, protection to refugees particularly women and children (Reychler & Paffenholz, 2001).

As an agents for peace, women have played significant role in mobilizing peace movements. Organisations and networks initiated by women have been used efficiently for the mobilization of other women to begin the formal negotiations for peace, sustaining support during the whole process and facilitation for execution of agreements, for instance, UNIFEM report about Colombia specifies that women leaders continued to form, establish agendas for peace and joined various campaigns by civil society for peace negotiations, dialogues and repeated talks despite being attacks, threats and kidnappings against these women leaders. Similar examples about negotiations by women for peace can be seen in Northern Ireland where effective collaborations among women laid down the foundation for amity talks (Anderlini, 2007).

Women’s assistance in rehabilitation of social capitals is highlighted and potential to emerge as the powerful leader and their ability to facilitate the rejuvenation process has been recognized. Strickland & Duvvury (2003: 12-13) highlighted the skills shown by women demonstrate the collaborative efforts and the combined actions for community across different ethnicities, religious and linguistics division. Women have played their part as peace agents for reconstructing the post-conflict community pointed at developing

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the physical infrastructure and reviving institutions like economy, governance and social. Women have also demonstrated key contributions in political and democratization process. But unfortunately, these contribution by women have not received due acknowledgment neither recognition.

2.5.2 Exclusion of women’s roles in peacebuilding

This part reviews the different roles played by women in peacebuilding. This highlights the obstacles faced by women during the undertaking of these roles and the potential prospects for women, and historic features of relegation and segregation. This is obvious that role of women in peacebuilding conform to gendered labour divisions. There are plenty of different examples which shows that women have been involved in playing the non-traditional roles. Nonetheless, these non-traditional peace building roles came with many challenges for women. When the conflict reverts the traditional gender roles and provide a momentary space to women for undertaking non-traditional roles along with strong leadership responsibilities within the frame of private as well as public sphere, the circumstances doesn’t essentially equip women with empowerment and improve the gender equality. And likewise, the outcome doesn’t necessarily reduce the demands (Rehn and Sirleaf, 2002).

The study by Pankhurst identifies that women have to see specific post-war challenges where gender based violence increase abruptly aiming at women to have occupying the non traditional roles, responsibilities and compelling for imitating the customary roles of gender which includes work in the kitchen and fields regardless of the pre-war situations. Pankhurst pointed out in her studies that even in the situations with mild backlash, still there are adequate examples reported which demonstrates the issues related to post-war are diverse for men and women which may include political nominees, testimonies and witnesses in courts for reconciliation, education, mobility, employment and job opportunities (Pankhurst 2007). In post war reconstruction, women faced different hurdles related to their participation in political process. The evidence suggests that the political structure is mostly patriarchal where as a political leader, men are peace brokers and they lock out women while configuring new order (Meintjes, Pillay, & Turshen, 2001: 76). This is important to consolidate women prior to negotiation and preparing for proceeding with non-traditional roles to sustain peace. The role played by women in the times of war and conflict is inevitable. Yet, the contribution of women and their roles have

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been marginalized throughout the history and the systematic discrimination against women made obscure. Though the women casualities of conflict and war are disproportionate, all these women are often portrayed as victims and their contribution and peace is not mentioned. In this regard, a gender-aware understanding in context of conflict allows to identify forms of violence which are targeted at women and girls, boys and men which need to be clogged. With this gender aware understanding, the positive responses and processes becomes visible which will aid in reducing the violence with the support of specific women group which are usually low key are invisible from public view. Doing such analysis assists the demonstration of varied practices and means of participation by stakeholders and highlights varied opinions, capabilities and their perceptions of peace. This also supports in deepening the understating about root cause of various conflicts including structural inequality as well as economic disparity.

A gender-aware analysis about the conflict nature also helps to amends the imbalances which resulted from structural, systematic and historic marginalization of women (Lerner, 1986). These kinds of inequalities also relays construction and reconstruction of knowledge and contribution as well as depiction of women and men in conflict and confrontations, and prominence/faintness of contributions by men and women to conflict and war. It is apparent that these have been constructed unequally throughout the history via biological essentialism and patriarchal worldviews. The contributions of women to war and conflict remain oblivious, invisible and unrecognized. Infact, war and conflicts are constructed based on gender and understanding of women in their meanings and stakes are often not mentioned. If the conflict analysis doesn’t account for these features and essentials of gender disproportion and the gendered nature of conflicts, then it would be disadvantageous to peace.

Moreover, though there are numerous cases where women contributed to peacebuilding individually or in collective form using the activities and actions covering all levels which includes socio-economic, political or others but the fact is that their contributions didn’t receive due recognition nor does their prime concerns, resources or capabilities. Their positions is marginalized and kept limited to recipients (Soresen, 1998). The role of women usually goes unnoticed or taken as conventional practices or sometimes left outside peace talks that are formal (Meintjes, Pillay, & Turshen, 2001).

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In addition, peace-building initiatives commenced by females, for instance health services particularly in reproduction, rehabilitation, mobilization and demobilization, dialogues and negotiation process, social as well as psychological support, and assurance for secure well-being for all the barely changeable or alter norms and reassurance of institutional actions. Resultantly, gender inequalities still persist in women’s peacebuilding roles. The central roles still tend to disregard women’s contributions particularly concerning economic reconstruction strategies, land reforms, voting or electoral process and civic works (Strickland & Duvvury, 2003). Given the current patriarchal and male dominating institutional mechanisms for decision-making, women are not involved in any kind of talks and negotiations. In negotiations concerning political aspects, strategies to execute peace accords and validate institutional programs, the role played by women is insignificant. The unequal access of women to resources particularly political directives, mass media (which transmit messages on peace settlements) may push women towards additional marginalization as their interests, actions, necessities and perceptions will not get representation (Reychler & Paffenholz, 2001). Further, outsourcing of agents as well as mediators that are considered as expert but are not completely trained and prepared to distinguish gender based inequalities further aggravates women’s positions and disregards their roles as well as needs (Strickland & Duvvury, 2003). Women faced hurdles in process of voting, stand-up in election and opting for gender equality in election campaigns or debates. Further, no recognition is given to women in rebuilding programs or supported women and girls combatants as a priority and so these women do not get benefits from land distributions, credit schemes, training for skills, rehabilitation and demobilization. The basic physical security and other explicit needs of women are taken for granted and there are minimal number of government services which may address women’s specific needs. But even more critical yet understudied barrier is the prevailing institution of patriarchy and other institutional practices and structural factors which give rise to systematic discrimination.

2.6 Theoretical Framework

2.6.1 Multiculturalism: a set of ideas and politics

Multiculturalism concept and theory of social identity is used as the framework base for this study. The concept of multiculturalism can be interpreted in numerous ways but the common indicator in all connotations is the recognition. Primarily, justice is the

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main area of focus in multiculturalism as it stresses individuals and groups rights no matter the cultural background and fights against the oppression of minorities from the majorities with differences of cultures (Modood, 2013). This is merely a normative response to the evils of societal injustices and inequalities (Kymlicka, 2002, p. 327). In the western societies the cultural diversity has increased including Netherlands and the normative approach of multiculturalism is followed.

The articulation of sociopolitical context of multiculturalism is not absolute but several factors are involved which determine its spatiotemporal context. Modood (2013 opined that the term multi has two facets. Firstly, it represents the concept of plurality and secondly, it stresses upon the explicit policies and institutional arrangements to address the issues of diverse vulnerabilities (2013, p. 42). The philosophy of Multiculturalism has developed over time and is still developing as the notion of assimilation of cultures to the most dominant one is being rejected and respect and recognition for different cultures is growing in European countries and Netherlands is no behind, melting pot in USA etc. (Sandercock & Brock, 2009, p. 11). Both the political and public discourse include multiculturalism in Netherlands. The multicultural ideas merged into the policymaking in 1960s as the issue of citizenship was raised diminishing the cultural differences which were addressed through configurations of human rights, civil liberty and increasing the accountabilities practices (Kymlicka, 2010). ‘Multiculturalism’ is considered as the ‘normative theory’ with the intention to protect the rights of minorities and to cater their problem of citizenship and ethnic identities. In the western democracies it is an ideology to safeguard the following three groups (Kymlicka, 2010, pp. 36-7):

• Natives e.g Maori in New Zealand, Australian and Canadian Aboriginals and Sami of Scandanivia etc.

• Sub state national groups • Refugee groups.

A few apprehensions have been mentioned above, the current scenario of multicultural diversity in the West has been addressed through different mechanisms at different times. The societies where there are multiple cultural communities are known as multicultural societies. But, Parekh (2006, p. 6), is of the view that the normative response to cultural diversity determines whether a society is monoculturalist or multiculturalist. According to him, there are two broad and main categories of the mono and multiculturalists as per the different

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approaches used (Parekh, 2006). the multiculturalist societies promote cultural diversity whereas monoculturalism strives for culture mainstreaming and develop dominance in the societies.

In this theory, approach of multiculturalism encourages and appreciates cultural diversities where the demands and needs of diverse cultural groups are respected in the society. Whereas in monoculturalism, society mainstreams all cultures towards the majority and the dominant culture (Parekh, 2006, p. 6). In such culture, the majority or the dominant community is often privileged and given the opportunity to participate in the social practice (Allen & Cars, 2001). There is the idea of group differentiated citizenship in multicultural society where the people belonging to different socio-cultures demand for accommodating their differences through some sort of citizenship (Kymlicka, 1995).

2.6.2 Multiculturalism and conflicts

It is stated by Durkheim (2000: 41) that if the individuals and people in the society reject the prejudices, discrimination and stereotyping in general, only then positive fruits of multiculturalism can be achieved. Multiculturalism promotes the freedom and rights of all individuals which is its basic condition sine qua non and is also termed as democracy.

Certain factors that aggravate the discrimination against minorities and their exclusion from social practices are the intolerance and xenophobia. These factors result in aggression which draws the majority’s attention towards the problem and intimidate them. It is intended to restore the minorities status in the existing cultural environment. As the micro multiculturalism aspect is considered in organisational context, it highlights the following factors to be taken into cognizance as: discrimination based on race and ethnicity (glass ceiling, sexual harassment, stereotypes, etc.), age religion, gender, membership to the political party, disability (Skiba, 2017). Conflicts are not eliminated but limited as the members are made aware about the interactions between multiple cultures. They limit it to some extent (Mamzer 2003: 33) for which the theorists of management stress on introducing the management of variety to resolve conflicts (Skiba, 2017).

As individuals learn from other cultures, they strive for peaceful co-existence which is the essence of multiculturalism. The fear of unknown makes the people oppose the change and not adopt it. They try to get substitutes which is mostly stereotyping and reject to confirm the reality. Feelings of safety and peaceful judgement is only possible if other

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cultures are explored in detail and with rigor. Cultural shocks can be avoided by learning other cultures, giving time to understand and encounter one another to comprehend the values and standards of other cultures and value them. The positive aspect of multiculturalism lies in the interconnectedness which alters the mentality of not falling victims to conflict but to support each another in exchanging knowledge, goods and services etc and it ultimately makes the co-existence of multiple cultures peacefully possible.

2.6.3 Social Identity Theory

This research considers the Social Identity Theory (SIT) of (1982) as important as the Turkish and Dutch groups in Netherlands came in conflict with each other. This theory is often synonymous with social categorizing. The process through which people are classified into social categories is known as social categorizing and is the source for intergroup and intercultural meetings and communication.

The conflict studies (intercultural) consider this theory as important as it tends to elucidate the existence of conflicts. The individuals are not the self-contained identities but the group members as per Wagner et al (1986) and they investigate the effect on the behaviours of intergroup members by their membership. These researchers explain that the human tend to maintain a positive self-view according to their group identity which is their membership of a group, community or a state that they relate to (De Dreu et al., 2007).

Social Identity Theory maintains that the people with positive identity which is derived from their group, have high self esteem and maintain it by comparing it to other individuals and groups on the positive attributed dimensions and categories of social identity (Oakes & Turner, 1980 cited in Chattopadhyay, 2003). This positive social identity is derived for the members of the group when their superiority is realized. This is termed as process of social comparison. This has its own negative consequences such as prejudice and discrimination, stereotyping, opposition and aggression against those who does not belong to the ingroup or their community (Hagendoorn, 1986 cited in De Dreu, et al., 2007). The members of one group tend to favor their own group as compared to other groups. This holds true even in the face of no competition and conflict between their group and others. Also, if the groups share same beliefs but the people of one group will always favor their own group (Allen & Wilder, 1975 cited in Tajfel, 1982). This favoritism arises

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as naturally the groups tend to be achieving and maintaining positive image for their group which will earn them positive social identity (Tajfel, 1974 cited in Tajfel, 1982).

Society confers different status to the groups which make them differ socially. The people who belong to social groups with low-status may have negative social identities and feel low-esteem as per their social position (Tajfel & Turner, 1986 cited in Chattopadhyay, 2003). Therefore, individuals strive for better social status as per the SIT. The positive conditions are created by the individuals in the following two ways. First, people will try to relate and associate with those who are dissimilar through social mobility. It includes the dissociation from the similar low social status people and identifying with the dissimilar but high social status people or group (Tajfel & Turner, 1986 cited in Chattopadhyay, 2003). This association with high-status groups make them attain a positive self-image and their self-esteem is enhanced. Second, association with the similar other groups. Though this manner the low ingroup evaluations are rejected and a positive identity is derived enhancing the social status (Tajfel & Turner, 1986 cited in Chattopadhyay, 2003). It also enhances their self-esteem and a positive social identity is created.

The cultural, ethnic, national and religious identity amongst the various groups can be ensured in Netherlands through peace building.

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CHAPTER 3-METHODOLOGY 3.1. Introduction

Research design guides to carry out research in a systematic way (Creswell, 2014). The research design leads the researcher to organize the whole process and enables him/her for finding solutions to research objectives (Leech & Onwuegbuzie, 2009). According to Yin (2013), research design can be categorized as process-driven qualitative techniques and outcome-driven quantitative methods. Many research specialists agrees that research methods should be chosen on the basis of research objectives and nature of the research. As this study aims to investigate the women’s role in building peace at street-level, it is most appropriate to use qualitative research method. The following section highlights the qualitative methods and techniques used for carrying out this research.

3.1. Methodology

The research aims to explore role of women in building peace at street level in order to maintain peace among culturally diverse ethnicities or ethnic groups in

Netherlands. Moreover, this study would also define the peace and peace building efforts in harmonious social settings in Netherlands and to study the ethno-cultural and religious issues in Netherland’s society. In aligned to above, it would also examine the prevailing roles, issues and future prospects of women working for peace building at street level in Netherlands in order to sustain peace. Finally, the study would appraise the attributes of current political and structural frameworks available to the women at street level for peacebuilding and within which other organisations like NGOs are operating in order to maintain peace in Dutch society.

Therefore, to scrutinize the peacebuilding in Netherlands in-depth, it is most appropriate to use qualitative methods. After the extensive research and literature review, two theories are selected to design the framework for this research. These theories are ‘theory of multiculturalism’ and ‘Social Identity theory’. These theories were used as a