How about the social in corporate social responsibility : a comparative case study on how social inclusiveness enhances business strategies based on the different approaches of the two companies Hipp and Rewe in Costa R

How about the Social in Corporate

Social Responsibility?

A comparative case study on how social inclusiveness enhances

business strategies based on the different approaches of the two

companies Hipp and Rewe in Costa Rica’s banana sector

Picture by Tessa Leineweber

Tessa Felice Leineweber

August 2019

Student number: 12279226

MSc International Development Studies University of Amsterdam

tessaleineweber@hotmail.de Supervisor: Dr. Courntey L. Vegelin Second reader: Dr. Mirjam Ros-Tonen

Abstract

Costa Rica is worldwide the second largest exporter of bananas, which brings with it not only economic prosperity for the country but also the persistent violation of human rights on banana plantations. Rising consumer awareness in the North has led companies to implement Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) strategies to avoid these violations. As the name indicates, social outcomes are essential for the success of these strategies, but a large number of companies are still mainly interested in their economic interest. This research claims that only good CSR strategies lead to good CSR outcomes. “Good“ is here interpreted as the incorporation of social inclusiveness, which is not only enhancing social outcomes but also enhancing the ecologic ones for the communities and the economic ones for the companies. So far, little research has been done on these effects. Therefore, this research explores how social inclusiveness enhances economic and ecologic outcomes in comparing different approaches of CSR strategies. More specifically, it looks at two banana industry companies operating in Costa Rica, Hipp and Rewe, which have both implemented a socially inclusive approach with local communities to achieve Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR). The research took place during two months of fieldwork in the region of Limón, known for its banana industry. The findings are based on interviews, surveys and observations and involve farmers, workers, plantation owners, locals, tourists and NGO´s. Further, a consumer analysis in Germany has been conducted to get deeper insights into the relevance of CSR strategies in the North. Key findings of this research are, if a company invests more in social responsibility, the extra costs help to foster a good company image, profits, productivity, the health of ecosystems, human rights and the maintenance of cultures. Further, consumer analysis has shown that consumers assess social sustainability even higher than ecological sustainability and are willing to pay more. With rising consumer awareness in the future, the economic and ecologic potential of social inclusive CSR strategies will increase simultaneously.

CSR, Inclusive Development, Social Inclusiveness, Indigenous, Banana Industry, Costa Rica

Acknowledgements

First, I would like to thank my supervisor Dr. Courtney Vegelin, for her patience and invaluable guidance during the writing process. Her enthusiasm helped me to believe in my topic and hold on to my research. Also, I want to thank my local supervisor Ken for welcoming me to his family, sharing his contacts with me and showing me beautiful Costa Rica. Without our passionate discussions, some of the best ideas might not have come to my mind. I would also, like to thank my second reader Dr. Mirjam Ros-Tonen. Furthermore, I would like to express my gratitude to everybody who participated in my research and shared their knowledge with me. I want to thank all the people who helped to make this experience one of the best in my life. A special thank goes to my roommate Sia, for helping me to start my research and for having someone to enjoy the beautiful jungle with. I am especially grateful for my family and my brother Marcel, for supporting me wherever they could. Last but not least, I would like to thank my friends, who motivated me to start writing, but also helped me to take my mind off from time to time.

Table of Contents

1. Introduction………. 1.1 Relevance and Objectives ……… 1.2 Thesis Outline ………. 1.3 Research Questions ……….. 1.3.1 Main Research Question ……… 1.3.2 Sub-Questions ………. 2. Theoretical Framework………. 2.1 CSR ……….…. 2.1.1 Green-Washing and Social-Washing ……… 2.1.2 Effective CSR Strategies ……… 2.1.3 The Global Reporting Initiative (GRI) ……… 2.2 Inclusive Development ……….. 2.2.1 Social Inclusiveness ……… 2.2.2 Participatory Development ……… 2.3 Conceptual Scheme ……….. 3. Methodology ……….. 3.1 Research Design ……… 3.2 Ontology and Epistemology ………. 3.3 Operationalization ……….. 3.4 Units of Analysis and Observation ……….. 3.5 Data Collection Methods ……….. 3.5.1 Website and Document Analysis ……….. 3.5.2 Interviews ……….. 3.5.3 Surveys ………. 3.5.4 Observations and Field Notes ……….. 3.5.5 Mapping ……… 3.6 Sampling ………. 3.7 Data Analysis ……….. 3.8 Research Ethics and Positionality ……….. 3.9 Quality of Research ……… 1 3 3 4 4 4 5 5 6 6 8 9 10 11 11 13 13 13 14 14 15 15 15 17 17 18 18 18 19 21

3.9.1 Trustworthiness ……….

3.9.2 Authenticity ………. 3.9.3 Reliability ………. 3.9.4 Validity ………. 3.10 Other Limitations to the Research ………. 4. Research Location and Contextual Information ……… 4.1 Costa Rica ……….. 4.1.1 Limón ………. 4.1.2 Talamanca ……….. 4.2 Contextual Information ..……… 4.2.1 The Culture of Bribri ………. 4.2.2 The Historical Importance of Bananas for Costa Rica ……… 4.2.3 The Importance of Bananas Nowadays ……… 4.2.4 The Role of the Costa Rican Government in CSR ……….. 5. Hipp’s CSR Strategy ……… 5.1 Approach ………. 5.2 Perceptions of Hipp’s approach ……….. 5.3 Actual Practices ……….. 5.4 Chapter Reflections ……… 5.5 Concluding Remarks ……….. 6. Rewe’s CSR Strategy ……….. 6.1 Approach ……….. 6.2 Actual Practices ……….. 6.3 Chapter Reflections ……… 6.4 Concluding Remarks ……….. 7. Awareness and Knowledge ……… 7.1 Awareness and Knowledge of Locals and Tourists………. 7.2 Awareness and Knowledge of Consumers in the North ……… 7.3 Concluding Remarks ……….. 8. Conclusions ……….. 8.1 Summary of Findings ……….. 8.2 Theoretical Reflection ………. 21 22 23 23 24 25 25 25 26 26 27 27 28 28 31 31 35 36 41 43 44 45 47 51 53 54 55 56 58 59 59 62

8.3 Suggestions ……… 8.4 Recommendations ……… Sources ……….. 64 65 67

List of Acronyms and Abbreviations

CEO Chief Executive Officer

CERES Coalition of Environmentally Responsible Economies

CSR Corporate Social Responsibility

FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

GDP Gross Domestic Product

GRI Global Reporting Initiative

ILO International Labor Organization

NGO Non-Governmental Organization

OECD Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development

PES Payment for Ecosystem Services

PwC PricewaterhouseCoopers

SDG’s Sustainable Development Goals

UFC United Fruit Company

UN United Nations

UNDP United Nations Development Programme

UNEP United Nations Environment Programme

List of Figures

Figure 1 Conceptual Scheme ………12

Figure 2 Map of Talamanca ……….. 26

Figure 3 Way of Transportation ……… 38

Figure 4 Awareness of locals and tourists on human rights violations ………. 55

Figure 5 How much are consumers willing to pay more? ………..…. 57

Figure 6 Revised Conceptual Scheme ……… 63

Appendices

II Interview List ……….. 75

III Survey Costa Rica ……… 76

IV Consumer Survey Germany ………77

V Sustainability Guidelines Hipp ……… 82

1. Introduction

“Business cannot succeed in a society that fails. […] Responsible businesses have to be committed, not just around the environment but education and health. It’s not about charity. It’s about building businesses that get strategic advantage by making sustainable communities.“

- Samuel A. DiPiazza, CEO PwC 2002-2009

Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) has become essential to most business strategies. However, most companies abuse the concept of CSR mainly for marketing aspects. In this way, some of the great opportunities offered by CSR strategies get lost. CSR does enhance not only ecologic and social outcomes but also economic ones. Due to the violations of weak regulations through international companies, the need and potential for these strategies is especially high in the Global South.

Exemplarily, this research will look at the banana industry in Costa Rica. This case study is interesting in particular since the raise of the banana industry brought economic wealth together with social inequality and ecological destruction (Russo, R. And Prado, E., 2006). Therefore, the effects of good CSR strategies can be illustrated very clearly.

Bananas have a substantial economic factor in Costa Rica and the world. In 2017, the global volume of banana production recorded about 114 million tonnes. The demand is still rising. Costa Rica is one of the leading exporters of the fruit. In 2013, the 50 thousand km2 _{small country exported nearly 780 thousand tonnes. The banana is the} second-leading, best export crop in terms of value, and the reached revenues cover 40 percent of the total food import bill of the country. (FAO, 2018)

However, beside its economic relevance, the global banana industry is particularly known for the violation of human rights and the degradation of the environment. Child labor, health risks and the contamination of land and water are occurring through the actions of companies in this sector (Barraza et al., 2011). Huge multinational companies are

especially critically watched and condemned for their behavior. These corporations are holding a high amount of power in their regions of actions. Their influences are not only economic but also political, making it hard to improve the situation. (Morazán, 2012)

However, since consumer awareness in the global North is rising, companies are increasingly forced to present themselves and their ways of production in a sustainable way. Otherwise, companies are at risk to be publicly shamed through NGO’s or the media and getting boycotted by consumers as a result (Campbell, 2007). Therefore, almost every company sets up specific CSR strategies. The concept of CSR is mainly used in terms of marketing to create a better image and to increase profits. More generally, the goal of CSR is to improve the economic outcomes of the company through acting socially and ecologically sustainable. In order to save costs, a huge number of companies are practicing green- or social-washing; pretending to do good when they are not. However, research has shown that implementing “good“ forms of CSR is essential for financial outcomes and that there lies a massive danger in performing “bad“ CSR strategies. Sen and Bhattacharya (2001) discovered that all consumers react negatively on negative CSR outcomes, while only a part of them reacts positively to positive outcomes.

Therefore, companies should have an interest in implementing good CSR strategies, which are inclusive in view of social, environmental and economic outcomes. However, most of the literature is only based on the business part and pays little attention to the other dimensions. Hence, this research will try to give a more comprehensive overview of the issue. It will focus on the social aspects, more particularly on the effects of social inclusiveness and its spill-overs on the other two dimensions. This case study is based on the two companies, Hipp and Rewe. Both are advertising for social inclusiveness, but research shows only Rewe is following through on its strategy. This research aims to illustrate that through the promotion of an inclusive CSR strategy, outcomes are enhanced in all three dimensions. By comparing the different approaches of the two companies, it will be shown that the implementation of “good“ CSR strategies enhances the overall outcomes. The underlying assumption of my research is that the increasing desire for sustainably produced products from consumers in the North leads to new incentives for companies to act responsibly. The overarching question is whether the possibility to increase profits through good CSR strategies is high enough to reduce capitalistic practices of environmental degradation and human exploitation.

1.1 Relevance and Objectives

This research deals with the debate about the sense and nonsense of CSR strategies. A high number of people lost their belief in CSR since in the past, several companies have been caught abusing it for marketing, while not implementing their strategies in reality.

The topic is relevant because little research has been done on the effects of a social inclusive CSR strategy on ecologic and economic outcomes. Furthermore, relatively few efforts have been made on comparing the results of different CSR approaches. Therefore, this research will compare the two CSR strategies of Hipp and Rewe with each other, which are both following a concept of social inclusiveness. The societal relevance of the study is grounded on the improvements that social inclusiveness might have to farmers and workers on banana plantations.

1.2 Thesis Outline

Chapter 2 starts by presenting the underlying theories and concepts of this research. Chapter 3 presents the methodology of this research. Chapter 4 elaborates on Costa Rica and the regions Limón and Talamanca as research locations. Furthermore, it elaborates on the importance of the banana industry for Costa Rica, in a historical context, as well as its impact nowadays. Finally, it outlines the role of the Costa Rican government in CSR. Chapter 5 and 6 are presenting and analyzing the empirical findings of the research. Chapter 5 is illustrating Hipp’s CSR strategy. It is elaborating on Hipp’s original CSR approach and its actual practices regarding social and ecologic aspects, as well as its impact on the region. Chapter 6 is presenting and analyzing the empirical findings for Rewe in the same way as it is done in chapter 6 for Hipp. Chapter 7 is then analyzing the general knowledge and awareness of people on the ongoings in the banana industry in Costa Rica. First, the chapter elaborates on the knowledge and awareness of locals and tourists in the researched region; then it goes on by analyzing the findings on the knowledge and awareness of consumers in the North, particularly Germany (see chapter 3.4), on the subject matter. Finally, the implications of the empirical findings are discussed. Chapter 8 is concluding the main findings, aiming at answering the research question, reflecting on the theoretical assumptions and giving further recommendations for companies and future researchers.

1.3 Research Questions

This section outlines the questions that are relevant to this research. Four sub-questions contribute to one main research question.

1.3.1 Main Research Question

How are the CSR outcomes enhanced through practicing social inclusiveness in the banana sector of the Global South and how are they perceived in the Global North as can be seen in a comparative study of Hipp and Rewe in Costa Rica?

1.3.2 Sub-Questions

1. What are the CSR strategies of Hipp and Rewe?

2. In what ways do the CSR strategies of each facilitate social inclusiveness?

3. How do consumers in the North react differently to different approaches of CSR strategies and social inclusiveness?

2. Theoretical Framework

This chapter outlines the theoretical framework of my research. First, it discusses the existing literature on CSR, focussing specifically on common mistakes and the relevant aspects of creating effective CSR strategies (section 2.1). Then, it elaborates on inclusive development as a whole and on social inclusiveness and its various dimensions in particular, as an instrument of creating effective CSR strategies (2.2). Finally, the conceptual scheme illustrates the interrelation between the concept of social inclusiveness, participatory development and the outcome of effective CSR strategies.

2.1 CSR

The general goal of CSR is to improve economic outcomes by acting socially and ecologically sustainable. The concept is becoming increasingly prevalent within the context of growing consumer consciousness. Therefore, companies have adopted sustainability strategies as a means of improving their profits and public image. (Campbell, 2007)

There is an array of various definitions for CSR. Mostly every corporation finds a definition for their strategy themselves, making it hard to compare the different approaches. This is particularly due to the relatively broad factors CSR is aiming to address. While some economists define CSR as “sacrificing profits“ for the greater good (Sheehy, 2014), others are seeing it more as a way of compensating for externalities of market actions (Salazar and Husted, 2008). Although there are different approaches, to all of them applies the definition of CSR as “international private business self-regulation“ (Sheehy, 2014). Basically the strategies are about fulfilling business ethics; reaching ecologically and socially desirable outcomes and avoiding to do harm - while generating profits at the same time. Friedman (1970), one of the earliest critics of CSR, states that “the social

responsibility of the firm is to increase its profits“. Therefore, and in line with the laws of

the market, it is essential that ecologic and social targets are also helping to increase the economic outcomes of the company. Newer literature, like Wang, Hsieh and Sarkis (2017) sees that as a result of growing consumer consciousness, there is a positive correlation between CSR strategies and economic outcomes. Therefore, CSR strategies can be seen as a way of self-regulation for companies, with the goal of achieving economically, ecologically and socially desirable outcomes for all stakeholders.

2.1.1 Green-Washing and Social-Washing

A major problem of CSR is green- and social-washing. Both are defined as the exploitation of the consumers who call for more sustainability. Companies are overstating their attempts to take on social and ecological responsibilities by advertising their products or services under false pretenses (Murugesan and Gangadharan, 2011). In the past, a high number of companies have been caught on practicing green- or social-washing. This increases the skepticism of customers and decreases their confidence in buying ecologically and socially sustainable products. Green- and social-washing is especially problematic since there are only limited and uncertain regulations for CSR. These practices evolved through an increasing demand for green and ethical products, competitive pressure and cost-benefit analyses. (Delmas and Burbano, 2011)

Cost-benefit analyses have also been one of Friedman’s main points of criticism in 1970. According to standard economic theories, social costs have to be minimized to maximize profits. From an economic perspective, this statement might have been right in 1970, but nowadays research has shown contrary evidence. Green and ethical products have been proven through several studies to increase economic outcomes (Sen and Bhattacharya, 2001). In turn, companies which practice green- or social-washing risk to get publicly shamed through NGO’s or the media and boycotted through consumers if they get caught (Campbell, 2007). Therefore, this research assumes that the possible costs of green- or social-washing are outweigh their benefits since a high number of customers have added the factors of green and ethical responsibilities to their preferences. As a result, a green or ethical product is more valuable to them.

2.1.2 Effective CSR Strategies

Nowadays, there is no longer the question if companies want to act sustainably; the question is instead in which ways they are going to act sustainable. Sustainability and CSR have become mandatory to most corporations. This research will particularly pay attention to the different approaches companies are using. While a majority of them is only practicing CSR to “tick a box“, other corporations are making CSR a part of their brand identity. (Singh and Nicolaides, 2014)

Although there are different views on the actual effect of CSR strategies, most of the literature agrees on the fact that only good CSR strategies lead to good outcomes.

Research has shown that all consumers react negatively to negative outcomes, while only a part of them reacts positively to positive outcomes. (Sen and Bhattacharya, 2001) According to Wang, Hsieh and Sorkis (2017), “good financial outcomes relate to good

CSR outcomes“.

A good CSR strategy in this research is assumed to be inclusive in terms of social, environmental and economic outcomes. This particular definition is used since it is assumed that all three dimensions need to be addressed equally, so that non of them is under-addressed. One-sided driven approaches tend to create negative outcomes in at least one dimension. Therefore, this research assumes that a strategy needs to be inclusive in all dimensions to foster only positive outcomes. To assess a CSR strategy as good a company is expected to not only meet the legal requirements but also to act morally correct. Employees should be treated with respect and work in a healthy and save environment. The natural environment needs to be protected and ethical culture needs to be promoted. Other aspects are the payment of taxes and the investment in human capital. Particularly noteworthy is that these aspects have to be regarded in all parts of the value chain (transport, etc.). In general, it is assumed that a good CSR strategy gives value back to society. (Singh and Nicolaides, 2014)

Besides the expected value for society, the effectiveness of CSR strategies is also based on the economic benefits for the company. A basic rule in economics is that businesses need to be responsive to changes in market needs, and as research has shown, a high percentage of customers is looking for green and ethical products nowadays (Singh and Nicolaides, 2014). As a result, companies which are sincerely following a green and ethical CSR approach achieve a competitive advantage (Singh and Nicolaides, 2014). Therefore, a CSR strategy is not only seen to be effective if it pays attention to social and ecological concerns; it also needs to bring a specific positive economic outcome for the company. This is line with the classic economic theory about rational actors. Companies need incentives to take action (Hansson, 2004). Effectiveness in the context of this research is understood as Pareto efficiency, a state where it is impossible to make one individual better off, without making another one worse off (Scott, 2000). With regards to CSR strategies, this implies that one is being considered as effective when none of its dimensions (economic, social, ecologic) can be improved without harming another one. Therefore, improving economic outcomes through practicing green- or social washing and supporting ecologic destruction and social injustice is not effective, as well as it is not effective if a company invests all its money for ecologic and social regards and loses all

its profits. This refers back to what Friedman (1970) stated, it is the social responsibility of a firm to increase its profits. Otherwise, jobs might get lost and new social problems emerge. A failing business will not be able to come up with sustainable solutions (Singh and Nicolaides, 2014). Research has shown that the profitability of a company highly influences their ability and willingness to invest in sustainability. Hence, an effective CSR strategy can be seen as a way to “realign corporate with public interests“. (Singh and Nicolaides, 2014)

2.1.3 The Global Reporting Initiative (GRI)

Definitions and regulations of CSR strategies vary strongly between different companies, making it hard to compare outcomes. The Global Reporting Initiative (GRI) is a measure that has been increasingly used in the past to overcome these difficulties. It is specifically mentioned here, since both considered companies, Hipp as well as Rewe, are using the GRI standards in their sustainability reports. Therefore, GRI will be used as a further instrument to compare both companies. The initiative has been founded by the Coalition of Environmentally Responsible Economies (CERES) and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). The GRI Guidelines incorporate several standardized sustainability indicators for companies, institutions and NGO’s that improve comparative analyses of economic, ecologic and social performances of different corporates. The significant parts of the guidelines are economy, environment, working conditions, human rights, society and product responsibilities. Companies need to explain their actions in all of these dimensions and assess then if they are in accordance with the GRI standards or not. (Global Reporting, 2015)

Critique on the GRI standards is that they are completely voluntary and that companies are free to assess themselves. This means that published CSR reports following GRI standards are still not profoundly trustworthy. However, results get still more comparable since companies evaluate the same performance indicators and follow the same protocol of reporting (even though this protocol gives a certain room for interpretation to the companies). (Vignette, Humphreys and Moon, 2014)

Nevertheless, this research will use the GRI standards only partly as an instrument for analysis. The most significant parts, as mentioned above, will be operationalized to assess the considered CSR strategies. Particular attention will be paid to the interrelations between different indicators, which are not part of the common GRI.

2.2 Inclusive Development

In recent years, the issue of inclusive development has become increasingly topical with greater academic analysis, shifting the focus away from growth-driven approaches towards development and a more inclusive model (Pouw and Gupta, 2017). However, in terms of CSR, inclusive development is still under-addressed. Inclusive development asks for a more complex perspective on developmental issues, which includes all three dimensions of sustainability: the social, ecological and economic one. A well-leveled criticism of development is the one-sided, economic centric approach, which fosters social and environmental trade-offs. The concept of inclusive development works to prevent and mitigate these trade-offs and is increasingly used as a measure for “good“ development. (Gupta and Vegelin, 2016)

Gupta and Vegelin (2016) argue that an inclusive approach to development is essential to guarantee balance to the ever-dominant economic growth approach. They apply three dimensions of inclusiveness; social, environmental and relational inclusiveness that have been developed elsewhere in the literature (Gupta, Pouw and Ros-Tonen, 2015). Social inclusiveness builds on the capability concept; tackling inequality and focussing on redistribution and human rights. Ecological inclusiveness looks at the access to natural resources, the protection of ecosystems, the management of resources and responsibilities in a global context. This is particularly important since the poorest are also the most dependent on natural resources and ecosystems (Gupta, Pouw and Ros-Tonen, 2015). Relational inclusiveness tries to analyze the underlying causes for inequality by taking a deeper look at the role of resources and actors. Issues included are age, location, gender and intersectionalities with ethnicity, which may lead to adverse inclusiveness. (Gupta and Vegelin, 2016)

Essential to inclusiveness is that it is not only about who is included in the processes, but also about how inclusion takes place. Particular attention needs to be paid to the diversity of different stakeholders. Vulnerabilities, capabilities and ethical considerations need to be taken into account. Crucial is especially the ability of a strategy to empower stakeholders in their decision-making power (giving people a voice). (Gupta and Vegelin, 2016)

The latter is particularly important to prevent adverse inclusiveness, meaning that the targeted stakeholders of development do not share the positive outcomes and do not

necessarily appreciate or support the processes and actions. These tensions are mostly resulting from existing economic, political or social inequalities. Hence, in analyzing inclusive CSR strategies, it is important to understand underlying causes and structures that may influence processes and outcomes. (Hickey and Du Toit, 2013)

In this research, inclusiveness will be used as a measure for good CSR strategies and outcomes. In this connection, it is important to keep the relationship between all the three dimensions in mind. Social outcomes can be intertwined with environmental and economic ones, as well as the other way around. Desirable inclusive outcomes of CSR strategies should be all interlinked and influence each other positively. This research will focus particularly on social inclusiveness, which will be analyzed more deeply in the following section.

2.2.1 Social Inclusiveness

Social inclusiveness is a highly complex multi-level concept, which is constituted upon a multiplicity of conceptualized issues incorporating various stakeholders on distinctively different levels. It is aimed at enhancing the general well-being within different places, sectors and arenas, encompassing the material, social-relational, as well as the cognitive dimension. Social inclusiveness is constituted around the goal of equal participation, as indicated by Ali and Zhuang (2007). Factors of heterogeneity, such as age, gender and landownership must be taken into consideration. The primary aim of social inclusiveness is the creation and enhancement of participation opportunities for the most vulnerable members of societies. With this focus on a reinforcement of equal participation, the concept of social inclusiveness highlights the importance of participatory development and capacity building. This goes hand in hand with improved resilience to risks and disasters, aiming to break the cycle of vulnerability of particularly these groups within societies. (Gupta and Vegelin, 2016)

By being based on “social roots”, social inclusiveness is split up into underlying concepts, including, among other things, human rights, inequality, redistribution, rural development, entitlements and capabilities (Gupta and Vegelin, 2016). Notwithstanding, the social dimension of inclusiveness is at all times generally focused on the least well off and most vulnerable parts of societies, whether these are people, sectors, or places. On its most comprehensive global level, this implies an emphasis on the countries classified as least developed. (Gupta and Vegelin, 2016)

According to Gupta and Vegelin (2016), five principles lie at the core of the concept of social inclusiveness, which therefore must be applied for a subsequent operationalization of the concept. The principles are as follows: Enhance protection for the poorest; engage all in the politics of development; include the knowledge of all; build targeted capacity building to enable effective participation; ensure equity principles to share the opportunities for development.

2.2.2 Participatory Development

Since participatory development is an essential part of social inclusiveness, this concept will be elaborated shortly here. Participatory development places people at the centre of actions. It can be seen as the opposite to mainstream top-down development practices. The goal is to involve all stakeholders in the decision-making process or “putting the last

first“ (Chambers, 1983). Participatory development is assumed to raise cost-

effectiveness and efficiency of development (Mayo and Craig, 1995). Direct incorporation of the beneficiaries into development programs gives them a voice and makes it easier to target their needs. Bottom-up outcomes are assumed to be way more inclusive since it can be made clear that solutions are in line with the stakeholders. Usually, they have the best knowledge about their situations rather than people from outside who decide what is best for them. This shift of power from the top to the bottom is assumed to bring a lot of potential. (Chambers, 1983)

Especially in the usage of agricultural land, water and forests, research has shown that productivity increases through participatory development. Increasing income and social gains for local communities have been results from these practices. This goes back to the idea that local people know their lands best and care most to treat it sustainably, what leads, in turn, to an increase of productivity. (Chopry, Kadekodi, Murty, 1990)

2.3 Conceptual Scheme

The main concepts addressed in this research are effective CSR strategies, participatory development and social inclusiveness. The conceptual scheme (Figure 1) shows how these concepts are interlinked with each other. First, it illustrates the concept of social inclusiveness, with its five principles of including the knowledge of all, enhancing the protection for the poorest, ensuring equity principles, engaging all in the politics of development and building targeted capacity building. If all of these principles are fulfilled

this leads to the practices of participatory development, which are assumed to foster a “good“ CSR strategy. Good is in the context of this research a synonym for effective. As stated above, effectiveness is here defined as Pareto efficiency, meaning the economic, social and ecologic outcomes of a good CSR strategy are rising until none of them can be made better-off without making another one worse-off. The scheme helps to evaluate how social inclusiveness facilitates good CSR strategies, as well as to analyze reasons for their failure.

3. Methodology

This chapter outlines the mixed research design of this study. First, the research design of the study is presented (section 3.1). Then, the epistemological and ontological stance of this research are introduced (3.2). The next section is then illustrating the operationalization of the main concepts (3.3). Following, the units of analysis (3.4) and research methods (3.5; 3.6; 3.7) are discussed. The chapter concludes with reflections on ethics (3.8), the quality of research (3.9) and limitations (3.10).

3.1 Research Design

This research consists of two main parts. The first part aims to answer the first two sub-questions. It explores the CSR strategies of Rewe and Hipp and presents the differences between both approaches in view of social inclusiveness. It targets the understanding of the different backgrounds, objectives and outcomes of both strategies. Then, the second part analyzes the different outcomes through a comparative case study design. It aims to answer sub-question three and four. The case study pays particularly attention to the reasons for differences in outcomes, such as the perceptions of consumers in the North, decision-making processes and spill-overs to the ecologic and economic dimension.

3.2 Ontology and Epistemology

This research was developed using a critical realist framework in terms of ontology and epistemology. This framework adapts to the belief that realities are socially constructed and are constantly under internal influences. Hence, this research agrees on the fact that there is no one and only truth. (Bryman, 2012) This approach implies that perceptions of realities are subjective, although there is agreement that some knowledge might be closer to reality than other knowledge (Fletcher, 2017). The focus of critical realist research is on the interplay of structural entities and contextual conditions, as well as subjective interpretations. It aims to identify causal explanations for a given set of events. This research philosophy is also in line with the mixed methods approach of this study. In critical realism, qualitative as well as quantitative methods, can be applied to generate knowledge about causalities. (Wynn and Williams, 2012)

3.3 Operationalization

The main concepts of effective CSR strategies, participatory development and social inclusiveness have been operationalized (Appendix I) into dimensions, variables and indicators to help determine the scope of the study, units of analysis as well as questions of interviews and surveys. The operationalization aims to gain understanding about the relationship of social inclusiveness indicators and outcomes that apply to effective CSR strategies. The used dimensions, variables and indicators relate to the literature mentioned in the theoretical framework (chapter 2), but are mainly focussed on Wang, Hsieh and Sarkis (2017), Campbell (2007), Sen and Bhattacharya (2001), Singh and Nicolaides (2014) and Gupta and Vegelin (2016). Some of the indicators have been added and adjusted during the course of fieldwork, as their relevance became obvious in the local context.

3.4 Units of Analysis and Observation

The main units of analysis in this research are the two companies Hipp and Rewe and their CSR strategies in the banana sector of Costa Rica. The units of observation are workers on the banana plantations, indigenous communities, locals, NGO`s, local consumers, as well as the companies itself and other relevant stakeholders.

Another unit of analysis are consumers in the North. Their buying behavior and knowledge on the topic is analyzed with the help of an online survey. Exemplarily, the survey is conducted in Germany. The country has been chosen specifically since both considered companies are German and operate mainly in Germany. This implies that their products and strategies mainly aim at German consumers. Therefore, their opinion is particularly interesting to identify opportunities for improving CSR strategies. On top of that, bananas are the second favorite fruit of Germans (Janson, 2017). In 2018, Germany has been on place five of the countries that have imported the highest dollar value worth of bananas (Workman, 2019). Hence, it is specifically interesting to get a deeper understanding of the knowledge and awareness of German consumers concerning the conditions of cultivation.

This research aims to gain an understanding about the influence of the company’s CSR strategies on stakeholders, as well as on themselves.

3.5 Data Collection Methods

This research makes use of a mixed-methods approach, as this approach is known to add value to research by increasing the validity of findings. It allows to formulate more generalized statements on the one side and to give more detailed explanations on the other (Hurmerinta-Peltomaki and Nummela, 2006). It is assumed that using qualitative as well as quantitative methods broadens and deepens the understanding of outcomes. The variety of data collection methods aims to include all relevant perspectives of possible stakeholders. (Hurmerinta-Peltomaki and Nummela, 2006)

The triangulation of data does also help to deepen the researcher’s understanding (Olsen, 2004).

3.5.1 Website and Document Analysis

Website, documents and CSR reports of the two considered companies Hipp and Rewe are analyzed in-depth to provide background information on the initial strategies of both. This allows to compare the desired and presented outcomes with the actual ones. It helps to analyze the intentions and the honesty of both companies. This data collection method aims to answer sub-question one and two.

3.5.2 Interviews

As part of this research, several in-depth interviews have been carried out with various stakeholders. Workers, locals, NGO`s, indigenous farmers, plantation owners and more have been interviewed on their experiences and opinions on CSR and the considered companies. This method allows for bottom-up, as well as top-down insights in the local context. General questions, as well as follow-up questions, which allow for more significant elaborations on the subject matter, have been part of the interviews. Questions and topics have been adjusted individually to the specific interview partners based on the most relevant subjects. Some new questions and topics emerged during interviews and have then been added to later interviews as well. All in all, 15 interviews have been conducted (Appendix II).

The interviews with indigenous farmers were particularly helpful to gain a deeper understanding on their situations and needs. They provided insights on cultural habits and their relationship to nature. During the interviews, their problems with the considered company became clear and in-depth information about the grievances of their CSR strategy have been provided. In total, three interviews have been conducted, which lasted about 40 minutes. If permission was given, the interviews were recorded and transcribed. Otherwise, notes were taken. The relatively small number of interviews is due to some difficulties, which will be more elaborated in the limitations of this research. In general, the indigenous regions were quite difficult to access and possible respondents feared consequences if they would share their knowledge about the considered company.

Another set of interviews has been conducted with workers of the Platanera Río Sixaola, a plantation under contract of Rewe. These interviews were interesting in particular since the respondents felt confident in sharing informations about their working conditions, salary and insurances. Some of them were also able to compare their experiences at Platanera Río Sixaola with experiences they made on other plantations of multinational companies like Chiquita or Del Monte. This is specifically helpful to set their statements in an adequate context. In total, eight interviews have been conducted. They were recorded, or notes were taken. As a result of loud background voices, I mainly referred to my notes for transcribing. Since the interviews have been conducted during their working time, they are rather short and include only the most relevant questions. On average, the interviews lasted about eight minutes.

Further interviews have been conducted with two locals and owners of subsistence farms, the founder of the NGO ANAI and the owner of the Platanera Río Sixaola. The interviews with the owners of the One World Farm and Finca Tierra provided interesting insights, since both of them have northern roots and came to Costa Rica to create a farm in sustainable and traditional ways. Therefore, they helped to understand certain aspects from a northern perspective. The interview with one of the founders of ANAI helped provide more in-depth information about the history of initiatives between indigenous communities and northern companies. Finally, the owner of Platanera Río Sixaola provided top-down insights on reasons and motivations to run a sustainable and inclusive plantation. All interviews have been recorded and transcribed. On average, these interviews lasted 30 to 60 minutes.

3.5.3 Surveys

Two surveys have been carried out as part of this research (Appendix III and IV). The first one has been conducted paper-based on the streets of Costa Rica. The survey aimed to gain deeper insights into the knowledge and awareness of locals and tourists on the ongoings in the banana industry. To be as diverse as possible, four different areas with different cultural backgrounds have been researched. The areas include San José, Limón, Puerto Viejo and Bribri. Also, in terms of age, it was tried to cover all groups equally. The surveys have been carried out in Spanish, English and German to guarantee the correct understanding of all participants. It covered a rather short amount of 13 questions to enhance the rate of respondents. In total, 102 surveys have been conducted.

The second survey has been conducted online via SosciSurvey.de. The questionnaires have then been published on several German consumer and survey network sites, as well as in social media groups. This allowed for a wider range of participants. The survey aimed to gain a deeper understanding on the perceptions of consumers in the North on the ongoings in the banana industry and the effects of CSR strategies on their buying behavior. Twenty-one questions have been covered through the questionnaire. In total, 110 surveys have been conducted.

In both surveys, close, as well as open ended questions have been used. This allows for statistical evaluations on the one side and for personal elaborations by the respondents on the other side. Both surveys have also been piloted, each by five participants. This helped to make sure that all questions are understood correctly. (Rowley, 2014)

3.5.4 Observations and Field Notes

During the research, field notes have been taken to record details of observations. These data are meant to complement and contextualize other data. Specifically, during field visits or interviews and informal conversations with community members, notes have been taken. Also, my personal experiences at the One World Farm, where I got practical insights on cultivating and harvesting bananas in traditional ways have been written down. Furthermore, if permission was granted, pictures have been taken in addition to the notes.

3.5.5 Mapping

As part of this research, GPS data have been collected via OsmAnd. The tracked data aim to help in illustrating the ways of banana transportation, which are partly quite complicated. As Kwan and Guoxiang Ding (2008) argue, GIS data are a helpful addition to quantitative and qualitative data. They can improve narrative analysis by complementing oral histories, as well as life histories and biographies. In this way they enhance the research’s validity.

However, this data is only used in chapter 5 to illustrate the way of transportation in the case of Hipp.

3.6 Sampling

For the interviews of this research, purposive sampling has been used. Purposive sampling means to interview only to the research question relevant people (Bryman, 2008). The Research subjects get beforehand categorized under criteria based on the research problem (Oppong, 2013). In particular, interviewees have been selected through snowball sampling, a form of purposive sampling. Here, social contacts of individuals are used to find other relevant interview partners (Bryman, 2008). Another relevant aspect of sampling, especially in regards to the choice of the indigenous community, have been safety and accessibility issues (See chapter 3.8).

For the surveys, sampling has taken place randomly. The decision on the four areas that have been chosen for the first survey has been based on the relevance for the research.

3.7 Data Analysis

With the use of ATLAS.ti, transcriptions from my interviews, notes, as well as other relevant data, such as documents and reports have been coded. Deductive, as well as inductive coding, was used to generate the final codes. At first, deductive coding was practiced. The codes originated basically from the indicators of the operationalization table to answer all relevant aspects of the research questions. Later, inductive coding has been applied as well to make sure that no relevant information went missing. More specifically, open coding was practiced. This technique allows to identify codes that emerged during interviews or reading. It allows to extend the research with new ideas, concepts and theories. (Cope, 2009)

The collected quantitative data of this research from the two surveys have been put into Excel sheets and then been analyzed and visualized with the help of SPSS. Answers to open-ended questions have been coded into main categories. These codes later became part of the statistical analysis as well.

The GPS data that have been tracked with OsmAnd have afterwards been uploaded to OpenStreetMap.fr and a map has been created.

3.8 Research Ethics and Positionality

At any given time, I made ethical considerations in terms of voluntary participation, informed consent, safety in participation, confidentiality and trust a priority.

Every person participated voluntarily in the researched project. Every participant has been fully informed about the research purpose, voluntary participation and the right to stop the interview at any given time. Participants had the chance to decide, if or if not, they want to take part in the research. However, especially in regards to finding interviewees who wanted to share information about their experiences with the company Trobanex (Hipp), voluntary participation was hard to find. Potential participants were afraid to lose their income since they are strongly dependent on the company. They could not see benefits in talking to a foreign researcher. Therefore, the number of participants is rather limited and interviews have been conducted with individuals who were not as dependent on the company as other farmers and who felt more comfortable in sharing information. To ensure safety in participation, every interviewee was asked beforehand if he or she wants to stay anonymous. If so, in the thesis, as well as in every over related document, code names are used in order to prevent traceability. This also ensures confidentiality and avoids harm for participants that could arise from the disclosure of their identity. As a result, interviewees have been able to speak open and honest.

Regarding informed consent, every participant was informed beforehand about the matter of the research and his or her role in it. Hence, every individual was capable of making an “informed decision“ (Bryman, 2008), meaning the information given to the participants was sufficient in deciding if they want to participate in the research. Before going into the field, consent forms were prepared as part of the research procedure. In the field, it

turned out that this was not feasible. Especially indigenous people became very shy and careful when it came to signing forms. This originates from another important ethical consideration - my role as a white researcher from the north. Indigenous might have associations with the history of colonialism.

Furthermore, signing forms is rather unnatural to them. Therefore, I adapted my strategy to cultural aspects. Approval of using data, recording interviews and taking pictures has been given orally before the interviews. This helped to make the participants feel more comfortable and generate trust, while consent forms generated mistrust. Trust was also implemented through snowball sampling. With this practice, the contacts to new respondents have been initiated through a person who is already in trust. As a result of this connection, it was easier for new respondents to trust me.

Another important point concerning informed consent was to make clear that I am in my position as a researcher, not able to change the considered situations. Some of the participants asked me to talk directly to the company and fight for their needs. Although I plan on sharing the gathered information with the researched company and provide them with an objective feedback, I stated clearly that my position is rather limited in achieving the goal of changing the situation for people on the ground. I tried to be as transparent as possible about my work and to hold expectations about the impact of my work as low as possible.

In terms of my own safety, I made use of common sense and always left details on where I am going and what I am doing. Also, I always discussed possible interviews or places to go with my local supervisor and listened to his advice. If he or anyone else from my local network warned me of certain regions or people, I decided not to go there.

My own positionality as a researcher is another crucial point of reflection. The perception of me as a white, young, female student from a northern country might have influenced the trust and how participants responded to me. Especially indigenous might have had associations with colonialism and acted shy as a result. To behave in a culturally sensitive manner, my local supervisor gave me teachings on the culture of Bribri and advised me on appropriate questions before I went to the community.

3.9 Quality of Research

In this section, the quality of my research will be discussed. For the qualitative part of this research the two criteria of trustworthiness and authenticity as developed by Lincoln and Guba (1994) and presented by Bryman (2012), will be used. The more general criteria of reliability and validity by Bryman (2012), will be applied for the quantitative part of this research.

3.9.1 Trustworthiness

The criteria of trustworthiness consists of the four sub-criteria, which are credibility, transferability, dependability and confirmability. (Bryman, 2012)

The criterion of credibility measures how close the research is to reality. As the qualitative part of the research was based on in-depth interviews with stakeholders, each stakeholders’ reality is represented. Furthermore, triangulation was used as another method to strengthen the studies credibility. Different methods of data collection, as well as the use of different sources, helped to get a deeper understanding for the subject matter.

Another point that helped to increase credibility was the generating of trust. As described in the previous section, I made sure that all respondents were able to make an informed decision on their participation.

The criterion of transferability assesses if the findings of the research would hold in another context or in the same context in another time. I believe that the specific findings of my research are unique and strongly dependent on the individual context. However, I assume that the general findings of companies practicing green- or social-washing to increase profits are transferable to other contexts as well.

The criterion of dependability is strongly related to reliability. It is fulfilled by being open about choices made during the research process and by being reflective. To ensure that dependability is reached, all records, transcripts and respondent lists have been kept. Furthermore, during my stay in the field my assumptions and choices have been challenged through discussions with my local supervisor.

The last criterion of confirmability aligns with objectivity. During the whole research process, I tried to be as objective as possible. Although in some situations it was quite challenging to stay in this position, I never showed this to participants of the research to prevent an influence on their answers.

3.9.2 Authenticity

The authenticity of a research is related to its social and political impact. This is broadly enhanced through discussing the actual problems of the research and giving recommendations for the improvement of CSR strategies for companies (See chapter 8). Since two of the sub-criteria of authenticity by Lincoln and Guba (1994) are mainly relevant for action based research, I will primarily discuss the sub-criteria of fairness and ontological and educational authenticity in this section.

The criterion of fairness assesses if the research represents all viewpoints of different stakeholders. To ensure this criterion, I made use of purposive sampling (see section 3.6). In this way I was able to get a deeper understanding for different groups, their motivations, experiences and desires. Owners of plantations, as well as workers, farmers, NGO’s and locals have been interviewed to represent a variety of different viewpoints. The viewpoints of the considered companies are drawn from their reports and websites, since it was not possible to get direct contact to them. Although fairness was tried to be reached on all relevant levels, it has to be taken into consideration that in my research on the company Hipp, I only talked to indigenous farmers in communities that are strongly influenced through tourism. As a result of tourism, they are not as dependent on banana farming as farmers in poorer regions and were therefore more willing to share informations on the subject matter. Hence, this research is not covering the poorer regions but it can be assumed that the circumstances there are even worse (see section 9.1).

The criterion of ontological and educative authenticity are related to the improvement of the participants’ understanding for their social settings and the perspectives of other individuals in these social settings. Most broadly, my research addresses this fact by sending information sheets with my findings to the considered companies. In this way, I hope to raise their awareness for the needs and problems of their workers.

3.9.3 Reliability

The criterion of reliability for quantitative research, as developed by Bryman (2012), consists of the three sub-criteria stability, internal reliability and inter-observer consistency. It is related to the consistency of measures.

The criterion of stability assesses if a measurement is consistent over time. Since surveys remained the same over time and every participant was provided with the same information beforehand, this criterion is reached. The following criterion of internal reliability ensures if there is coherence between the answers of a respondent. This criterion is addressed by using similar sets of question. Those were later analyzed for correlations, to see if they are in line with each other. This criterion is particularly important to make sure that none of the respondents just ticked boxes without reading the questions. The last criterion of inter-observer consistency relates to the consistency of answers between different respondents. This criterion only applies to a limited set of questions. The perceptions of the banana industry, as well as of CSR varied strongly between various participants. Therefore, it was tried to build different groups (age, region, education, etc.) amongst respondents to find explanations for this variety. However, the fact of inconsistency between different respondents is instead seen to add additional value to the research. In this way it is possible to identify causes for different perceptions on the subject matter.

3.9.4 Validity

The criterion of validity, as indicated by Bryman (2012), is the extent to which an indicator measures the concept it is intended to. To address this criterion, all questions and answers of the surveys have been well thought through and double-checked during the phase of piloting. Another way to ensure validity of the research was to incorporate a set of open-ended questions in the surveys.

The underlying assumption of my research was that consumers are more aware of ecological than of social problems in the banana industry. My concern was that through posing direct questions on social matters, people would feel that these problems are essential and would express this in the survey, while it is indeed not reflecting their actual buying behavior. Therefore, questions concerning these aspect have been posed more open in the survey, with a focus on general concerns, to get more honest and valid answers.

3.10 Other Limitations to the Research

One major limitation emerged from the just mentioned open-ended questions. A high number of participants did not answer these questions since they require more effort. As a result, comparable results on the considered questions are lower.

The most significant limitation of my research was time. When I went off to the field, I intended to do a completely different research than I conducted in the end. I planned on writing about the positive outcomes of Hipp’s CSR strategy. However, in the field, I was not able to gain any information about Hipp. It took some time until I found out that they are actually not operating themselves in Costa Rica. Instead it turned out that Hipp is working through a sub-company called Trobanex. Together with this information, it also became apparent that their strategies are not as good as assumed.

On top of that, several people warned me on not investigating too much on Trobanex and their practices. Therefore, I had to adjust my study to the new findings and come up with a safe way of research. This was, unfortunately, to the expense of the number of interviews. However, this incidence helped me to get insights on better practices of CSR like the ones of the Platanera Río Sixaola and helped to enhance my research in terms of identifying drivers of failing CSR strategies.

4. Research Location and Contextual Information

This chapter will first give insights into the main research areas of this study. It will provide some general information on Costa Rica (Section 4.1) and more detailed information on the major regions of research, Limón (4.1.1) and Talamanca (4.1.2). Following, contextual information on the indigenous culture of Bribri (4.2.1) (as they are a major unit of observation), as well as on the historical and current importance of

the banana sector for Costa Rica will be provided. (4.2.2; 4.2.3) The aim of this section is to help readers understand the background of the given situation.

4.1 Costa Rica

Costa Rica is located in Central America and borders Nicaragua to the North and Panama to the South. The country is known for its strong tradition of peace and for its political and economically stability, as well as for its high levels of education. All these facts make Costa Rica an increasingly interesting country for foreign investors. (UN, 2019)

During fieldwork, the regions of San José, Limón, Bribri and Puerto Viejo have been researched. The main part of the research has been conducted in the greater region of Talamanca, which includes Bribri and Puerto Viejo. Limón is included as a result of its historically and current importance for banana trade. San José is part of the research to represent perceptions in other parts of the country on the subject matter.

4.1.1 Limón

Limón is located at the Caribbean coast, close to the boarder of Panama. The region is distinctly different from other parts of Costa Rica. It is strongly influenced by Caribbean culture and has one of highest Jamaican diasporas in the world, due to the historical context of labour migration (see chapter 4.2.2). A third of the population in Limón is Afro-Costa Rican, they live in small communities in the area, in barrios in which 90 percent of the population are black (Minority Rights, 2018). These areas receive traditionally much fewer investments than the rest of Costa Rica and racism is a huge problem (Minority Rights, 2018). In 2011, the HDI Index of Limón was almost 40 percent lower than the one of the region with the highest HDI (Arias, 2012). People of the region are mainly working at the port or on one of the numerous banana plantations (Minority Rights, 2018). Banana

plantations are specifically situated here due to the particular soil and high rainfalls, as well as to the economic potential and strategic position of the region (Barraza et al., 2001)

4.1.2 Talamanca

The canton of Talamanca is situated in the southeast of Limón and is bordering Panama directly. The region holds the highest biological and cultural diversity of the country. It includes indigenous reserves of the Bribrí, Cabécar, Keköldi and Tainy along the Talamanca mountains. In 1976 a bridge was built, which connected the isolated region with the

rest of Limón. At that time, multinational banana companies came to Talamanca on the search for new land. Two years later, several economic crises emerged in the region as a result of a fungal disease of cacao. To that time, cacao was the only cash crop of small farmers in the region. Therefore, farmers had to find new ways of generating income. The NGO ANAI helped those farmers to diversify their crops, but the situation also opened doors for international companies to make contracts with farmers. (ANAI, 2017)

4.2 Contextual Information

In the following, the tribe of Bribri and their culture will be explained more in-depth, since they are the main unit of observation in the case of Hipp. The provided information aim to get a deeper understanding for their belief systems and ways of acting. After that, information to the historical and current importance of bananas for the country will be given. This is to explain the high amount of power multinational banana companies are holding in the region and to understand the backgrounds of ongoing practices. Finally, insights on the role of the Costa Rican government in CSR will be provided to get an understanding for their influence on the subject matter.

4.2.1 The Culture of Bribri

The Bribri are the largest indigenous population in Costa Rica. Around 10.000 of them are living in the region of Talamanca. A high number of their communities are quite isolated, situated in the jungle and only accessible with canoes. They are trying to proceed with their traditional ways of living and be in harmony with the nature. Independence is one of their central values. However, they keep facing struggles in defending their land from industries and save it from contamination. Their income per capita is the lowest in whole Costa Rica. Men have often left the villages to work in large plantations and suffered from the pesticides and harsh conditions there. Bribri women have a high status in the culture. They explored several new venues for income, like ecotourism and craft making, so that their men do not have to leave the communities anymore. They also started organic farming to cultivate plants themselves, with cocoa and bananas as their main cash crops. Besides that, they produce about 120 other crops. (Outward Bound, 2015)

During my time in the field, I learned that their religion relates strongly to the environment, “Mother Earth“ and “Father Sky“. They believe they are made out of corn seeds by their creator and god Sibŭ. Non-indigenous people or “Sikůa“, are believed to not be native to this planet and considered as being a form of “aliens“. In this way, Bribri explain why non-indigenous people destroy the earth, rather than protecting it. (Field Note 8, Mar. 1)

4.2.2 The Historical Importance of Bananas for Costa Rica

Historically seen, the emerge of the Costa Rican banana empire started in the late 1800s with the United Fruit Company (UFC), a US company expanding in Central America. Today, they are known as Chiquita, a multinational banana company with vast economic and political power. Over decades, they were the leading force in many Central American States and one of the main reasons why Costa Rica is often considered as a “Banana

Republic" . However, the company started its success with the construction of the Costa 1 Rican railroad; bananas were just a side product to that time. They were planted as cheap food for the workers of the railroad. Once the worth of bananas in the North was recognized, the UFC started to increase and expand their business. Their large-scale

The term “Banana republic“ refers to countries that are economically under the control of

1

foreign-owned companies or industries and goes back to the late 1800s, when large American fruit companies controlled the development of several Latin-American countries in economic, political and social regards (Knes, 2018).