The effect of perceived brand authenticity on enhancing emotional brand attachment in nostalgic themed advertisements, and the influence of actual and ideal self-congruence

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1 The effect of perceived brand authenticity on enhancing emotional brand attachment in nostalgic themed advertisements, and the influence of actual and ideal self-congruence

Master thesis

MSc in Business Administration - Marketing

Name: Nino Bavelaar Student number: 10633111 Date of submission: 17-08-2018

MSc. in Business Administration – Marketing Track University of Amsterdam

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2 Statement of originality

This document is written by Nino Bavelaar who declares to take full responsibility for the contents of this document. I declare that the text and the work presented in this document is original and that no sources other than those mentioned in the text and its references have been used in creating it. The Faculty of Economics and Business is responsible solely for the supervision of completion of the work, not for the contents.

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3 Abstract

Authentic brands have the ability to fulfill the individual’s self-identity, which might be involved in advertisements, especially nostalgic themed. This study tests whether nostalgic themed ads might be an effective method for authentic branding. More specifically, evoked nostalgia is tested as a mediator between perceived authenticity ‘before the ad’ and emotional brand attachment ‘after the ad’. Actual and ideal congruence will also be tested as moderators on the relation between evoked nostalgia and emotional brand attachment. This has led to 6 hypotheses, which were all expected to be positive. The hypotheses are tested empirically in a survey design, with a filtered sample of 134 Dutch and 20 American residents. The results showed no evidence for the mediator and moderating effect(s), the other 3 hypotheses were accepted. This study does however indicate that perceived authenticity ‘before the ad’ and evoked nostalgia ’in the ad’, enhance emotional brand attachment in a nostalgic themed ad. This suggests that nostalgic themed ads can be an unconventional, effective way of authentic branding.

Key words, perceived brand authenticity, evoked nostalgia, nostalgic themed ad, emotional brand attachment, actual self-congruence, ideal self-congruence

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5. RESULTS ... 36 5.1 DATA PREPARATION ... 36 5.2 RESPONDENTS ... 38 5.3 HYPOTHESES TESTING ... 39 5.4 SUMMARY ... 45 6. DISCUSSION ... 47 6.1 GENERAL DISCUSSION ... 47 6.2 THEORETICAL CONTRIBUTION ... 51 6.3 MANAGERIAL CONTRIBUTION ... 53 6.4 LIMITATIONS. ... 55 6.5 FUTURE RESEARCH ... 57 6.6 CONCLUSION ... 58 7. REFERENCES ... 59 APPENDIX ... 75 APPENDIX A: ... 75

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5 1. Introduction

Globalization influences the way we identify ourselves (Arnould & Price, 2000). In this globalization system, it is ‘a challenge for individuals to find a healthy balance between preserving a sense of identity, home and community’ (Friedman, 2012, p. 35). To overcome this identitylessness, customers use objects or brands, which they perceive as authentic to form their own identity (Arnould & Price, 2000). In line with this, the paper of Napoli, Dickinson and Beverland (2016) states that perceived brand authenticity helps establish an emotional connection between a brand and its consumer. Companies seem to have an increasing interest in creating these strong emotional brand connections (Malär, Krohmer, Hoyer, & Nyffenegger, 2011). The potential of this type of connection is emphasized in the paper of Park, MacInnis, Priester and Eisingerich (2010), who found that such connections lead to higher levels of consumer loyalty, which increases a company’s financial

performance. Based on these findings, it does not come as a surprise that brands more and more try to position themselves as authentic: ‘emphasizing the timeless value desired by consumers while downplaying commercial motives’ (Beverland, 2005, p. 460). Brown, Kozinets and Sherry (2003) even suggest that authenticity is one of the “cornerstones of

contemporary marketing” (p. 21).The paper of Beverland, Lindgreen and Vink (2008)further notes that the use of the term "authenticity" in brand-related advertising has taken on new meaning in recent times. That is because advertising could have an important role in reinforcing claims of authenticity.

These kind of advertisements (ads) might not always be so persuasive, since using mass marketing advertisements to project an image of authenticity is believed to undermine such claims (Beverland & Luxton, 2005). Another problem concerning authentic branding and its goal to enhance an emotional connection in TV advertising, is the potential decline of the persuasive impact of TV spots as a result of ‘advertisement clutter’ (Ha & McCann.

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6 2008). To make advertising appeals more persuasive, advertisers frequently use dramatic emotional ad-messages designed to activate the brain and evoke emotions (Moore, 1989). There are multiple ways of making authentic branding more persuasive, however to enhance an emotional connection, it seems that emphasizing the brand authenticity should be the prime goal.That is because this authenticity supports the brand’s linkage to the self, that is so important in the process of emotionally connecting consumers (Mikulincer & Shaver 2007).

Using authentic cues can be an effective way to reinforce authenticity in advertisements (Morhart, Malär, Guèvremont, Girardin, & Grohmann, 2015; Bruhn, Schoenmüller, Schäfer & Heinrich, 2012). On the other hand, nostalgic themed advertising might also be seen a way of authentic branding. Sierra & McQuitty (2007) agree on this and state that nostalgia has becomes a marketing tool for brands, giving them an air of

authenticity and quality. Carrying out nostalgic themed ads might be a way of counteracting the problem of advertising clutter, as it helps to grab the attention of the consumer (Cutler, Iyer & Reisenwitz, 2004; Muehling & Pascal, 2012).

Evoking nostalgia in ads has a lot of resemblance with using indexical authentic cues. That is because nostalgia often tries to make a connection with the consumer by showing a’ genuine historic link to the past’ which Orth and Gal (2014) describe as an indexical

authentic cue (p. 161). Indexical authentic cues not only reinforces authenticity, they also mitigate the questions in the consumer’s mind regarding the ulterior motive behind the persuasion attempt (Beverland et al., 2008). Therefor, nostalgic themed ads might not undermine authenticity like other types of authentic branding do in mass marketing.

The popularity of nostalgia might be explained by the fact that it provides a sense of comfort and close-knit community, a safe haven in an unsafe world (Brown et al., 2003, p. 20). Various brands from all kinds of industries are more and more using the nostalgic marketing trend and some well-known brands have made big profits because of it (Pascal,

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7 Sprott & Muehling, 2002; Spaid, 2013; Cui, 2015). These brands aim to connect consumers to advertising campaigns by utilizing nostalgic elements (Chen, Huan & Yeh, 2014). The paper of Wildschut, Sedikides, Arndt and Routledge (2006) emphasize the importance for brands to include nostalgic advertisements in their media portfolio’s, by arguing that audiences have increasing needs for identity formation and maintenance, due to constant societal change, translation, and every day’s raising complexity.

Evoking nostalgia in advertisements can positively influence the attitude to the ad and the brand (Muehling & Sprott, 2004). However, to enhance emotional brand attachment, a process of creating emotional brand attachment has to be set in place, connecting the brand with the self (Mikulincer & Shaver, 2007). To achieve this, it seems that nostalgic themed ads have to create a nostalgic connection, which can be instigated by using nostalgic elements that directly relate to the prior brand experiences (Muehling & Pascal, 2012).

It might also be possible that consumers automatically retrieve other nostalgic brand memories in nostalgic themed ads, especially if the brand is considered as authentic. This may mean that nostalgic themed ads, showing nostalgic images of a communal past (not directly referring to the brand), can also enhance feelings of emotional brand attachment, based on the perceived brand authenticity of the ad’s sponsor.

Fritz, Schoenmueller and Bruhn (2017) appoint that feeling of self-congruence (actual and ideal) are also important direct antecedent of emotional connecting consumers in advertisement research. Apart from this direct effect, this study expects that feelings of either actual and ideal self-congruence can positively influence the formation of consumer-brand identities out of nostalgic-based self-directed thoughts. So, this study examines whether these feelings help enhance emotional attachment out of evoked nostalgia.

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Is the relation between perceived brand authenticity and emotional brand attachment in a nostalgic themed ad mediated by evoked nostalgia, and is the direct effect of evoked nostalgia on emotional brand attachment moderated by actual and ideal self-congruence?

1.1 Theoretical contribution

Understanding the nature of the process through which advertising influence

consumer behavior is a long-standing area of inquiry among marketing research (MacKenzie, Lutz & Belch, 1986). Emotional brand attachment serves an important brand-related outcome in advertisement research. Namely, previous research on consumer–brand relationships clearly demonstrated that understanding the emotional components of brand relationships is highly relevant to both marketing academics and practitioners (e.g., Fournier, 1998).

Consumers may be more likely to feel emotionally attached to a brand as result of perceived authenticity (Park, 2017). In line with that, the paper of Morhart et al. (2015) states that using authentic cues in marketing communications increases the creation of an emotional bond between the consumer and brand. So, the potential of authentic branding for creating emotional brand attachment seems undisputed. Much of the marketing research on brand authenticity focuses on the crafting of authenticity, and understanding the attributes that make a brand authentic (Beverland, 2005; Napoli, Dickinson, Beverland & Farrelly, 2014). Current studies also already examined the positive effects of using authentic cues as a form of

authentic branding (Morhart et al., 2015; Bruhn et al., 2012). However, current literature lacks relevant knowledge that can help understand what the influence of perceived authenticity, that is already present in the mind of the consumer, is on the effectivity of authentic branding. This study tries to fill this gap, and uses nostalgic themed advertising as form of authentic branding. This can be seen as an unconventional way of authentic branding compared to the authentic cues provided in current research.

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9 The perceived brand authenticity might positively stimulate the amount of evoked nostalgia in a nostalgic themed ad. This is based on the paper of Loveland, Smeesters & Mandel 2010), which points out that researchers should not overlook the possibility that brands, that are often associated with nostalgia, evoke relatively more nostalgia in advertisements. So, brands alone may be capable of evoking nostalgia in advertisements. Muehling, Sprott and Sultan (2014) have similar expectations, namely that ‘when iconic brands (e.g., Coca-Cola soft drinks or Campbell’s soup) are featured in traditional advertising executions, some nostalgic thoughts may be generated in response to the brand itself’ (p. 80).

Current research on nostalgic themed ads, measuring evoked nostalgia, do not seem to report whether this nostalgia originates from the nostalgic event in the ad, or that is generated in response to the brand itself. This study examines if a prior brand evaluation like

authenticity could be responsible for the degree of evoked nostalgia in a nostalgic themed advertisement.

In these nostalgic themed ads, products may usefully be depicted as central elements in an ad like this but might also serve as a causal agents to the actor’s emotions (MacInnis & Stayman, 1993). Muehling and Pascal (2012) appoint that ‘it has not been established

whether nostalgia may have its greatest impact when ad-induced emotions are directly associated with the use of the brand’s product’ (e.g., “I remember the times I drank Dr. Pepper as a kid”) (p. 114), or simply refer to a communal past, ‘or as a result of a classical conditioning process’ (positive feelings at the time of ad exposure) (p. 114). This issue is worthy of further research attention.

In the process of understanding this issue, it is noteworthy that the impact of nostalgia on ad and brand related outcomes is more pronounced if the nostalgic theme is of personally-relevant nature for the consumer (Muehling & Pascal, 2012). This might be explained by the fact that personal nostalgia offers the ability to directly refer to past consumption experiences,

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10 which could create ad-induced emotions that are directly associated with the use of the

product. This can instigate a nostalgic connection that is important in transferring the positive affect in to the brand (Rhajbal, Khouilid, Saligane & Chakor, 2017). This study however, examines whether a nostalgic themed ad that does not directly refer to past consumption experiences, will still be able to stimulate emotional brand attachment.

In addition, more research is also clearly warranted on the different kinds of processes that influence the relation between nostalgia and brand perceptions and behaviors (Muehling & Sprott, 2004). This study tries to fill this gap by examining the moderating effects of actual and ideal self-congruence.Current research has mainly focused on the finding out what drives these effects and what influences they have on advertisement effectiveness. For example, the paper of Beverland, Farrelly and Quester (2010) suggests that nostalgia can create a brand image that instigate feelings of self-congruence.

However, nostalgic themed ads also seem to let consumers reevaluate their self-concept as it instigates self-directed thoughts (Muehling & Pascal, 2011). Feelings of actual and ideal self-congruence before the ad, distinct from the brand image in the ad, might help to extract the reevaluated self-concept in to the brand-self connection. The moderating roles of these feelings of self-congruence have however, never been tested before. Testing these moderators might help better understand why Muehling et al.(2014) found that personal nostalgia is even more effective when the right prior brand associations are in place, as these associations might be responsible for the current feelings of self-congruence. The goal of this study is to contribute knowledge that may help to better understand the complex relationships between nostalgia-based self-directed thoughts and their linkage to the formation of

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11 1.2 Managerial contribution

Marketers continue to capitalize on the popularity of nostalgia-based themes in their advertising efforts (Elliott, in Muehling & Pascal, 2011). The paper of Mackenzie et al. (1986) suggests that research based on diagnostic commercial pretesting models can be useful when trying to get a better understanding of what determines the effectivity of nostalgic themed ads. ‘Diagnostic pretesting refers to a general class of pretesting methodologies whereby consumers first are exposed to a commercial stimulus and then are asked to provide responses to a variety of question designed to elicit their detailed reaction to the commercial’ (p. 130). Tactical significance for this kind of research is especially high for advertising practitioners using emotionally-oriented and/or affectively-valanced advertising, as these ads are known to be persuasive (Gresham & Shimp, 1985). Understanding what drives their effectivity, might enforce marketers to be able to counteract the problem of advertising clutter (Cutler et al., 2004; Muehling & Pascal, 2012).

So, performing a study like this might help better understand if and under what circumstances, emotionally-oriented and affectively-valanced advertising (nostalgic themed ad) could lead to brand related outcomes (emotional brand attachment). Understanding the effect on emotional brand attachment is relevant, as research in marketing already showed that brand attachment is at the core of consumer–brand relationships (Fournier, 1998; Thomson, Macinnis & Park, 2005). Park et al. (2010) also showed that attachment is a significantly better predictor than brand attitude for actual consumer behaviors.

Using nostalgic themed ads in the process of enhancing emotional brand attachment, seems to offer potential. It could be helpful for marketers to know if the effect of nostalgic themed ads is dependent on prior brand evaluations (e.g. perceived authenticity). This can help marketers to better understand why an identical nostalgic themed ad might be more effective/ineffective for one brand compared to the other.

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12 This study will also be helpful for practioners as it examines processes that might influences the affect transfer of the positive feelings related to evoked nostalgia. Especially, this study focusses on trying to understand if nostalgia has more impact on consumers that already experience high levels of actual and ideal self-congruence. This study therefore might support brand managers in their decision whether or not to target consumers that score high on feelings of actual and ideal self-congruence.

The next section will elaborate further on what has already been researched on this topic serves to indicate a research gap.

1. Literature review

Firstly, some relevant information about emotional brand attachment will be discussed in section 2.1. The goal is to get a better understanding of what drives it. Then, in section 2.2 some respected papers that cover perceived brand authenticity will be addressed. After that, relevant information is listed that might explain the relation between this authenticity and emotional brand attachment. Subsequently, the influence of evoked nostalgia on this relation is reviewed in section 2.3. After that, an overview will be provided on the relevant literature about actual and ideal-self congruence in section 2.4. Lastly, some literature will be listed that might explain the role of actual and ideal self-congruence on the relation between evoked nostalgia and emotional brand attachment will be addressed. These sections will elaborate on 6 hypotheses in total.

2.1 Emotional brand attachment

The idea that attachment involves a bond (with the brand included as part of the self) suggests that a critical aspect of attachment involves the cognitive and emotional connection between the brand and the self, defined here and elsewhere as brand-self connection (Chaplin

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13 and Roedder, 2005; Escalas 2004; Escalas & Bettman 2003). By categorizing the brand as part of the self, a consumer develop a sense of oneness with the brand, establishing links that connect the brand with the self (Escalas, 2004). Even as it is cognitive in its representation, this brand–self linkage is inherently emotional (Mikulincer & Shaver, 2007; Thomson, et al., 2005)

Previous research of Mikulincer (1998) suggests that the extent to which positive feelings and memories about the brand are perceived as top of mind, also known as brand prominence, also serves as an indicator of attachment. A Consumer’s attachment in relation to two brands with the same degree of brand–self connection is greater for the brand that they perceive as more prominent (Park et al., 2010).

Emotions are often evoked when attachment is strong, because emotions are inherent to brand-self connection and prominence factors (Park et al., 2010). ‘Feelings linked to brand-self connection and brand prominence could be numerous in type, and different

feelings may be idiosyncratically linked to specific person brand autobiographical meanings and their prominence’ (p. 2). Such feelings could include those that Thomson et al. (2005) note: affection, love, captivation, piece, delight, passion and connectedness. However, they could also include joy, excitement, pride, contentment, relief, nostalgia, or sometimes other feelings retrieved from brand (Park et al., 2010).

Emotional brand attachment and brand attitude differ in the nature of affect they implicate (Park et al., 2010). Whereas attachment implicates "hot" affect from the brand's linkage to the self (Mikulincer & Shaver, 2007), strong brand attitudes reflect evaluations and "cold" affect involving a judgment about the brand (Cohen, in Park et al., 2010). This brand attitude reflects one's evaluative reactions to a brand and these reactions can develop without any direct contact with it, in contrast to emotional brand attachment (Baldwin, Keelan, Fehr, Enns, & Koh-Rangarajoo, 1996). ‘Consumers can have favorable attitudes toward any

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14 number of consumption objects and toward objects that have little centrality or importance to their lives’ (Thomson et al., 2005, p. 78). In contrast to that, the objects to which consumers are emotionally attached, are fewer in number and are generally regarded as profound and significant (Ball & Tasaki, 1992; Richins, 1994). In line with that, Johnson and Rusbult (1989) found that individuals who are strongly attached to an object, are generally more committed to preserving their relationship with it, which is not necessarily a characteristic of favorable attitudes. Customers feel emotionally attached to a brand, they are more willing to forsake personal resources, such as investments in time, money and energy, for this brand (Morhart et al., 2015).

2.2 Perceived brand authenticity

Brands with a strong heritage may, over time, become synonymous with certain cultural values and acquire symbolic meaning beyond its original identity, which helps establish a sense of authenticity among target groups (Kates, 2004). This authenticity is a core component of successful brands as it helps establishing a unique brand identity (Keller, 1993). Authenticity is central to brand status, equity and corporate reputation (Beverland, 2005).

This article of Beverland (2005) appoints that authenticity has been used in different ways to imply different meanings in business research. Also, different dimensions have been used to measure the perceived brand authenticity of customers. Morhart et al. (2015)

identified four dimensions: symbolism, credibility, integrity and, continuity. This

‘symbolism’ part of authenticity reflects the symbolic quality and may help customers to construct who they are and to support them in being their true selves (Aaker & Fournier, 1995; Morhart et al., 2015). So, the symbolism dimension plays an important role in the connection benefit that comes with authentic brands (Beverland et al., 2010), and is also

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15 relevant for the identity related aspect of brand attachment (i.e., brand-self connection; Park et al., 2010).

The credibility dimension of perceived brand authenticity relates to the

trustworthiness, reliability and believability of an entity’s intention at a particular point in time (Herbig & Milewicz, 1993). Yet a brand that is perceived as credible may not be regarded as authentic as the brand may have a strong commercial orientation (Napoli et al., 2014).

Therefore, integrity is also an important dimension of perceived brand attachment (Beverland, 2005). Integrity shows the brand’s commitment to strive for more than profitability and economic interest (Beverland et al., 2008). In line with that, Beverland (2005) states that authentic brands are thought to be driven by commitment to quality with an intrinsic love of the product rather than an economic agenda. The paper of Lasaleta,

Sedikides and Vohs (2014) agrees to this and state that authentic brands often downplay commercial motives in the brand-consumer relationship, leading to social connectedness.

The last dimension of perceived brand authenticity that Morhart et al. (2015) identified is brand continuity. The study of Bruhn et al., 2012) confirmed the importance of brand continuity in the construct of perceived brand authenticity. This continuity refers to core brand attributes remaining stable over a longer period and the likelihood that it will persevere in the future (Morhart et al., 2015). The study of Schallehn, Burmann and Riley (2014) shows that the consumer assesses continuity to be high if the present brand promise reflects past brand behavior. The paper of Beverland (2005) further emphasizes that customers will be more likely to perceive more brand authenticity if they believe that the brand has a clear purpose that is sincerely executed.

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16 2.2.1 Relation between authenticity and emotional brand attachment

As a result of valuable memorized associations, brands can become symbols of quality and evoking feelings of trust, which enhances perceived brand authenticity (Morhart et al., 2015; Herbig & Milewicz, 1993). Wickham (2013) agrees on this, and appoints that these valuable associations are a major determinant of relationship well-being and

commitment in psychological research. Carlston, in Park, MacInnis and Priester (2006) adds to this by stating that the amount of associations, especially if they are valuable, strengthen emotional brand attachment.

In line with these findings, the paper of Napoli et al. (2016) shows that authentic brands have the ability to fulfill an individual’s self-identity project, which helps establish an emotional connection between a brand and its consumer. Beverland et al. (2010) found similar results and showed that brand being perceived as authentic enhance the consumer’s self-congruence as it reinforces their self-identity. Self-congruence refers to “the match between consumers' self-concept (actual self, ideal self, etc.) and the user image (or

“personality”) of a given product, brand, store, etc.” (Kressmann et al., 2006, p. 951). This instigated feeling of self-congruence as a reaction to perceived brand authenticity satisfies the need for self-enhancement (Lee et al., 2006). By using brands as form of self-expressions, consumers have the ability to achieve a balance between their true inner view and the public perception of themselves, which results in cognitive consonance. Consonance creates a positive feeling (Festinger, 1957) that can lead to higher emotional brand attachment. The paper of Harrison-Walker (2001) adds to this by stating that customers are more willing to maintain the valued relationship when they identity themselves more with a brand. Recent research found empirical support for this widespread presumption by pointing out that brand authenticity generates enhanced emotional bonds between the consumer and the brand (Fritz et al., 2017; Morhart et al., 2015)

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17 The study (Grayson and Martinec (2004) warns brands that are attempting to be seen as authentic, without a sufficient cause. They emphasize that it might exhibit confusion, irritation, anger, or outrage for consumers. Research of Orth and Gal (2014) agrees on this and shows that using indexical authentic cues in advertisements, which has much

resemblance with nostalgia, lowers perception of persuasive intent which then mitigates these negative emotions. If a nostalgic themed ad is able to mitigate these negative emotions and succeed to reinforce authenticity, or let the consumer reevaluate current brand authenticity, then based on the provided arguments, it will most likely enhance the brand-self-connection. Thus, it can be expected that perceived brand authenticity relates positively to emotional brand attachment, therefore the hypothesis is:

H1. There is a positive relation between perceived brand authenticity and emotional brand attachment in nostalgic themed ads.

2.3 Evoked nostalgia in advertisements

Nostalgia is often conceptualized as an idealized view of the past (whether experienced or not) and is believed to be evoked in a variety of ways, with nearly always positive emotions (Pascal et al., 2002). As such, it would appear that the use of nostalgic themes in advertising holds great promise as a means of eliciting positive responses (Muehling & Pascal, 2012). Nostalgic themed ads often consist of nostalgic personal experiences, eras, people, places, or memories (Holbrook, 2006; Holbrook & Schindler, 2003). ‘Personal nostalgia’ related to reactions generated from a personal remembered past (‘the way I was’) ) (Havlena & Holak 1991; Stern, 1992). These ads can instigate the consumer’s desire for their lived past (Sullivan, 2009). On the other hand, ‘historical

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18 even a time before they were born (‘the way it was’) (Havlena & Holak 1991; Stern, 1992). Marchegiani and Phau (2013) point out that ‘historical nostalgia still involves the individual’s self as they may take on a role of imagining themselves in the past, hence an element of one’s self may be associated even with a historical nostalgic response’ (p. 24).

The study of Muehling and Pascal (2012) states that ‘nostalgic influences, whether personal or historical in nature, are capable of enhancing consumers involvement with advertising and generating more favorable impressions of the ad sponsor’ (p. 114). An important reason for this could be that nostalgia counteracts self-discontinuity and restores self-continuity (Sedikides, Wildschut, Routledge & Arndt, 2015). Bluck, Chang, Ju, and Kim (2016) define self-continuity as an important mediating variable between nostalgia marketing and consumers’ attitude toward brands, connecting who they are today to who they were in the past. It can be concluded, that self-continuity is the direct motivation of nostalgic

marketing and plays a critical role in the success of nostalgic marketing (Cui, 2015; Bluck et al., 2016).

Apart from the effect on advertisement attitude (Muehling & Pascal, 2012), nostalgic themed ads in general also produce a more favorable attitude towards the brand (Muehling & Sprott, 2004). The works of (Baumgartner, Bettman & Sujan, 1992; Baumgartner, Bettman & Sujan, 1993) agree on this and appoint that nostalgic advertising cues not only elicit higher levels of emotions but also positively influences behavioral intentions compared to non-nostalgic advertising cues.

Braun, Ellis, and Loftus (2002) stresses the importance of the personally relevance of the nostalgia in advertisements for ad and brand-related outcomes. They state that especially personal nostalgia, generated from a personally remembered past, will lead to higher

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19 A study of Braun-LaTour and Karthryn (2007) adds to this by pointing out that

personal nostalgia, succeeding in prompting personal memories of childhood experiences, instigates an emotional responses, that subsequently shape brand preferences if this affect transfers to the brand.Especially when mental nostalgic images of past consumption experiences are intense and emotionally charged, like childhood memories, consumers’ attitudes toward the advertised brand are likely to be more favorable (Bambauer-Sachse & Gierl, 2009).

Personal nostalgic themed ads might directly refer to these kinds of brand-related past consumption experiences. However, personal nostalgia could also show nostalgic elements, not directly related to the brand, to emphasize that the brand and consumer share a communal past. According to Merchant and Rose (2013), historical nostalgia is also able to provide an affect transfer and enhance brand attitude. This indicates that showing nostalgia that is

directly related to a consumer’s past consumption experiences, is not necessary to transfer the positive nostalgic affect in to the brand.

2.3.1 Relation between authenticity and evoked nostalgia

Central to authenticity is the idea of nostalgia (Turner in Orth & Gal, 2014), as consumers obtain a sense of authenticity via nostalgic objects and experiences (Leigh, Peters & Shelton, 2006). The paper of (Brown et al., 2003) appoints that consumers are more likely to perceive brand authenticity if the it has sense of history and connection with traditional cultures, customs, regions and beliefs, and emphasize that this acquires a nostalgic aura to a brand. That authenticity helps to create a nostalgic aura is in line with the article of Belk (1990), which state that: ‘Even though our nostalgia memories are essentially unreal and imaginary rather than objective and inherent in the objects that inspire them, we nevertheless insist upon the authenticity of these objects." (p. 671). The study of Kravets and Örge (2010)

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20 seems to agree on this as they appoint that brands considered as nostalgic have an authentic dimension. They emphasize that their unchangeability makes them common reference points, but also holds collective practices together in the mind of the consumer, ‘Reflecting on these practices evokes positive mood and nostalgia’ (Lenton, Bruder, Slabu & Sedikides, 2013, p. 29).

This suggests that brand authenticity might help evoke nostalgia in nostalgic themed advertisements. This is further elaborated by the article of Kravets and Örge (2010), which describes that ‘in a brand’s aesthetic faithfulness, there is an essence of authenticity as if the past itself has been preserved in it’ (p. 213). This suggests that the stability of authentic brands support consumers in reminding particular brand related memories/associations which could evoke nostalgic emotions. Kravets and Örge (2010) adds to this by stating that ‘a brand authenticates the nostalgic story; it serves as tangible evidence of someone’s past.’ (p.213). This indicates that perceived brand authenticity might also make the brand-related memories in a nostalgic themed ad more real and concrete.

The activation of these kind of memories involves little control, and simply relies on a signiﬁcant overlap of the visual cue with the autobiographical episode rather than a reﬂected retrieval of an authentic event (Rasmussen & Berntsen, 2009). The study of Orth and Gal (2014) confirms this by showing that consumers who are being exposed to advertisements containing authentic cues, evoke involuntary autobiographical memories. This suggests that in nostalgic themed ads, consumers might also evoke involuntary nostalgic memories as a result to the brand itself, due to an automatic nostalgic reflection. Based on the provided arguments, this will then most likely be positively stimulated by perceived brand authenticity. Given these findings it is likely that perceived brand authenticity relates positively to evoked nostalgia, so the hypothesis is:

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H2. There is a positive relation between Perceived brand authenticity and Evoked nostalgia.

2.3.2 Relation between evoked nostalgia and emotional brand attachment

Advertisements have a positive impact on brand related outcomes (e.g. purchase likelihood), if it successfully instigates an emotional response by enhancing heartwarming feelings of "social affection (Stout & Leckenby, 1988). Nostalgia, a “sentimental longing for one’s past,” is capable of generating these kinds of positive emotional response, by increasing self-esteem, fostering social connectedness (Sedikides, Wildschut, Arndt & Routledge, 2008). So, Nostalgia can be seen as a social emotion (Holak & Havlena, 1992; Wildschut et al., 2006; Sedikides et al., 2008). The sociality of nostalgia is reﬂected in its capacity to promote perceptions of friendship and social support (Zhou, Sedikides, Wildschut & Gao, 2008). Based on the self-referencing function of nostalgic themed ads, nostalgia seems to enhance feelings of self-continuity (Sedikides et al., 2015). Self-continuity is described as an essential self-function in biographical memory allowing humans to create and link

remembered selves coherently over time lived , which instigates a greater sense of psychological well-being (Bluck & Liao, 2013; Sedikides et al., 2015). Especially in a personal nostalgic condition, this appears to be a key factor in prompting favorable affective responses, namely: positive feelings, attitude against ad and brand attitude (Muehling & Pascal, 2011; Muehling & Pascal, 2012).

Apart from these positive effects on brand attitude, evoking nostalgia also seems to be able to positively affect emotional brand attachment. First of all, a study of Wildschut, Sedikides, Routledge, Arndt, and Cordaro (2010) shows that feelings of nostalgia lower the attachment avoidance by consumers. Also, the study of Beverland et al. (2010) shows that

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22 perceived nostalgia makes it more likely that a consumer includes a brand into their self-concept.

To include the brand-self-concept, and enhance the emotional attachment, the nostalgic themed ad has to tie the brand to the “affectively laden memories” (Park &

MacInnis, 2006, p.17). Bluck et al. (2016) state that to accomplish this, ‘a nostalgic product or a message should permit a consumer to recall their past self-identity associated with the advertised brands’, which would make them feel more personally engaged to the brands’ (p. 2078). Using nostalgia in ads might instigate this effect; therefore, Grisaffe, and Nguyen (2011) name evoked nostalgia as one of the important antecedents of emotional attachment to brands. The study of Rhajbal et al. (2017) appoints that for brand to tie to an affectively laden memories and increase attachment, it is important that there is a nostalgic connection.

The study of Muehling et al. (2014) shows that nostalgic themed ads (communal) can enhance brand attitude. They examined a nostalgic themed ad that was not trying to make a nostalgic connection by directly referring to past brand experiences. This might be explained by the automatic brand related nostalgic reflection in nostalgic themed ads, which is already discussed in section 2.3.1. This could allow consumers to recall their past self-identity associated with the advertised brands. Based on the article of Bluck et al. (2016), this might help create not only brand attitude, but also instigate an emotional connection. Therefore, it is expected that evoked nostalgia will enhance emotional brand attachment, so the hypothesis is:

H3. There is a positive relation between evoked nostalgia in a nostalgic themed ad and emotional brand attachment.

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23 2.3.3 Effect of evoked nostalgia on the relation between perceived brand authenticity and emotional brand attachment

Strong brand attitudes depend on a person’s judgement of the goodness or badness of the brand. However, with emotional attachment, strength references the brand-self

relationship as a result of brand-self connection (Park et al., 2010). This study also addresses the notion that brand–self connections develop over time and through experiences, and become part of a person’s memory which they are brought to mind. Strong attachments are based on affectively laden memories that are consumer-brand related (Holmes, 2000;

Mikulincer, Hirschberger, Nachmias, & Gillath, 2001). Feelings of brand-self connection that lead to emotional brand attachment are thus often based on interactions between an individual and the brand, which shaped the consumer brand relationship (Baldwin et al., 1996). So, strong attachments are attended by a rich set of schemas and affectively laden memories that link the object to the self (Holmes, 2000; Mikulincer et al., 2001). In line with these findings, Escalas (2004) appoint that narrative processing (creating stories or imposing a storylike structure on events) enhances self–brand connections

Nostalgia in advertisement stimulates this kind of narrative processing and has the ability to bring affectively laden memories back to the consumers mind, which can reinforce the consumer brand relationship (Kessous & Roux, 2008). So, nostalgia in ads could help to remind consumers about the centrality and importance of the brand in a person’s life, enhancing self-brand connection, which is important if an ad wants to create emotional attachment(Ball & Tasaki, 1992; Richins, 1994). The importance of this ‘reminding’ can be explained by the fact that the consumer’s self-concept must be involved for this emotional brand attachment to occur (Chaplin & Roedder, 2005; Park et al., 2010).

Authentic branding through the use of nostalgic themed ads (targeting the brand personality toward the consumer’s actual self) can be a way to involve this consumer’s

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self-24 concept (Malär et al., 2011; Beverland et al., 2010). Perceived brand authenticity might help create an emotional connection out of the self-concept. Namely, the article of Morhart et al. (2015) shows that authenticity has a positive influence on creating feelings of

self-congruence with a brand. This might help set-off the ‘hot’ affect from the brand's linkage to the self, which enhances emotionally attachment (Mikulincer & Shaver 2007), especially if the nostalgic ads succeeds to retrieve valuable brand associations that remind them of the brand’s authenticity.

Based on this, it can be expected that evoked nostalgia will involve the consumer self-concept that is needed to transform feelings of perceived brand authenticity in to emotional brand attachment. The accompanying hypothesis is:

H4. The positive relation between perceived brand authenticity and emotional brand attachment is fully mediated by evoked nostalgia.

2.4 Actual and ideal self-congruence

Self-congruence refers to the consumer’s self-concept and is based on the perceived fit between the communicated brand image and the consumer’s self-image (Malär et al., 2011). Actual self-congruence reflects the consumer’s perception of the fit between the actual self and the brand’s personality, whereas ideal self-congruence is the perceived fit of the brand personality with the consumer’s ideal self (Aaker, 1999). ‘An actually self-congruent brand reflects who the consumer actually is (“this brand’s personality is like who I really am”), whereas an ideally self-congruent brand reflects who the consumer would like to be (“this brand’s personality is like who I would like to be”)’ (Malär et al., 2011, p. 36).

Self-image congruence plays a significant role in influencing consumer behaviors (Kressmann et al., 2006; Sirgy, Johar, Samli, & Claiborne, 1991). For instance, research finds

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25 self-image congruence affects advertising effectiveness (Bjerke & Polegato, 2006; Hong & Zinkhan, 1995), and facilitates positive attitudes toward products/brands (Ekinci & Riley, 2003). Targeting the brand personality toward the consumer’s self, in an advertisement, is a superior strategy for enhancing emotional connections (Malär et al., 2011)

Nostalgic themed ads might evoke a certain (authentic) brand personality (Sierra & McQuitty, 2007), which may or may not match with a consumer’s personality. Apart from that, nostalgia also serve to heighten individuals’ self-directed thoughts at the time of

advertising exposure, encouraging consumers to reevaluate and update their current identity (Muehling & Pascal, 2012; McLean & Pasupathi, 2012). This self-image might indirectly influence the formation and/ or modification of the consumer-brand identity as consumers seem to reevaluate their self-concept and therefore also the role of the brand in this concept . In this process, it should be important that the brand image fits with your reflected self-identity. Namely, this will support a brand’s ability to reinforce the individual’s self-identity, which will enhance self-brand connection (Chaplin & Roedder 2005; Park et al., 2010). It therefore seems that the amount of self-congruence that a consumer already experiences with a brand, influences the relation between nostalgia on emotional brand attachment.

The next chapter will further elaborate on this ‘indirect self-congruence effect’.

2.4.1 Effect of actual self-congruence on the relation between evoked nostalgia and emotional brand attachment

Individuals weave together events of their lives to create and update their current identity (McLean & Pasupathi, 2012). If a nostalgic themed ad succeeds to let consumers retrieve brand related events, it might not only result in a direct nostalgic connection, but it may also indirectly update the consumers’ current identity (McLean & Pasupathi, 2012). Rhajbal et al. (2017) state that attachment to the brand depends on its ability to retain this

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26 identity of the individual, which psychologists have defined as maintaining identity

congruency (i.e. connecting who I was then to who I am now) over lived time (Bluck & Liao, 2013). This identity congruence creates feelings of self-continuity (Bluck et al., 2016).

It seems that brands can become an important part of a consumer’s identity, and that attachment is dependent on a consumer’s identity connections that enhance feelings of identity congruence. These identity connections might be reinforced in nostalgic themes as they aim to create a nostalgic connection, by exhibiting the brand as part of a consumer’s identity over lived time. A brand might reinforce the consumer’s identity this way, which helps enhance the self-brand connection (Rhajbal et al., 2017). The importance for brands to incorporate the self-concept is also emphasized in the paper of Fournier (1998), which states that consumers choose to have relationships with brands because such relationships help them develop a sense of who they are. The study of Escalas and Bettman (2003) also points out that consumers choose to have relationships with brands that help to communicate themselves to others. In line with these findings, Michel and Vergne (2004) name individual-brand image as an important antecedent of brand attachment apart from the nostalgic connection.

According to Beverland et al. (2010), instigating actual self-identity through evoking nostalgia may not be enough to increase brand attachment. However, as discussed earlier, perceived nostalgia makes it more likely that a consumer includes a brand into their self-concept. This might be dependent on whether or not the brand is also able to reinforce the consumer’s current self-concept (apart from the past self-concept), so that the process of identity congruence, and self-continuity will not be mitigated

Therefore, the ability of nostalgic themed ads to incorporate the brand in to the self-concept might be dependent on feelings of actual self-congruence already present in the mind of the consumer. Malär et al. (2011) already founded that brands that generate actual self-congruence will be more likely to create emotional brand attachment. It seems likely that the

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27 emotional brand attachment of consumers who already experience high feelings of actual self-congruence will increase relatively more. Therefore, the next hypothesis is:

H5. The positive relation between evoked nostalgia and emotional brand

attachment is moderated by actual self-congruence, so that this relation is stronger for higher values of actual self-congruence.

2.4.2 Effect of ideal self-congruence on relation between evoked nostalgia and emotional brand attachment

The importance of consumer’s self-congruence and coherent self-concept, in the formation of emotional brand attachment, has been discussed. This consumer’s self-concept includes who she or he was (past self-identity), who she or he is (current self-identity), and who she or he wants to be (desired self-identity) (Ahuvia, 2005; Batra, Ahuvia, & Bagozzi, 2012). Bases on this desired identity part, it can be concluded that apart from actual self-congruence, ideal self-congruence can be important to in the process of creating emotional bonds.

Baldwin, Biernat and Landau (2015) appoint that the instigated self-concept from nostalgic memories helps to remind consumers of who they truly are, and that nostalgia serves as a window to the true self. Beverland et al. (2010) also emphasizes that nostalgia serves to instigate the actual-self.However, the nature of affect or emotion associated with nostalgia is distinct in that it is often viewed as an idealized recollection of the past (Havlena & Holak, 1991; Pascal et al, 2002). Belk (1990) also appoints this self-idealizing mechanism, and state that consumers derive a powerful sense of identity and extend their self, whereby they create an ideal-self via nostalgia. Stern (1992) confirm these findings, and state that either personal and historical nostalgic themed advertisements are linked to an idealization of

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28 the self. The study of Kessous and Roux (2008) further adds that nostalgia can also project the individual into the future, as a consumer wishes to remain his or her identity congruence by transmitting the past though the brand they are using,

If a brand image matches with this ideal/future-self also known as "ideal self-concept,", it closely corresponds to or explains his consumption preference (Martineau, in Ross, 1971). That is because consumers tend to become attached to brands that pledge for a future, ideal self (Malär et al., 2011). Hence, the ideal of the future self that a person wants or has, also links to strong emotional brand attachment (Park & MacInnis, 2006).

Feelings of ideal self-congruence, already present in the consumer’s mind, might reinforce a consumers desired sense of the self that is instigated by nostalgia, enhancing the brand self-concept. Based on this, ideal self-congruence may positively influence the relationship between evoked nostalgia and emotional brand attachment. Therefore, the following hypothesis is proposed:

H6. The positive relation between evoked nostalgia and emotional brand

attachment is moderated by ideal self-congruence, so that this relation is stronger for higher values of ideal self-congruence.

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29 3. Conceptual model

Based on the hypotheses stated above, the following conceptual model is developed:

Figure 1: Conceptual model

4. Method

This part will discuss the empirical side of the study. Firstly, the procedure will be explained, covering the research design. After that, the relevant measures and measurement scales will be listed, followed by information about the sample. Finally, this section will discuss the conducted empirical analyses together with the coherent predictions.

4.1 Procedure

To answer the research question, a quantitative study was conducted through a cross-sectional survey design. The first respondent filled in the questionnaire at 29 April 2018. The survey study consisted of two identical questionnaires, the only difference is that one was written in English and the other one is translated in Dutch. These questionnaires were administered online with Qualtrics consisting of closed fixed-response questions with a predetermined set of responses. Before the survey was activated, it was first tested by ten

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30 respondents in a pilot test. They were asked to look out for any language errors, abstruseness and were asked about their opinions contentwise, to decrease the chances of partial

completion. It took the respondents in the pilot test an average of 6,5 minutes to fill in all questions.

Respondents were first provided with Likert scale questions measuring perceived brand authenticity, brand emotional attachment, actual congruence and ideal self-congruence. After that, they were exposed to an example of a nostalgic themed advertisement. After being exposed to the ad, the respondents were asked Likert scale

questions that measured the degree of evoked nostalgia. Emotional brand attachment was also measured again after the ad, by using the same construct. The survey also consisted of some demographic questions (e.g. gender, age, education). These questions were placed at the end of the survey as they require relatively less cognitive effort, and because they might would have been considered as sensitive and/or evoked privacy concerns. Respondents were however pointed at the fact that the research was anonymous and that answering the demographical questions was not mandatory, see appendix A. To counteract the potential careless response bias, the questionnaire also consisted of a bogus question (e.g.: ‘Please answer 2 here. as a test’).

The chosen nostalgic themed advertisement is one made by Microsoft that promotes the introduction of a new version of Internet explorer. The advertisement is called: ‘Child of the 90’s’. The brand message in the advertisement is: ‘You grew up. So did we!’ It is a clear

example of a nostalgic themed ad, referring to a communal past, without showing brand related nostalgic elements. The brand-related questions are purposefully focused on Microsoft instead of Internet Explorer. That is because it would probably be harder for respondents to identify the brand personality of internet explorer, due to a lack of

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31 associations. If chosen Internet explorer, it would have been more likely that questions got misinterpreted. The pilot test confirmed this.

To stimulate the response rate, respondents were provided with a clear introduction, covering the intentions of the research. However, at that point respondents were not informed that there were going to be questions, covering Microsoft. They were also not informed that they were going to view an actual ad and that this ad is nostalgic themed. Providing all this information beforehand might have chased away respondents which are naturally negative against ads and/or Microsoft, and on the other hand may keep interest of the respondents who are prone to nostalgia and/or Microsoft fans.

4.2 Measures

To measure perceived brand authenticity a validated fifteen item scale of Morhart et al. (2015) has been used covering continuity, integrity, credibility and symbolism each scoring with Cronbach’s alpha’s of >0.7. Continuity was measured with the four item seven Likert scale (e.g.: This brand survives trends). Integrity was also measured with the four item seven Likert scale (e.g.: This brand gives back to its consumers). Credibility was measured with the three item seven Likert scale (e.g.: This brand accomplishes its value promise). Symbolism was measured with the four item seven Likert scale (e.g. This brand connects people with their real selves), all (1=strongly disagree, 7=strongly agree). The measurement of perceived authenticity reported a Cronbach’s alpha of .89.

To measure actual self-congruence, a two item Likert scale (1=strongly disagree, 7=strongly agree) was used created by Hoyer et al. (2011), with a Cronbach’s alpha of .82. Respondents were given the following instructions: ‘Take a moment to think about the brand Microsoft. Describe this brand using personality characteristics such

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32 (your actual self). How would you describe your personality? Once you’ve done this, indicate your agreement or disagreement with the following two statements’’:

1. The personality of Microsoft is consistent with how I see myself (my actual self). 2. The personality of Microsoft is a mirror image of me (my actual self).

For ideal self-congruence, respondents were given the following instructions: ‘Think about how you would like to see yourself (your ideal self). What kind of person would you like to be? Once you’ve done this, indicate your agreement or disagreement to the following two statements:

1. The personality of Microsoft is consistent with how I would like to be (my ideal self). 2. The personality of Microsoft is a mirror image of the person I would like to be (my

ideal self).

This ideal self-congruence measure is again a Likert scale (1=strongly disagree, 7=strongly agree) created by Hoyer et al. (2011) and reported a Cronbach’s alpha of .95. The examples of brand personality characteristics in the instructions:

The brand personality characteristics: trustworthy, genuine, exciting, intelligent provided in the question description. are derived from the article of Aaker (1997).

Evoked nostalgia was assessed using a seven-item Likert scale (1=strongly disagree,

7=strongly agree) from Pascal et al. (2002), including “This advertisement helps me recall pleasant memories” (Cronbach’s α = .95).

Emotional brand attachment ‘after ad’ was measured using a revised seven-point

Likert scale (1=strongly disagree, 7=strongly agree) from Hoyer et al. (2011) with a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.83 (e.g. My feeling for the brand 'Microsoft' can be characterized as captivated), containing of six items in total.

To rule out potentially spurious relations, all analyses were controlled for the variable

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seven-33 item Likert scale (1=strongly disagree, 7=strongly agree) of Hoyer et al. (2011) that was used to measure emotional brand attachment ‘before ad’ (Cronbach’s α = .83). This measurement however, was done before the respondent got exposed to the nostalgic themed advertisement from Microsoft

4.3 Sample.

The population from which the sample was drawn consists of Dutch and American residents that are at least 18 years old. There were also conditions set, that determined whether someone qualified to be part of the sample. Respondents needed to at least be familiar with the brand ‘Microsoft’, which is the brand behind the nostalgic themed

advertisement that is used as example. The respondents were also pointed at the fact that the questionnaire had to be filled on a pc/laptop/mobile which supported sound, as they were going to watch a video, that they needed to carefully listen to, see appendix A.

The respondents in the sample were gathered by using the non-probability sampling technique: ‘Convenience sampling’,based on anonymous respondents. The link to the Dutch survey was mostly spread through social media channels like Facebook for which I used my own networkas a starting point. From there, respondents were also gathered as a result of the snowball sampling method, since multiple respondents shared the survey link on their

personal social media pages. I also got approval to e-mail the Dutch survey link to all employees of the company ‘De Clerq Advocaten Notariaat’ (Law firm) consisting of 45 employees. Amazon’s Mechanical Turk marketplace was also used to find respondents. This platform offers a rich database of potential respondents who want to fill in surveys in return for a small monetary compensation. Only adult, American residents, who speak fluent

English and are familiar with Microsoft qualified to fill in this survey on the Mechanical Turk marketplace.

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34 To check if the sample is equally distributed, the questionnaire consisted of some demographic questions, which provided information about nationality, gender, age and educational background.

Based on the rule of thumb suggested by Green (1991), and the number of independent variables that are measured in the conceptual model, the sample should eventually consist of at least 90 respondents (assuming a medium‐sized relationship).

4.4 Analyses and predictions.

After the dataset had been filtered (this process will be further elaborated in the results section), and the variables have been constructed by their own scale, correlations were

examined between all variables that are part of the conceptual model. This helped to identify potential relations.

A Baron and Kenny (1986) mediation analysis was conducted to assess if evoked nostalgia mediates the relation between perceived brand authenticity and emotional brand attachment. This was done by running a four-model regression analyses, consisting of only continuous variables. These analyses contained one control variable: ‘emotional brand attachment ‘before the ad’, in order to estimate what would be the association between the IV’s and DV’s among a group of cases who do not differ on this control variable ‘emotional brand attachment before the ad’.

In order for the mediation conditions to be met, the first regression, testing hypotheses 1, should show that perceived brand authenticity is related to emotional brand attachment. The first regression is expected to show a positive effect of the independent variable perceived brand authenticity on dependent variable emotional brand attachment ‘after the ad’, when controlled for emotional brand attachment ‘before the ad’.

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35 Next step was to find out if there is an indirect effect going on in this mediation

model, meaning that the relation in hypotheses 1 could be explained by evoked nostalgia. Therefore, a second regression was run, testing the second hypotheses 2, in which perceived brand authenticity should be related to evoked nostalgia. This second model is expected to show a positive effect of perceived brand authenticity on the mediating variable evoked nostalgia, when controlled for emotional brand attachment ‘before the ad’. In the third regression, testing hypotheses 3, mediating variable evoked nostalgia should be related to dependent variable emotional brand attachment. The third model is expected to show a positive effect of evoked nostalgia on emotional brand attachment‘after the ad’ when controlled for emotional brand attachment ‘before the ad’.

In the final regression, testing hypotheses 4, evoked nostalgia should remain a significant predictor of emotional brand attachment, but perceived brand authenticity should no longer significantly predict emotional brand attachment. If this and the other three conditions are met, full mediation is supported. This study expected to show that perceived brand authenticity enhances emotional brand attachment both directly and indirectly through an increase in the level of evoked nostalgia, providing evidence for hypotheses 4. If only the first three conditions are met, then partial mediation is supported (Baron & Kenny, 1986).

This study also examined the conditions under which the relation between evoked nostalgia and emotional brand attachment operate. More specifically, this study examined whether this relation interacts with either one of the moderating variables: actual

self-congruence and ideal self-self-congruence, referring to hypotheses 5 and 6. For both hypotheses a

Baron and Kenny (1986) moderation analysis was conducted. So, both of these hypotheses were independently tested by carrying out a two-model regression analyses.

The first step in examining these moderating effects was to find out if the main effect of evoked nostalgia and emotional brand attachment is significant. The first model in both of

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36 the two-model regression analyses was used to examine this main effect. In both analyses, the first model is expected to show positive main effects between perceived brand authenticity and emotional brand attachment. The second model, in both analyses, served to test the interaction effects. To do this, evoked nostalgia and the self-congruence variables first had to be centered. These mean-centered independent and moderating variables were then multiplied, and the influence of these combined variables on emotional brand attachment was checked to identify if there are interaction effects going. Finding a significant effect, will indicate that there is a moderating effect on the relation between evoked nostalgia and emotional brand attachment going on (Field, 2013). The second model in both analyses was expected to show positive significant interaction effects. This will then indicate that the effect of evoked nostalgia on the emotional brand attachment ‘after the ad’ interacts with both the moderating variables: actual and ideal self-congruence, when controlled for emotional brand attachment ‘before the ad’.

5. Results

This section will discuss the outcomes of the data analyses. First, the methods used to prepare the data will be clarified. After that an overview of the respondents, who did not get filtered out the dataset, will be presented. Finally, the results for the hypotheses will be explained, followed by a coherent summary of the results.

5.1 Data preparation

The surveys were taken offline on the 18th op May. The total number of respondents came down at 323. 104 cases were not exported from Qualtrics to the raw SPSS dataset. These consist of questionnaires that were unfinished, finished in an inappropriate short

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37 amount of time, or consisted of a wrong answer to the instructed response item (bogus

question).

Qualtrics offers the option to measure the amount of time each respondent spent on a page in the questionnaire before he/she presses continue. Respondents in the pilot test needed at least twenty seconds to provide a well-thought-out answer to the questions that measured actual and ideal self-congruence. Based on this, a dummy variable:

‘self_congruence_pagesubmit’ was created, for which cases that skipped the relevant page in less than 20 seconds, were assigned a score of 0 instead of 1. Only cases that scored 1, consisting of 139 Dutch, and 20 Americans respondents, were taken in account for the upcoming measurements, meaning that 60 respondents were filtered out at this point.

After that, the dataset was checked for outliers. This was done by standardizing the variable scores of evoked nostalgia, perceived brand authenticity and emotional brand attachment ‘after the ad’. After running frequencies of them in SPSS, it appeared that 5 respondents had a Z-score of either <-3 or >3 for at least one of these variables. These cases were also not taken in to account for the upcoming measurements to enhance the normality of the dataset. The frequency tests also showed that there was no data missing, which is logical since respondents were obligated to answer all questions (apart from te demographical questions). After this data cleaning, 154 respondents remained relevant. A demographical sample overview was drawn based on these respondents, which can be found in table 2.

Next up, the reliability of the relevant variable measurements was tested. A reliability analysis was run on SPSS, measuring the Cronbach’s alpha of all the scales in the conceptual model. Values of Cronbach’s alpha above 0.7 are acceptable, however, values above 0.8 are preferable (Pallant, 2011). The full correlation matrix shows that all measurements in this study have a Cronbach’s alpha score higher than .8, which can be found in table 1.

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38 The next step in the data analyses was finding out if the variables correlate with each other. A bivariate correlation test was run to do so. The correlations, together with the means and standard deviations can also be found in table 1.

Finally, this study also checked for potential multicollinearity problems in both two-model regression analyses. These could not be found as the collinearity tests showed higher tolerance values than 0.1 (Pallant, 2011), and VIF scores less than 10 (O’Brien, 2007).

Table 1: Descriptives, correlations (Cronbach’s Alpha’s on diagonal)

M SD 1 2 3 4 5 6

1 Emotional brand attachment ‘after ad’

3.26 0.74 (,89) 2 Perceived brand authenticity 4.64 0.77 0.60** (,89) 3 Evoked nostalgia 5.80 0.93 0.36** 0.27** (,94) 4 Actual self-congruence 2.57 0.83 0.45** 0.49** 0.13 (,86) 5 Ideal self-congruence 2.75 0.91 0.34** 0.44** 0.16* 0.58** (,93) 6 Emotional brand

attachment ‘before ad’

2.99 0.68 0.76** 0.57** 0.14 0.39** 0.21** (,83)

Note. * p<0.05. ** p<0.01

5.2 Respondents

154 of all 323 respondents were taken into account in the analysis. This sample consisted of 46,8% females (N= 72), and 52,6 % (N=81).The respondents were also asked about their age, and based on their answers dived in three age categories. The oldest group is born before 1973 and made up for 18,2% of the sample. 9,7 % of the respondents belonged to the middle group consisting of people born between 1973 and 1989. The youngest age

category was relatively over-represented by making up for 72,1% of the group (N=111). The people in this age category are born between 1990 and 2000, meaning that they could be aged between 18 and 27. The exact average age in the sample could not be determined, but based

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39 on these findings, it can be concluded that for age, the sample is unequally distributed. The same counts for the level of education in this sample. Respondents filling in the Dutch survey were asked to declare their highest form of experienced education. The options ranged from the lowest possibility: ‘VMBO’ up until ‘WO’, which can be seen as the highest form of education in the Netherlands. This abbreviation could be literarily translated as ‘Scientific Education’. 86% of the sample was active or had been active before (may or may not

finished), on this level of education (N= 86). So, it seems that participants in this study were highly educated, however the education level of the 20 participants who filled in the

American survey is unknown. All demographics can be found in table 1.

Table 2: Demographic summary

Variable Level # of subjects % of

subjects Nationality Dutch US 134 20 87 13 Gender Man 72 46,8 Female 81 52,6 Age Before 1973 28 18,2 Between 1973 and 1989 15 9,7 Between 1990 and 2000 111 72,1

Educational background VMBO 0 0

MBO 10 7,5 HAVO 3 2,2 HBO 22 16,4 VWO 10 7,5 Gymnasium 3 2,2 WO 86 64,2 Different 0 0

Note: Gender (n=153), Age (n=154), Education, (n=134)

5.3 Hypotheses testing

As expected in hypothesis 1, there is a significant effect of perceived brand authenticity on emotional brand attachment. This positive effect can be found in Model 1 table 3 (𝛽 = 0.245, SE = 0.057, p<0.01). In this study, two cases that differ by one unit on

The effect of perceived brand authenticity on enhancing emotional brand attachment in nostalgic themed advertisements, and the influence of actual and ideal self-congruence

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