Version: 1_pub (final, public version), 21-08-2014
Towards a New Perspective on the Dynamic and Changing
Nature of Information Management and the CIO
Reinier van der Plank
Student ID: 10122699
MSc Thesis – Information Studies: Business Information Systems
University of Amsterdam – Faculty of Science
ReiniervdPlank@ziggo.nl
/
RvdPlank@uva.nl
Supervisor:
drs. Toon Abcouwer
University of Amsterdam – Faculty of Science
Abcouwer@uva.nl
Abstract
.
In this paper, performed research regarding information management and the role and competencies of the CIO (Chief Information Officer) is discussed in relation to change and changing dynamics (using the Adaptive Cycle of Resilience). In the study, change and changing dynamics were explored both within and in relation to the chosen subjects. In the context of dynamic change, Information management and the CIO are both subjects that have not been researched extensively. Goal and aim of this paper is therefore to first get a clear understanding of (possible) influence(s) of dynamic change on information management and the CIO and secondly to explore if this results in a new perspective. A literature study has been performed to get a better understanding of change in general and (the different views) on information management and the CIO. The literature study and derived conceptual framework was then used as a starting point to conduct 17 interviews to explore the subjects separately, together with the (possible) relationships between the various subjects and the possible influence of dynamic change. The interviews show that dynamic changes are indeed influencing both information management and the CIO and that it is becoming increasingly important to be able to recognize and (be able to) respond to these changes, therefore influencing the core aspects of the role and relatedcompetencies. However there are also clear visible changes within the researched topics; resulting in the need for a new perspective. This new perspective is presented and discussed in this paper. Both literature, practice and the results of the conducted interviews show that the new perspective is based around a few key aspects. One: a shift of information management towards the business and information on a strategic and structural level within the organization. Two: within this shift, two core aspects are visible; one focused more on strategy and innovation while the other is closer related to structure, operations and the (connection to) various other (related) aspects of information management. These two core aspects combined result in a new iteration of the Amsterdam Information management Model; the Amsterdam Information management Model 2 (AIM2). Within these two new core aspects two roles can be derived that can be placed within the general Chief Information Manger role: the (Chief) Innovation Officer and (Chief) Process Officer, each role closely related to one of the core aspects of information management within the new perspective. The last part of the new perspectives lies within the competencies that are required. A new version of the earlier researched Amsterdam Information Manager Model is therefore presented. In the new version, the four core competencies relate partly to the (new) dynamic nature of the CIO and its environment. Based upon earlier performed research and the conducted interviews according to the new version, the so called Amsterdam Information Manager Model 2 (AI2M2) or Amsterdam CIO Model 2 (ACM2), the four core competencies are: critical and analytical thinking skills, affinity with innovation and IT, adaptive and interpersonal skills and process and business knowledge. The new
perspective is especially visible within the analytical and adaptive skills and the affinity with innovation. In conclusion there are clear relationships and influences visible between (dynamic) change, information management and the CIO. These relationships and influences clearly show (the need for) a new perspective within the various aspects of information management and the related roles and competencies.
Keywords.Information Management, Business-IT alignment, Chief Information Officer, CIO, Information Manager, Chief Innovation Officer, Chief Process Officer, Amsterdam Information management Model, AIM, Amsterdam Information Manager Model, AI2M, Amsterdam Information Manager Model 2, AI2M2, Amsterdam Information management Model 2, AI2M, change, innovation, adaptive cycle of resilience, competency, competencies, competency profiles
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“Information technology and business are becoming inextricably interwoven. I don't think anybody can talk meaningfully about one without talking about the other.” (Gates, 1999)
― Bill Gates, 1999
1. Introduction
Continuous changing and shifting dynamics within the economy (R. R. Nelson & Winter, 2009; Weeks, 2011) and the field of information and communication technology (Corrado & Hulten, 2010; Rosenberg, 1998; Tapscott & Caston, 1993) are becoming increasingly apparent. These changes and shifts from and towards uncertainty, require us to question ourselves and the things around us as shown for example on a technological level in the work by Heidegger (1954). In this work Heidegger, discusses the fact that technology should be questioned to make it possible to free ourselves from a limiting way of experiencing the world. However, within the topic of information management, often referred to as Business-IT alignment (BITA) (Maes, Rijsenbrij, Truijens, & Goedvolk, 2000; Reich & Benbasat, 2000), research on changing dynamics is underexposed and not researched extensively. Information management is still a rather indistinct discipline in both practice and scientific research (Maes, 2007) and is a broad area that deals with the business, information and technology and the relations between them as defined by Maes (2007):
It (information management) deals with the management of information as a business resource and, hence, encompasses all the processes and systems within an organization for the creation and use of information. Further, given the ubiquitous nature of information and communication technology (ICT), the business - ICT relationship has traditionally been a point of particular interest in IM. (p. 3)
Current research on information management (IM) is limited and primarily focused on the relation and alignment between business and IT. Previous studies have examined the way in which the subject itself evolves in scientific research (Chan & Reich, 2007, 2011), the way the maturity levels of business-IT alignment (BITA) are changing within organizations (Luftman, 2004; Luftman & Kempaiah, 2007) and the role of the Information Manger often referred to (in scientific research) as the Chief Information Officer (CIO) in connecting IM to practice (Gupta, 1991; Maes, 2007).
There is extensive research that indicates the way in which information management (or business IT alignment, as it is often referred to in literature) influences, changes or relates to other areas. For example how it relates to: performance of an organization (Chaffey & White, 2010; Mithas, Ramasubbu, & Sambamurthy, 2011), organizational structures (Leifer, 1988), social dimensions (Reich & Benbasat, 2000), governance (De Haes & Van Grembergen, 2009), competitiveness (Gupta, 1991) and knowledge (Choo, 1996). However, dynamic changes within or in relation to information management is not subject that has been studied comprehensively. This indicates a research gap: the relation between the subject of change and information management, in both research and practice.
This paper aims to fill the research gap by further exploring the relation between dynamic change and information management. As such, the goal of this study is to explore the topic of change, not merely to understand how it influences information management, but as a discussion point on whether information management is changing. The goal and aim of this paper can be summarized by the two points below: 1) A clear understanding of the influence of dynamic changes on information management/the CIO. 2) A new perspective on the dynamic and changing nature of information management the CIO.
The first analysis will enable the reflection in the second section. Starting point for the discussion is based on earlier research focusing on the role of the information manager (Abcouwer & Goense, 2010, 2013a) and information management (Abcouwer & Goense, 2013b) during change that will be explored further in this paper and matches the first goal. Earlier research by this author showed shifting dynamics in information management, however, focusing on shifts within competency profiles of the CIO through a performed literature study (Van der Plank, 2013), this will be broader investigated and researched matching the second goal.
The paper is structured in the following manner: first the research questions (main question and sub questions) are explained and connected to the various goals and aim of the research mentioned above. Then the methodology is discussed, the approach further specified and connected to the research questions. What follows is a literature study is performed extending the view on the topics discussed. This literature study results in a conceptual framework discussing the connecting with the different topics and models of the literature study to the view of the author. Next is the analysis of the interviews, which are also discussed in relation to the literature review and the conceptual framework. Subsequently is the discussion of the new perspective on the changing dynamics of information management and lastly ending with the conclusions drawn from the performed research in which the research question is also answered and discussed.
1.1. Research question
By connecting the research gap, goal of the paper and earlier research used as a starting point as discussed above, the following main research question can be derived:
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“What are the effects of dynamic changes on (the perspective of) information management and the role and competencies of the CIO?”
The research question contains three topics that require exploring: change, information management and competencies. Within the scope of this research, each will be analyzed by one specific model. For change the Adaptive Cycle of Resilience (Abcouwer & Parson, 2011) will be used. For information management and the Information Manager or CIO, the Amsterdam Information Management Model (AIM) (Abcouwer, Maes, & Truijens, 1997) will be used. Even though the information manager and chief information officer (CIO) can have different positions or act on a different level within the organization, this author states that it does not greatly influence the roles, tasks and competencies; they are only used on a higher or lower level within the organization as supported in other research (Grover, Jeong, Kettinger, & Lee, 1993).
Therefore in this paper the role will mostly be referred to by using the most common internationally used term (in scientific research) of CIO, but they are used interchangeably in this paper.
For the competencies of the CIO the Amsterdam Information Manager Model (AI2M) (Van der Plank, 2013) will be used. The three models will be explored and discussed later on.
By limiting and scoping the research the result is the main research question “RQ” as shown below, in which the different models are added. For the remainder of this paper RQ will be used:
RQ: “What are the effects of dynamic changes (as stated in the ACoR) on (the perspective of) information management and the role and competencies of the CIO (as stated in the AIM and AI2M models)?” To answer the main question, six subsequent questions have been devised. The first three (SQ1, SQ2 and SQ3) focus on explaining and extending the view of different models and theories central to this paper.
SQ1: What is change? Can the ACoR model help to better understand change? SQ2: What are the current views on information management?
SQ3: What are the current views on the role and competencies of the CIO?
The following three subsequent questions (SQ4, SQ6 and SQ6_ focus on the relation between the different models in SQ1, SQ2 and SQ3, and relates to the two research gaps mentioned earlier.
SQ4: In what way do dynamic changes influence (the focus of) information management?
SQ5: In what way do dynamic changes influence (the focus of) the role and competencies of the CIO? The questions above considers the change to information management/CIO relationship relating to the first goal mentioned in the introduction: “A clear understanding of the influence of dynamic changes on information management/the CIO”.
SQ6: Is a new perspective on information management and the role and competencies of the CIO visible (or required)?
This final subsequent question considers the information management/CIO to change relationship. Therefore this sub question is connected to the second goal as mentioned in the introduction: “A new perspective on the changing nature of information management the CIO”. This means that the impact as stated in RQ is a combination of SQ4, SQ5 and SQ6 with a relation to SQ1, SQ2 and SQ3. .
2. Methodology
For this study the chosen approach is to perform qualitative research and, more specifically, to conduct semi-structured interviews. Qualitative research aims to describe and research from ‘inside out’ or in other words from the perspective of the people who participate. This contributes to a better understanding of social realities, (meaning) patterns, processes and structural features (Jenner, Flick, von Kardoff, & Steinke, 2004). The reason for selecting qualitative over quantitative research is because significant (contextual) insights into the real lives of participants and their life-worlds are essential, and can only be gained through such an approach.
This statement is supported by the description of qualitative interviews by Kvale (1983): “The qualitative research interview to be treated here is an interview, whose purpose is to gather descriptions of the life-world of the interviewee with respect to interpretation of the meaning of the described phenomena” (p. 174).
These views on qualitative research correspond to the twin goals of this paper in attempting to go beyond mere research into information management in relation to the influences by dynamic changes; it also gives context and meaning through interviewees’ descriptions of these changes, enabling them to reflect on this changing nature (the second aim of this paper).
To answer the main research question, the research has been divided into two parts. The first part is a literature study that explores the different topics covered by the research question; change, information management and roles/competencies and further discussing the models used. Second, interviews are conducted to relate the various subjects to practice, and to research the relations between them.
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The table below (table 1) indicates that the link between the different research methods and the (subsequent) research questions is made explicit. It is thus possible to state that, based on the expected outcome of the research, validity is ensured.
Method:
Research questions:
Literature
study
Interviews
Expected outcome
SQ1: What is change? Can the ACoR model help to better understand change?
Extended view on change and the ACoR
SQ3: What are the current views on the role and competencies of the CIO?
Extended view on information management
SQ3: What are the role and competencies of the CIO?
Extended view on the CIO SQ4: In what way do dynamic changes
influence (the focus of) information management
Clear understanding on the effects of change on Information Management SQ5: In what way do dynamic changes
influence (the focus of) the role and competencies of the CIO?
Clear understanding on the effects of change on the CIO SQ6: Is a new perspective on information
management and the role and competencies of the CIO visible or required?
Clear understanding on the changing, shifting dynamics of IM and the CIO
RQ: “What are the effects of dynamic changes (as stated in the ACoR) on (the perspective of) information management and the role and competencies of the CIO (as stated in the AIM and AI2M models)?”
A new perspective on the changing nature of Information Management and the CIO
Table 1: The different research questions, the used research method and expected outcome
2.1. Literature study
A literature study as defined by Saunders et al. (2009) is a “Detailed and justified analysis and commentary of the merits and faults of the literature within a chosen area, which demonstrates familiarity with what is already known about your research topics” (p. 590).
The literature study performed in this paper, and which supports the anticipated outcome, focuses on extending the views on the different topics subjects within this paper. More specifically, those topics as mentioned in the main research question: change, information management, the roles and the competencies of the information manager or CIO). The literature study has is also been used performed to enlarge the views on the models used for scoping the research, structuring the interview (questions) and for creating the coding scheme.
2.2. Interviews
The second part of this study consists of semi-structured interviews. Semi-structured interviews are defined by Saunders et al. (2009) as, “Wide-ranging category of interview in which the interviewer commences with a set of interview themes but is prepared to vary the order in which questions are asked and to ask new questions in the context of the research situation” (p. 601). Saunders et al. (2009) further states that semi structured (in-depth) interviews, “can be very helpful to find out what is happening [and] to seek new insights” (p. 322) and, “may be used in order to understand the relationships between variables” (p.322).
It was decided to conduct semi-structured interviews rather than, for example, structured or unstructured interviews, and to conduct those interviews in a natural manner (for this reason the interviews were also held in Dutch, being the native language of the interviewees). This enabled new paths and topics to appear during the interviews, and encouraged the interviewees to ask questions in whatever sequence was most appropriate for the different interviewees. However, to ensure that they remained relevant to the topics of the research, the
interviews were gently guided in a particular direction were needed sufficient to keep them aligned with the anticipated outcome by using an interview structure with pre-defined questions.
However, no-predefined questions were used concerning the discussion/reflection on the new
perspective stated in SQ6. The reason for this decision lies in the hope that an interviewee’s personal perspective would ideally emerge naturally through the other pre-defined questions, which a sample interview did in fact confirm. The same sample interview also showed that the discussed subjects were correctly chosen and that the pre-defined questions worked in a promising way, providing a good starting point for a discussion and reflection on the topics in general. This decision corresponds to the nature of this study, where participants are not strictly limited to the questions asked. As a closure for each section in the interview a proposition was presented which made it possible for the interviewees to view the discussed subject from a different perspective after discussing the questions.
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discussion. This clearer view should be interpreted by using the following three components:
1) Discussion of the different topics of this paper, and connecting the different models used (e.g. discussion of information management and the related AIM-model)
2) Searching for relations and connections between the different models and topics (e.g. change and information management by connecting the ACoR with the AIM-model).
3) Using the above two components as a starting point to reflect on the changing nature of the subjects (e.g. a shift within the role of the information manager).
The final used interview structure, relating directly to the different sub questions that was used in all 17 interviews (being slightly edited after the first sample interview) is located in appendix A. The final interview questions were directly connected to the different sub questions that are part of this research. Even though the interview questions were related directly to the sub research questions, they were not asked in that order. This decision was made to make sure that the interviewees were not led to any conclusions or directions because of the structure of the questions. When creating the interview questions, the various aspects of making good interview questions were considered. For example regarding the length of the questions, biased questions, leading questions, double-barreled questions (Robson, 2011).
2.3. Data collection: validity and data saturation
Conflicting statements and views exist on the number of interviews required to ensure validity in scientific research. A comparative analysis conducted by Guest et al. (2006) shows that the suggested amount ranges from 6 (Morse, 1994, p.225), 6 to 8 for a homogenous sample, 12 to 20 for disconfirming evidence and maximum variation (Kuzel, 1992), 15 (Bertaux, 1981), between 5 and 25 for a phenomenological study and 20 and 30 for a grounded theory study (Cresswell, 1998).
A more commonly used method to define the number of interviews required is data saturation. The concept of data saturation was introduced by Glaser and Strauss (1967) and refers to the point in data collection when no new additional data are found that develop aspects of conceptual category (Francis et al., 2010; Glaser & Strauss, 1967) or in other words as stated by Mason (2010): “when the collection of new data does not shed any further light on the issue under investigation” (introduction, para, 2). Mason also states that: “while there are other factors that affect sample size in qualitative studies, researches generally use saturation as a guiding principle during their data collection” (introduction, para, 3).
Besides expertise in and relation to the field of research, interviewees were not purposely searched or chosen with the aim of increasing the validity of the data collection, however, availability, both from the perspective of the interviewer and interviewee affected the overall sample.
Further efforts have been made to contribute to the validity of this research in a variety of ways. Interviewees were informed prior to their approval about the aim, direction and topics of the study and
interviews. It was additionally explained to the participants that the interviews would be processed anonymously (see the main part of the invitation in appendix A). In order to enhance data quality, the main questions of the interview were provided beforehand (as part of the invitation).
As a verification strategy for the different components of this study, research reflective meetings were held with three employees at Quint Wellington Redwood, a consultancy company in Amsterdam in the
Netherlands. The three reflective meetings were held for various reasons and at different times during the study. The first one was held before the first interview in order to reflect on the approach, aim, interview structure, and to check if the results were verifiable by reflecting on them in a practical context. The second reflective meeting was held after the first few interviews, and its purpose was to reflect on the intermediary findings and to seek confirmation of the chosen approach. The final meeting was held after most of the interviews were conducted, with the primary aim of discussing the preliminary results and to further connect them to practice by checking if they were verifiable and occurred in practice.
2.4. Data collection: Participants
A total of 17 interviews were conducted for this research. Each lasted between 45 minutes and 2 hours, with an average of 70 minutes. Of the total of 17 interviews, 16 were face-to-face while 1 was conducted video-to-video via Skype. Even though the interviewees work in different jobs/roles and industries they all have a comparable relationship and expertise regarding the topics discussed in this paper.
The sample interview is counted towards the total amount, because the interview structure and questions did not change greatly after this interview. However one question, derived from a discussion in the sample interview, was added; some questions were removed to reach the estimated 60 minutes of interview, and the order of some questions was changed after the sample interview.
As previously stated, interviews were conducted with the aim of reaching data saturation. This is the point where no new information, insights or themes are observed (Guest, Bunce, & Johnson, 2006). In this study that point was reached after 12 conducted interviews, consistent with previous research (Guest et al., 2006). While the remaining 5 interviews already scheduled were not cancelled after the 12th interview, no further
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interviews were scheduled as a result of reaching the point of data saturation. It was decided to conduct 5 more interviews (for a total of 17) to get views and perspectives from as many industries and sectors as possible and to a lesser extent for further confirmation purposes. The saturation of the data was confirmed after the last 5 interviews did not lead to new insights.
Because of the anonymous nature of the interviews the names of the interviewees will not be included in this paper. Because the interviews are numbered in the order they were conducted, the list of interviewees below has been randomized so no statements can be traced back to the interviewee it originated from. The interviewees worked at both non-profit and profit organizations, close to an equal distribution.
Profession / Occupation
Sector / Industry
Head of Information Management Health careDirector IT Operations Consultancy
Information Manager Consultancy (focus in security) Coordinating Information Manager University
Project Manager Government Agency (health care)
Head of process and information management Government Agency (building management) Information Advisor Government Agency (transport)
Information Manager Research Institute Information Manager Financial
Information Architect Government Agency (education) Team Leader ICT Housing Corporation / Public Housing Principal Advisor Consultancy (BITA)
(cluster) Information Manager Local Government
CIO University
Division Information Manager Real estate and Asset Management Manager ICT Infrastructure Pension Administration
Technology Officer ICT Consultancy Company
Table 2: Overview of the participants/interviewees, their professions, and the sector they work within.
Even though the table 2 above shows the current occupation and sector, the interviewees were not limited to their current profession. Interviewees were allowed (and encouraged) to also use previous and other experience within the field of research. One example is that the interviewees working at a consultancy company were allowed to use their experience from multiple other companies and sectors encountered in that role. Another example is that interviewees could also relate to previous work experience or their experiences witnessed in their surroundings (outside of their own occupation).
2.5. Data analysis: Coding
For analysis the interviews were recorded, following permission from the interviewees. These recordings were then transcribed verbatim in order not to lose valuable data, turning speech into a static and permanent form (Lapadat, 2000). To further specify the chosen method the transcripts were processed in a denaturalized manner. A denaturalized approach attempts a verbatim representation of speech (Oliver, Serovich, & Mason, 2005). However the focus of a denaturalized approach as stated by Oliver et al. (2005) is on: “the substance of the interview, that is, the meanings and perceptions created and shared during a conversation” (denaturalized transcription, para, 1). Therefore a denaturalized approach does not specifically aim, for example, at involuntary vocalization (Oliver et al., 2005). The transcripts were then sent to the interviewees for authorization and only further analyzed after approval.
Both positive and negative statements deriving from the interviews were compared and processed for the comparative purpose of this research. As stated previously, reflective meetings were held at Quint
Wellington Redwood and with the supervisor of this thesis to make a better connection to both practice and scientific research. The data that resulted/emerged from the conducted interviews was analyzed by making use of coding. According to Gibbs (2007) coding has a central role in qualitative research making it possible to define what the data you are analyzing are about (Gibbs, 2007).
Coding made it possible to compare the various statements by the interviewees regarding the various subjects discussed within the interviews and to make it possible to get an overview of the various subjects that came forward within each question. The coding scheme was based upon earlier researched concepts (Boeije, 2005; Robson, 2011), with the initial coding scheme being derived from the performed literature study and conceptual framework. However, codes were later added to the coding scheme based and derived from the results of the interviews and findings.
Straus and Corbin (1998) state there are three types of coding; open coding, axial coding, selective coding (Corbin & Strauss, 1998). All three methods have been used within this paper. Open coding, or the process of breaking down, examining, comparing, conceptualizing and categorizing data (Boeije, 2005; Corbin
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& Strauss, 1998) was performed at the start of the analysis and was used to get an initial idea regarding relevant subjects and statements within the interviews. However the relevance of the data was monitored, based upon the focus of the research and therefore not all statements were coded.
Open coding can assist to make data better manageable and organized. This resulted in the first coding scheme (Boeije, 2005; Corbin & Strauss, 1998). After the phase of open coding, Axial coding was used for various reasons; making connections between categories, adding new codes or dividing codes were needed and to get a better overview of the importance of certain subjects (Boeije, 2005; Corbin & Strauss, 1998). The categories that derived within the Axial coding phase were in some cases directly related to the questions asked or propositions stated during the interviews. During the Axial coding phase, the number of codes used were also reduced by merging certain codes. The main goal was to organize the data that was derived from the open coding phase (Boeije, 2005; Corbin & Strauss, 1998). Finally selective coding was used to select the core categories, relating them to other categories and further refining categories or codes within categories (Boeije, 2005; Corbin & Strauss, 1998).
The sub questions and questions asked also played an important role regarding the decision on the core categories and separation of the different categories. During the selective coding phases new data was adding keeping in mind certain new categories and subjects (e.g. discussing the AI2M competencies separately instead of a general agreement on the profile after it became apparent certain competencies were more relevant than others).
This made it possible to discuss certain categories and codes within or in relation to certain sub questions and subjects in general. In conclusion all relevant statements to the research, from the perspective of the researched, were coded and analyzed and are discussed in this thesis.
Although qualitative research is performed, at relevant questions the number of certain answers was taken into consideration; however primarily to assist in looking for certain patterns or a general view regarding a certain subject. The amount of answers was however less important and less of a factor than the actual answers given (in relation the nature of the qualitative research performed).
The coded statements were translated into English to be able to use them as possible quotes within the thesis, have all the relevant data in the same language as the written paper, making it easier to discuss the outcomes of the various interviews and for comparison reasons (e.g. being able to better compare the statements to the discussed literature and theories that are also in English). The translation was also used as a critical reflection on the statements in relation to what is essential within the code and category; meaning that it occurred that a part of the statement was not seemed necessary enough to translate and therefore not essential within that code. However the original (Dutch) statements can still be found in the transcript at the designated codes.
The final coding scheme used can be found in appendix B and was finalized after the 12th interview were conducted. No specific software except for Excel was used for making the final coding table as can be found in appendix C.
2.6. Research structure
The activity diagram (figure 1) shows the structure of the research, beginning with the literature study. It can be summarized as follows: The literature study led to a conceptual framework and both led to a first version of the coding scheme and interview structure. A first reflective meeting was held at Quint Wellington Redwood, reflecting on the approach of the research and more specifically the interview structure. This resulted in a revised version of the interview structure, which was then tested during the sample interview. After this first interview, final structure and final coding scheme were established.
This interview structure was then used for later interviews, and two more moments of reflection were performed at Quint Wellington Redwood. The first after three interviews (including the sample interview) to reflect on the approach and direction of the questions, the second after almost all interviews were done to reflect on the initial results. After the point of data saturation, after 12 conducted interviews, the final coding schema was made. Once all interviews had been performed, they were analyzed using the final coding scheme. This resulted in the interview results, followed by a discussion in which the main findings of the literature study and interviews are discussed, ending with conclusions in which the main research question is discussed and answered.
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Figure 1: Overview of the structure of the research3. Literature study
In accordance with the methodology the focus of the literature study will be to get an extended view on the topics and used models, therefore relating to the following three sub questions:
SQ1: What is change? Can the ACoR model help to better understand change? SQ2: What are the current views on information management?
SQ3: What are the current views on the role and competencies of the CIO? The different sub questions will be discussed in order below:
3.1. Change/Adaptive Cycle
(SQ1: What is change? Can the ACoR model help to better understand change?)In scientific research, the concept of change has been discussed extensively, in relation to various topics for example: ecology (Gunderson, 2000, 2001; Spellerberg, 2005), politics (Fukuyama, 2011; Inglehart, 1997), information technology (Brynjolfsson, 2011; Byrne, Oliner, & Sichel, 2013; Friedberg, 2001; Markus & Robey, 1988) and organizations (Argyris, 1993; S. Beer, 1984; Burke, 2013; Carnall, 2007).
A definition of change itself is given by Quattrone and Hopper (2001):
Definition of the change process is consistent with its treatment in contemporary theories
embracing a modernist epistemology as represented in Figure 2. Figure 2 shows how a given entity
passes from one state to another—from one specific spatiotemporal domain to another. Ontologically, this conception of change attributes definite features to the entity undergoing change. Thus the entity (be it an organization, an individual or a state of mind) has well defined characteristics at point ‘A’ that change when the entity becomes something else at point ‘B’. (p. 407)
Figure 2: Modernist constitution: a schematization of the concept of change (Quattrone & Hopper, 2001). Change has a great influence on organizations, because organizations can no longer assume that success is something that remains unconditionally, therefore organizations should adapt to changes and a changing environment if they want to survive (Armenakis & Bedeian, 1999; M. Beer, 2002; Fukuyama, 2011). Adaptability can also appear on an individual level. Miller (2001) states that: “adaptability is the ability of individuals to navigate change successfully” (p. 382), influencing people within organizations because it becomes of great importance that people are able to undergo continuous change (Burnes, 2004).
3.1.1. The adaptive cycle of resilience
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ACoR, developed based on the research of Thompson (1967) and Gunderson & Holling (2002). This model consists of four phases organizations pass through in a certain order. The four phases are described as equilibrium, crisis, new combinations and entrepreneurship (eventually resulting in a new equilibrium) and follows this sequence as shown in figure 3.
A reason for the research performed on the adaptive cycle of resilience is to show and demonstrate the succession of phases an organization goes through, where each phase requires a different approach (e.g. management style and actions) or a different perspective (e.g. reality and culture). The insights that can be derived from the ACoR can help with answering the questions how organizations (can) deal with (unexpected) change and crisis occurring faster than ever before (Abcouwer & Parson, 2011).
This means that the adaptive cycle of resilience is based around the notion of a continuous cyclic process and can help to explain change processes that organizations continuously go through (Abcouwer & Parson, 2011). According to Abcouwer & Parson (2011): “every organization goes through a cyclic development path” (p. 13). The adaptive cycle of resilience is therefore based around the notion that a crisis is unavoidable after a phase of equilibrium: transition to the crisis quadrant is fact (Abcouwer & Parson, 2011, p. 16).
Figure 3: Adaptive Cycle of Resilience with the four quadrants (Abcouwer & Parson, 2011, 2012).
However one could also argue that crisis in the sense of the adaptive cycle could also be seen as a disrupted equilibrium, used to enact a new process of change. This matches earlier research on continuous change where it is important that one is able to change continuously in a fundamental matter and where organizations respond to their surroundings as a continuous process (Burnes, 2004; Luecke, 2003). Therefore one could state that the size, speed of each quadrant or the entire cycle can differ immensely as suggested by Nelson (2003): “Change cannot be relied upon to occur at a steady state, rather there are periods of incremental change sandwiched between more violent periods of change which have contributed to the illusion of stability once assumed to be the case” (p. 18). However the model also shows aspects of ‘bumpy incremental change’ (Grundy, 1993) or punctuated equilibrium (Balogun & Hailey, 2004; Burnes, 1996), meaning that periods of relative stability or peacefulness are interrupted by an (accelerated) phase of change.
As stated, the adaptive cycle of resilience is based on previous work by Gunderson & Holling (2002). Similar to the adaptive cycle of resilience, the adaptive cycle by Gunderson & Holling (2002) consists of four phases: exploitation (r), conservation (K), release (Ω) and reorganization (α). The adaptive cycle shows the process of the movement of a system through the four phases as seen in figure 4.
Figure 4: The adaptive cycle: a stylized representation of the four ecosystem functions (r, K, Ω, α) and the flow of events among them (Gunderson & Holling, 2002).
The two models show some relations with each other which will be referred to where suited. However, because for this research the adaptive cycle of Abcouwer & Parson (2011) is used, the focus will be on exploring that
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model. Below the different aspects of the Adaptive Cycle of resilience (Abcouwer & Parson, 2011) are explained further.
3.1.2. Want/Can
One distinction made in the model is by separating want and can, based on the want-must-can dilemma by (Heene, 2001). In the context of this model, “want” means that an organization knows a certain direction it wishes to take where in “can” an organization is actually able to follow this direction. In the different phases organizations are either certain or uncertain about what they can or want.
Below the different quadrants are explained in the sequence organizations go through the adaptive cycle according to Parson & Abcouwer (2011).
3.1.3. First quadrant: Equilibrium
In an equilibrium phase organizations are certain about what they want and what they can do. A situation where there is an aim for efficiency, preservation and improvement of the market position: ’business-as-usual’ (Abcouwer & Parson, 2011). This often results in a strong bureaucratic culture with a focus on rules and procedures to increases standardization often causing more vulnerability instead.
In an equilibrium phase the aim of the organization, the organizational goals and objectives are clear together with an understanding on how the goals and objects will be reached. There is no need for new strategic choices or a new strategic direction because there is a high confidence that organizations are able to cope with threats from both inside and especially outside the organization. (Abcouwer & Parson, 2012).
However eventually the existing organization is no longer able to fully exploit the situation and
environment. The result is a transition from equilibrium to crisis because organizations lose the connection to the ‘old’ without having an answer for the ‘new’. However an organization might also desire a new future causing the crisis (Abcouwer & Parson, 2011). Holling uses the term release (Ω) for the transition from equilibrium to crisis.
3.1.4. Second quadrant: Crisis
In the quadrant of crisis it is clear that the organization can no longer use the same methods it was using prior to the crisis. This means that the organization enters the exploration phase where the organization is uncertain about what it wants and can do. In a crisis there are three crucial characteristics according to Abcouwer & Person (2011): 1) the crisis arrives unexpectedly and was only foreseeable in hindsight. 2) The crisis has a major impact on the organization or the system: everything changes. 3) The crisis can only be predicted in hindsight; there were possible signs of an imminent crisis but these were not recognized from the prevailing logic; they were not taken into account (Abcouwer & Parson, 2011, p.16).
The start of a crisis usually also shows that the way of working (e.g. actions based on experiences) prior to the crisis is no longer able to cope with the situation; meaning that there is a need to add new varieties and possibly new ways of working (Abcouwer & Parson, 2012).
When the organization turns this uncertainty into new creativity, organizations are able to move their view towards the future. Because organizations are able to look at new possible futures they become more optimistic, however a certain path has not yet been chosen. For the transition from crisis to new combinations Holling talks about reorganization (α).
3.1.5. Third quadrant: new combinations
Still in the exploration side of the adaptive cycle, in new combinations multiple different options, possibilities and strategic directions are available and being further researched by the organization. This means that the organization is still not sure about what it wants; which of the ideas it wants to choose and further exploit but the organization is certain about what it can do.
For an organization it is (almost always) impossible to realize all opportunities, making choice a
necessity. During the selection process the aim is to first explore and analyze different (alternative) options. The goal is selecting one of the available options which will be further developed and eventually moving towards pursuing a certain new direction. Therefore it is not only important that one is able to compare but also why certain other options should not be developed further eventually leading to the final decision (Abcouwer & Parson, 2012).
The final choice that is made is often not a fully rational decision, more often it is a case of intuition, experience and emotions matching the vision of Mintzberg (2009) stating managing deals with science (analysis), art (vision) and craft (experience) (Mintzberg, 2009). Transitioning from new combinations to entrepreneurship is called exploitation (r).
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3.1.6. Fourth quadrant: entrepreneurship
During the selection process in the previous phase experiences has been acquired by doing (scenario) analysis, comparisons and pilots but this has not resulted in the required skills needed for full scale implementation and actual production circumstances. To eventually make a new equilibrium possible, persistent labor, reorganization and/or rationalization of business processes are needed. Only after these changes are made the organization returns to (relative) state of balance between want and can; in the shape of a new equilibrium (Abcouwer & Parson, 2012).
In other words this means that the organization is certain about what it wants to do because it has chosen a certain direction, however, still uncertain about if they can do it; if the right decision has been made and if it leads to a new equilibrium. Organizations however are still seeking to get into a new ‘business-as-usual’ state, meaning that organizations are still dealing with drastic changes. There is an aim for creating a steady basis, increasing the market share and being able to increase the level of standardization.
The last transition from entrepreneurship to a new equilibrium last vital step. Organizations need to reorganize to meet the new changes, reorganize the business process and focus on efficiency and effectiveness. Organizations should re-establish new routines and structures to make the new business-as-usual situation possible. Result is a new equilibrium where the organization returns in the phase where it is certain again about what it knows and can do. This final transition is called conservation (K) by Holling.
3.2. Information Management/AIM
(SQ2: What are the current views on information management?) As stated in the introduction of this paper, Information Management in both academic research and practice is often still not recognized as a detached or separate topic (Maes, 2007). This issue is also supported by Abcouwer & Goense (2010) by declaring that even though problems related to the information technology and information systems can have far-reaching consequences for the performance of an organization, information management often will not get the attention it deserves; relating to the earlier mentioned importance for an organization (Abcouwer & Goense, 2010).Information Management. not only captures the essence in its name (managing information), which is important according to Choo (2002) stating information is one of the most important (strategic) resources of an organization: “Information is the resource that enables the effective combination and utilization of the other factors of production – it is, in effect, the meta-resource that coordinates the mobilization of the other assets in order for the organization to perform” (Choo, 2002), but also looks at relevant surrounding factors like the business and technology and the relations between them. (p. xiii). In scientific literature information management, however, is often related to as the relation between business and IT or in terms of (strategic) business-IT alignment (Maes, 2008). In contrast these two subjects have often been the central theme in research as opposed to information management. While a clear definition of information management in scientific literature is not easy to find, multiple definitions of Busses-IT alignment exist for example given by Luftman (2000):
Business-IT alignment refers to applying Information Technology (IT) in an appropriate and timely way, in harmony with business strategies, goals and needs. It is still a fundamental concern of business executives. This definition of alignment addresses: how IT is aligned with the business, and how the business should or could be aligned with IT. (p. 3)
Maes (2000) and Maes et al. (2008) criticize this approach discussing the fact that strategic alignment refers to the original and outdated version of business IT alignment and Information Management (Maes, 2008; Maes et al., 2000). This resulted in researched performed by Maes et al (2000) to rethink business IT alignment, referring to it as alignment, and redefining it: “We define alignment as the continuous process, involving management and design sub-processes, of consciously and coherently interrelating all components of the business – IT
relationship in order to contribute to the organization’s performance over time” (Maes et al., 2000, p.19). One important theory that has caused the intertwining of the three subjects mentioned earlier has been the strategic alignment model by Henderson en Venkatraman (1993). The strategic alignment model (figure 5, left) shows the relation between the ‘business’ and information technology between each other on both a strategic and functional level. By showing that alignment is needed between these two subjects within four domains, the model tries to support integration of IT into the business (strategy). Figure 5 (left): Strategic alignment model (Henderson & Venkatraman, 1993), as shown in: “Redefining business – IT alignment through a unified framework” (Maes et al., 2000).
The popularity of strategic alignment model has caused that from that moment on, information management was directly linked to “strategic alignment” in both scientific research and practice (Maes, 2008). Resulting in the
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fact that almost all later models and definitions on alignment start from this original model (Maes et al., 2000). Related to the earlier mentioned critique by Maes et al. (2000) and Maes (2008), Information management, however, goes beyond strategic (BITA) alignment, managing the relation between IT and the business nor is it the management of IT. In 1997, Abcouwer, Maes and Truijens, gave a new perspective on information management by introducing the Amsterdam Information management Model (AIM) as shown in figure 6 (Abcouwer et al., 1997).
3.2.1. Amsterdam Information management Model (AIM) / Nine-Square Model (Enneahedron)
The AIM framework (figure 6) combines the necessity for paying attention to the organizational goals, performance and how they are realized in operational systems. While also looking at the relation between the formulated goals and the structure in which the goals are realized to the role played by information and communication (Abcouwer, Truijens, & Gels, 2006).
Figure 6: Amsterdam Information management Model (AIM) (Abcouwer et al., 1997)
The Amsterdam Information management Model (also referred to as nine-square model or enneahedron) consist of three columns (business, information & communication and technology) which can be used to place
information problems. The three rows: strategy (targeting), structure (organizing) and operations (executing) show the different levels of organizations in which information management plays are role and where different organizational problems can be positioned (Abcouwer et al., 1997; Abcouwer & Truijens, 2008; Maes, 1999). The model can also be issued as an integrative position framework where the different aspects of information management are shown, together with their different relation and dependencies (Maes, 2007) . According to Abcouwer et al (1997) and further developed by Maes (2003, 2007), the core of the model lies within the information and communication column and horizontally on the entire structure row as shown in figure 7 (left).
The core of the model and therefore of information management, can be used to further describe and define Information Management. Information Management deals with strategic, structural and
operational information-related issues (vertical dimension) and relates information and communication process to the business and technology levels within the organization (horizontal dimensions). Therefore Information Management deals with balancing, managing and integrating the different domains (Abcouwer et al., 1997; Maes, 2003, 2007).
Figure 7 (left): The information management/information manager core in the AIM (Abcouwer et al., 1997; Maes, 2003, 2007) In the information and communication column the relation between business and IT is made explicit and the interdependency between the different subjects is made visible at different level. In the middle row of structure relates to the structure variables of the organization. The framework shows that it is of great importance that the organizational structure, information/communication and technology structure are related and connected to each other (Abcouwer et al., 2006).
The Amsterdam Information management Model can, however, not only be used for positioning information management and the related involved subjects and questions. It can also be used in relation to the information manager roles and competencies which will be discussed in the next section. The multi-purpose nature of the framework, together with the fact that it is a well-known (important aspect for the interviews) and validated
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model (Maes, 2007) are reasons for using this model in this paper.
3.3. CIO: Role & Competencies (
SQ3: What are the current views on the role and competencies of the CIO?)In this section the (roles of the) Chief Information Officer (CIO) or Information Manager will be discussed together with the subject of competencies, which are two subjects that are closely related to the other. To further explain this statement: it is important to perform the role of the CIO successfully for which one needs a set of competencies to make this possible; a clear interaction between the two. The literature study on both roles and competencies is an adaptation of earlier performed research by Van der Plank (2013).
3.3.1. Role of the CIO
The role of chief information officer started appearing in scientific research in the 1980’s (Synnott & Gruber, 1981), however, the true origin of the CIO can be seen in the 1950’s and 60’s in which “data processing managers” were active (Synnott & Gruber, 1981). The role of CIO was originally introduced as a response on the increasing dissatisfaction regarding the productivity and results of information technology within
organizations and wanting to use information for strategic purposes or assets (Cano, Fernandez-Sanz, & Misra, 2012; Penrod, Dolence, & Douglas, 1990).
The role of the CIO has been researched extensively, however, there is not one clear view on the exact role and definition; the role remains ambiguous (Peppard, Edwards, & Lambert, 2011). Examples of these different perspectives are clearly visible; the CIO has been related to a role acquiring, implementing and maintaining the technical infrastructure (Rockart, 1982), within the ability of an organization to derive business value from IT (Preston, Leidner, & Chen, 2008) and as a driver of business transformation and innovation (Peppard, 2010).
According to Banker et al. (2006) the CIO can be seen within two broad categories. First a strategic role focusing on strategic planning, policies, business opportunities and leadership. Second an operational and more traditional role which looks at managing the IT infrastructure and providing IT support (Banker, Hu, & Pavlou, 2006). A CIO is related to other management board positions like the CFO and CEO to which the CIO often needs to report to within organization. According to Banker et al. (2006) the reporting structure of the CIO together with the position the CIO is accountable to (CFO or CEO) can be related to the importance of the CIO within organizations (Banker et al., 2006).
3.3.2. Information Manager/CIO roles in the Amsterdam Information Management Model
Abcouwer & Truijens (2003, 2008) and Abcouwer et al. (2006), have performed multiple research on the different roles and aspects of the CIO role, by more specifically referring to the roles and perspectives of the Information Manager. Using the earlier discussed Amsterdam Information Management Model, Abcouwer & Truijens (2003, 2008) and Abcouwer et al. (2006) distinguish nine roles in the different parts of the framework; in relation to business, information & communication and technology (Abcouwer & Truijens, 2008; Abcouwer & Truijens, 2003; Abcouwer et al., 2006). Below the nine different roles are explained briefly:
The information partner in strategy: Has business responsibilities and is part of the management team. In this role the focus is primarily on strategic opportunities within or made possibly by information management. Another important aspect of this role is that the information partner in strategy asses the opportunities and risks of long term programs. Keywords: Strategy &
Opportunity (Abcouwer & Truijens, 2003; Abcouwer et al., 2006; Van der Plank, 2013) The alignment manager: Is responsible for the alignment between business activities with the structure of the organization and involved with the structure of the organization. The focus in this role lies in aligning the business and information facilities or system which are used to support the business activities related to the organization. Keywords: Structure & Alignment
The business partner: Looks at the processes within organization and deals with the management of these processes. De business partner is actively participating with reflecting on and trying to improve the different processes within the organization. Goals are often regarding an improved efficiency and effectiveness. Keywords: Operations & Process Management
User ambassador: The user ambassador makes the connection from IT to practice or more specifically to the people using IT within organizations. The user ambassador has to know about the different IT used within an organization, together with the projects that are being performed. Keywords: Operations & Communications
The application manager: The application manager can be related to the facilities manager discussed below. Big difference between the two is that the application manager deals with the daily operation of all IT resources. Therefore, the main responsibility of the application manager is to ensure the organization can rely on the IT for performing the different (daily) tasks within the organization. Keywords: Operations & IT control
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The (IT) facilities manager: Is a very important role responsible for structuring the IT within an organization and making sure they are stable and reliable. The IT facilities manager also needs to ensure that the IT becomes a reliable whole meaning that configurations are orderly and
adequately structured. Because organizations have become heavily reliable on the IT, this role has become increasingly important. Keywords: IT facilitation & Structure
The (IT) trend watcher: Here the focus lies on looking at developments that are continuously appearing within information technology. This also relates to the competitiveness of the organization because it is vital that you keep up to date. The trend watcher looks at deploying new technology and new methods of construction: Keywords: IT (developments) & Strategy The information policy maker: The policy maker outlines and implements policy, is concerned with technology and supplier policies but also the strategic level of the information management component within the organization. However the information policy maker is also important for connecting policies to the employees and policies related to (out)sourcing. Keywords: Strategy & Information
The directing/coordination role: This role deals with the coordination of the other nine roles and makes sure that they are performed in an effective manner (Abcouwer & Goense, 2010; Van der Plank, 2013).
According to Abcouwer & Truijens (2008) and similar to research of Maes (2003), the core task of the CIO can be connected to the directing/coordination role where the CIO needs to deal with the different perspectives and aspects of information management and in summary the information strategy, architecture, organization and operational
excellence, this is shown in figure 8 (right). For this research, the given description by Abcouwer & Truijens (2008) of the role of CIO as a ‘mediator’ between the other roles and aspects of Information Management will be used.
Figure 8 (right): Core aspects and position of the CIO role within the AIM (Abcouwer & Truijens, 2008)
3.3.3. Shifts in the CIO role
Results of various studies regarding the role of the CIO shows that it is continuously changing (Broadbent & Kitzis, 2005). However the CIO role has also made some enormous changes in the past. Where in the early 1990’s the role of Chief Information Officer was primarily focused around technological planning, architecture management, IT standards development and HRM (Chun & Mooney, 2009).
Chief Information Officers in the early 2000’s became more and more involved with the matter of using IT to change the company instead of just running it (Mark & Monnoyer, 2004) and were also more involved with connecting the IT strategy to the initiation of change processes and influencing executive peers to design and to implement strategic initiatives (Chun & Mooney, 2009). This shows that it became increasingly necessary to have knowledge of the company and management skills (Lancit, 2001).
In later research, for example in 2006 and 2007, the shift of the CIO from IT manager to strategic business partner imitating and promoting innovation or in other words by referring to the Amsterdam
Information Management Model from IT strategy to business strategy (Maes, 2007; Watts & Henderson, 2006). According to Maes (2007) this shift towards business strategy is still not matching the true nature of the CIO according to the Amsterdam Information Management Model. The focus of the CIO role in research is still not about the central role of information management or in other words the central column in the framework (Maes, 2007).
However, in resent research, in line with the view of the CIO role by Abcouwer & Truijens (2008), the CIO role is seen as a configuration of different other roles (with a focus towards the business and information technology columns according to the AIM model) instead of being just one specific role (Al-Taie, Lane, & Cater-Steel, 2013; Chen & Wu, 2011; Peppard et al., 2011). These shifting dynamics as discussed in the paper discussed above can be stylized by using the Information Management model as shown in figure 9.
In figure 9 the role of the CIO in the early 90’s is shown as red, in the early 2000’s as green (and overlapping with red) and nearing the end of the decade (with the discussed literature being from 2006 and 2007) as blue. While the configuration of roles as discussed in recent research (after 2008) is shown by the overlapping
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in general; mostly between the colors blue and green. These shifts are similar to the changes of competency profiles of the CIO as researched by Van der Plank (2013) which are discussed later.
Figure 9: The transition of the CIO role when derived from the earlier performed scientific research on the role of the CIO. The different colors matches the date and perspective of the different research.
3.3.5. Competencies of the CIO
Because of the widened role and rising influence on the organization, it is becoming clear that it is becoming increasing important to successfully perform this role (Lepore et al., 2000). One should therefore have the right competencies that are needed to make performing in a successful manner possible, what exactly these
competencies are for the important role of the CIO, however, is not agreed upon as shown in previous research by Van der Plank (2013). By placing the different competency profiles within the Amsterdam Information Management Model, it becomes possible to show where the focus lies within the competency profiles of the CIO as shown in figure 10.
Figure 10: Overview of the different competency profiles of the CIO (Van der Plank, 2013). For the cited articles in figure 10, please refer to the original research resulting in this model available at
http://dare.uva.nl/document/526102 (Dutch):
Figure 10 shows the different and diverse nature of the perspectives on the required competencies of the Chief Information Officer. Furthermore it is possible to recognize three characterizations surrounding the competency profiles that were researched. The first characterization, according to the competency profiles researched, is the fact that a focus is put upon different aspects of information management. The competencies
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required are either seen from an IT, Business or purely ‘Link’ perspective (e.g. leadership) instead of connecting all three.
The second characterization is related to the information manager roles discussed earlier in this paper. The competency profiles cannot clearly be connected to a certain role (or part of the Amsterdam Information Management Model) and therefore overlapping visible between the different roles and competencies profiles.
The third characteristic is the fact that there is a clear shift that can be related to the time of the research. In the 90’s and early 2000’s (shown as red in the figure), the focus was heavily towards technology and
operations. Between 2004 and 2009, the competency descriptions moved towards structure with a focus on different domains with the organization while in recent research starting in 2010 a shift is visible towards the top left and entire strategy row; showing a focus towards competencies related to the strategy of an organization and the business domain within organizations. In other words, according to the competency profiles, the chief information officer is become more and more part of the ‘true’ business domain within organizations (Van der Plank, 2013).
These three characteristics are in accordance with the performed literature study in this paper relating to the shifts in the role of the CIO. The earlier performed literature study also discussed the role of the CIO being a configuration of different other roles or, in relation to the information management, in relation with all the other roles and aspects of the Amsterdam Information Management Model; hence a new approach on competencies is required to cope with these changes.
This conclusion together with the fact that researched CIO competency profiles were not future-proof (Van der Plank, 2013) served as a starting point towards a new approach and perspective towards competencies of the CIO resulting in the Amsterdam Information Manager Model (AI2M) also called the 10-square model (Van der Plank, 2013).
3.3.6. Amsterdam Information Manager Model (AI2M) / 10-square model (decahedron)
This competency profile as it is presented in the Amsterdam Information Manager model shown in figure 11 is based up the earlier discussed Amsterdam Information Management Model and builds upon the AIM model by adding a core competence to each perspective of information management (Van der Plank, 2013). The text below is an adaptation from the original description of the model by Van der Plank (2013).
Using core competencies to describe what is needed to perform the different tasks and roles in a successful manner is used in the so called “Dublin Descriptors” approach. The Dublin Descriptors is an
international description of the minimal competencies a graduated bachelor student should have (Van Vijfeijken, 2006), an approach that has already been used in different sectors for example in health care (Frank & Danoff, 2007).
Figure 11: Amsterdam Information Manager Model (AI2M) showing the different core competencies of the CIO/Information Manager in relation to the AIM (Van der Plank, 2013).
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Using this approach together with the Amsterdam Information Management Model as a starting point resulted in a comprehensive competency profile focusing on the essence of information management. According to Van der Plank (2013) the essence lies within the link between the business and technology elements of a company (through information management) (Van der Plank, 2013), this means that there is knowledge needed in relation to both aspects. However, according to performed researched by Van der Plank (2013) it was also important to look at the aspect of communication and making the competency profile ‘future-proof’, lacking in other researched competency profiles. The created framework, by using the Dublin descriptors, is focused on being able to perform the different jobs and roles of the information manager or CIO now and in the future. The resulting four core competencies are; scientific knowledge and critical thinking skills, affinity with IT and information systems, communication and learning skills and managerial skills and business knowledge.
The reason for choosing these four competencies is because they are competencies that keep the whole and broad field of the information manager in mind (e.g. affinity with IT and business knowledge), with added competencies that are needed to make the connection to practice (e.g. communication skills). It provides a complete set in which all aspects of information management occur. Where the Amsterdam Information Management Model is involved with (the different roles of) information management, the Amsterdam Information Manager Model discusses what is needed to perform the discussed roles in a successful manner. Because the four core competencies cannot be seen separately they together form a tenth square resulting in the 10-square model. This 10th square (or competency square) gives context to the Amsterdam Information Management Model by framing the model with competencies (Van der Plank, 2013).
A criticism that can be given towards the model is that it is based on a literature study and not connected to and validated in practice. That is why part of the research will be on further researching and improving the model by connecting it to practice via the interviews.
4. Conceptual framework: relations between the discussed topics
By combining the literature with the aim and goals of the research a conceptual framework can be derived. Part of the conceptual framework is figure 12, which was discussed as part of the Master Information Studies BIS course: (Virtual) Organizations in a Dynamic Context by Toon Abcouwer and is derived from earlier research surrounding the question of changing dynamics in information management (Abcouwer & Goense, 2010, 2013a, 2013b).
Figure 12: Conceptual framework as presented by Toon Abcouwer as part of the Master Information Studies BIS course: (Virtual) Organizations in a Dynamic Context and based upon earlier research (Abcouwer & Goense, 2010, 2013a, 2013b).
Figure 12, which will be used as the first part of the conceptual framework proposes a number of issues for discussion in relation to the different aspects of the research:
1) The relation between information management (AIM) and change (ACoR) 2) The relation between the information manager or CIO and change (ACoR)
3) The performance of these different roles meaning the relation between competencies (AI2M) and change. 4) Relations between all the used different models; AIM, AI2M and ACoR.
