The Decision to Dream: The Presence of Female
Agency in American Literary Movements
Hanneke Makkinga Universiteit van Amsterdam
Graduate School of Humanities MA Literary Studies: Literature and Culture - English
Thesis supervisor: Dr. R.D. Eaton 29 June 2015
Table of Contents
Acknowledgements...3
Introduction...4
Theoretical Background...8
Defining Agency...8
The Multi-Interpretability, Structure, and Temporality of Agency...10
Gender Studies, History, and Female Agency...17
Agency and the American Dream...22
Mediation, Dreams, and Reality: Female Agency in Stephen Crane’s Maggie: A Girl of the Streets...26
Creating Barriers out of Fear: Female Agency in Edith Wharton’s The House of Mirth...35
The “A” stands for Agency: Female Agency in Nathaniel Hawthorne’s The Scarlet Letter...44
Conclusion...53
Acknowledgements
First I would like to thank Dr. Roger Eaton for guiding me through the process of writing this thesis. His feedback, comments, and ideas helped me to think in a more critical way. I would also like to thank my second reader for taking the time to read and grade this thesis. I would especially like to thank my boyfriend who stood by my side during the entire writing process and who is always there for me. Finally, I would like to thank my family for their support and encouragement.
Introduction
“Freedom cannot be achieved unless the women have been emancipated from all forms of oppression.”
Nelson Mandela
In his 1994 state of the nation address the former South-African president Nelson Mandela discussed the unequal position of women in his country. For centuries the position of women in the world has been a topic of discussion, and a right that has been fought for by many countries, organizations, and governments. Issues such as inequality, oppression, mistreatment, and the exploitation of women are modern-day problems which are faced, and discussed all over the world. Even though female emancipation has grown over time, it remains shocking that these discussions are still required. As Mandela brings to light, the heart of problem lies in women’s lacking ability to act freely due to oppressive circumstances. The conflict between the freedom to act and oppressive circumstances can be found in
literature as well.
The perspective which enables a response to this conflict is feminism or feminist criticism. As it takes it onto itself to investigate “the representation of women in literature” and to offer a “reconstruct[ion]… of [the] female experience” (Barry 117) it offers the possibility to question the manners in which female characters and the world they live in are described. Furthermore, current feminist criticism offers a possibility to discuss and analyze the conduct of female characters in novels which are written before the establishment of feminist criticism and can, therefore, bring new interpretations to light. The contemporary perspective on these historic texts and the female behavior present in them can bring new insight into the lives and actions of female characters.
The notion which plays a key role in the investigation of the freedom to act, and which can rebuild and describe the female experience is agency. As agency is “a thing or person that acts to produce a particularresult” (Oxford dictionary) it is evident that these actions and results are essential for female abilities to freely evolve. Restrictions and possibilities created by the world or society in which the female characters exist clearly influence the ability to enact agency. In spite of the fact that these influences can cause agency to be unnoticeable, indicating the absence of female agency in the world, this form of oppression is an indication of the greatness and power, and, moreover, of the fear female agency creates in a male dominated world.
This thesis will explore, from a feminist perspective, the lives, experiences, and agency enactment of female characters in three different American novels. The investigation of Maggie from Stephen Crane’s Maggie: A Girl of the Streets (1893), Lily Bart from Edith Wharton’s The House of Mirth (1905), and Hester Prynne from Nathaniel Hawthorne’s The
Scarlet Letter (1850) will reveal the way in which female agency performance is represented
in American literary history. Moreover, it will investigate the role of the American Dream in this process as this notion is embedded in the American way of life, is the main source which lies behind the wish to perform agency, and enables female characters to achieve their
ultimate goal: freedom.
Additionally, the diverse literary movements under which these novels can be placed i.e. Naturalism, Realism, and Romanticism, offer different perspectives and cause different restraints on the enactment of female agency. Naturalism and Realism, for instance, offer a more constricting and pessimistic view on life and its possibilities than Romanticism does. The effect of Realism and Naturalism in Maggie: A Girl of the Streets and The House of
Mirth on agency enactment is, from a first glance, negative and constricting as heredity is
By investigating the performance of female agency within these different literary movements the role and power of female agency in its clash with the restricting influence of literary mechanisms will come to light.
Despite Romanticisms apparent open stance towards female agency and agency enactment, several factors in Hawthorne’s The Scarlet Letter restrict the female position in the world and the ability to act according to one’s own wishes. Societal structures, norms, and values impose different limitations on the female character Hester Prynne. The influence of society on agency, which is presently discussed in the structure-agency debate, plays a great role in the ability to perform agency. Moreover, the reason for creating and American Dream and enacting agency in order to reach this goal is closely connected to the society one abides in. Whether it is to improve lifestyle, or to change lifestyle, society is embedded in the worlds and experiences of the female characters.
This thesis will explore the main manner in which female agency is enacted. The effect of the decisions made by the female characters regarding their bodies such as Hester Prynne’s choice for motherhood, Maggie’s choice to present her body as a commodity, and Lily Bart’s choice to make knowledgeable use of her beauty reveal the great power of the body. As a result of these choices, the female body will be considered to be the main tool for agency enactment as the female characters have the ability to freely take these –bodily- decisions and act accordingly. Yet, it is the knowledge and understanding of the use of body and beauty that influences the level of success the female characters achieve in their quest to reach their American Dream.
The female experience in the late nineteenth century and at the start of the twentieth century consists of questions regarding selfhood, virtue, and independence. The position of the female characters in society, and the constraints and possibilities literary movements offer present a starting point for the discovery of the notion which enables them to answer these
questions: agency. The ability of female characters to act independently, freely, and with a predetermined goal will show that American literary movements do not have the ability to restrict the enactment of female agency when it occurs through knowledge and the use of the body as it, inspired by the wish to build an American Dream, is a greatly present, diverse, and powerful tool.
Theoretical Background Defining Agency
According to the Oxford Dictionary the origin of the word ‘agency’ can be found around the middle of the seventeenth century and derives “from [the] medieval Latin agentia, from agent- 'doing'”. Furthermore, the meaning of the noun agency is: “a thing or person that acts to produce a particularresult” (Oxford Dictionary). Both the explanation of the origin of the word and meaning of the noun reveal the existence of the incorporation of action and result in the concept of agency. It is, therefore, to say that agency is a notion which requires an agent, i.e. a thing or a person, to take action in order to achieve a result. Interestingly, the indication that a result can be achieved through the performance of agency encompasses the existence of both active behavior and predetermination. This signifies that agency can only be acted out when behavior is inspired by a set goal. Furthermore, it is clear that the action which is undertaken by the performer of agency, or agent, and its purpose are esteemed significant by the agent for otherwise no action would be taken. Consequently, it is to say that the predetermination of the action reveals that agency is in fact a means to reach a goal. In other words, in order to achieve a result a goal must be set up and action is required to be taken accordingly.
The notion of agency is discussed from a different perspective by Anthony Giddens who, famously, in his book “The Constitution of Society: Outline of the Theory of
Structuration” (1986) argues that “agency concerns events of which an individual is the perpetrator, in the sense that the individual could, at any phase in a given sequence of conduct, have acted differently” (9). This statement reveals that agency does not revolve around one solitary action but can be seen as a sequence of actions in which the agent has the freedom to choose and change his or her perspective at any given moment. This viewpoint shows that Giddens focuses on agency as a starting point and process rather than as a means
to reach a goal. The focus on the importance of the actions and decisions that are taken reveals that agency is a complex notion which revolves around actions, decisions, and goals.
The complexity of the notion is further enhanced by Giddens’ significant assessment of agency as an individual notion. He indicates that the “individual is the perpetrator” of actions and that the agents is “the author of many things” (Giddens 9). One can, however, question whether the focus on the individuality of agency is a necessary one. This comes to light in the fact that scholars have interpreted and used agency in their research without requiring the individuality of the notion. An example of this are the two scholars Duits and van Zoonen who use “agency as an analytical term that refers to the purposeful actions of individuals, leaving aside the question whether these actions are autonomously arrived” (165). In other words, agency enactment can be created in a setting which involves several
individuals rather than being a completely individual notion as the influence of ‘others’ on the process can play a significant role. Due to the insignificant role of the individuality of agency in Duits and van Zoonen’s research they choose not to take it into consideration. One can, therefore, argue that the individuality of female agency can be contested and that external influences have the ability to play a significant role in the enactment of agency.
Despite the differences in the description of agency between the different scholars, the one similarity which unites their perspectives is the consideration that agency is a concept which enables purposeful and predetermined action to take place. The focus can lie on the process of taking action, or on the purpose which inspires action to take place. Yet, what the scholars fail to address is the fact that reaching a particular result plays a significant role as well. Therefore, the following definition of agency involves aspects of all previously discussed meanings and considerations of agency. Agency is a concept and process which enables the agent, being either an individual or a group, to take purposeful action in order to achieve a predetermined result.
The Multi-Interpretability, Structure, and Temporality of Agency
As stated earlier, agency is a concept and process which enables the agent, being either an individual or a group, to take purposeful action in order to achieve a predetermined goal. This clear and straightforward definition, nevertheless, encompasses many different
characteristics and connotations. Several of these ideas and characteristics involve the manner in which agency is performed have been discussed in both the classical tradition and the modern tradition (Kockelman 375). The diversity that comes to light in different statements and research reveals that agency is a complicated and multi-interpretable notion which can be applied to many aspects of human life and behavior.
The multi-interpretability of agency is visible in the diverse descriptions and
definitions of manners of the performance. The scholars Emirbayer and Mische recognize the complexity of the term agency when they mention that:
“traditions as different from one another as rational choice theory and
phenomenology have stressed goal seeking and purposivity, while theories of publicity and communication, as well as certain feminist theories, have overemphasized deliberation and judgment” (963).
The diversity of traditions and theories, and the different stances they take reveal the complexity and multi-interpretability of the term agency.
Agency’s complexity is further enhanced by several different connotations the term brings to the fore. In his description of agency Kockelman claims that agency is “a kind of inherent human capacity” which can be connected to “hope or rebellion” or at times to “free will or choice” (375). Additionally, agency can be witnessed in situations where “resistance or reactance” is significant, or as a “kind of mediating relationality” in which the agent uses
agency to create what it is he or she requires (Kockelman 376). Finally, Kockelman points out that, in the theory of Francis Bacon, agency can be seen as “just another word for knowledge and power” (376). This last definition forms a pivotal concept as power and knowledge are the foundation for the enactment of agency in connection with for example, hope, free will, and resistance. The connotations described by Kockelman are purely able to exist due to the presence of the agent’s knowledge and power.
In addition, the foundation of knowledge and power enables the multi-interpretability of the term agency. This is grounded in the “flexibility” of the notion which, according to Kockelman, can be seen in the fact that “flexibility may involve having lots of options open or having a strong say in which particular option will be acted on.”(375). The ability of the agent to move from one option to the other, to act on different options simultaneously, or the mere fact that the agent is able to construct several options at the same time, is a reflection of the flexibility of not only the term agency and the multiplicity of options, but an indication of the power, knowledge, and creativity of the agent as well. It is to say that the agent requires knowledge to ascertain which of the options is preferable to act on, and requires the power to be able to act.
Yet, the flexibility of the term also reveals a problem which surrounds agency and its use in literary studies and social studies. As the term is not limited to one specific aspect of human life and behavior some scholars, such as Emirbayer and Mische conclude that “the term agency itself has maintained an elusive, albeit resonant, vagueness” (962). However, the mere flexibility and multi-interpretability of the term does not necessarily cause elusiveness because the enactment of agency can be narrowed down if one, for example, considers the impact of social circumstances.
In the social sciences agency has been discussed with reference to viewpoints on for example, structure, social circumstances, temporality, and change. These diverse discussions
do not only indicate the flexibility of the term, they also reveal the possibility to reduce the extensive list of connotations concerning agency. Therefore, in order to come close to the core of the term the next section will explore some of the diverse thoughts about agency
throughout history, discussions that have arisen on the topic, and attempt to clarify whether a sense of unity can be found in this complex collection of viewpoints.
As noted earlier in this chapter the term agency encompasses the ability of the agent to take purposeful action in order to achieve a predetermined result. There are, however, many aspects that have the capability to influence the agent’s power, or ability, to take these actions, and which can determine and influence the thoughts of the agent on the result he or she wishes to achieve. One perspective which takes these influences into consideration is the connection between structure and agency. The structure of society creates habits, rules, and morals which enable the existence of social life. It can be argued that this foundation can be seen as both freeing and influential as “social structure is believed to exert a constraining effect on human activity; agency refers to the ability of individuals to act independently of this” (Encyclopedia69). It is, however, bold and perhaps short-sighted to argue that
individuals are able to act autonomously without influence of their social environment. This utopian view of agency does not correspond with the ideas of scholars in social science such as Emile Durkheim, and Anthony Giddens, who investigate, from different perspectives, the connection and influence of agency on structure and vice versa.
These different perspectives on the connection between agency and structure are discussed in the so-called ‘structure-agency’ debate which takes place in the social sciences. This particular debate revolves around three different viewpoints on agency and structure and encompasses that:
“(1) Some branches of sociology […]assert that social life is largely
determined by social structure, and that individual activities can be explained mostly as an outcome of structure. (2) Other branches […] reverse this emphasis, stressing the ability of individuals to construct and reconstruct and give meaning to their world. Proponents of this view emphasize the need to provide explanations for social phenomena which reflect the views of the individuals they study. (3) Other approaches stress the complementarity of structure and agency. Social structure influences human actions, but individual activities can similarly influence social structure.”(Encyclopedia69).
The first point of the structure-agency debate is supported by the social realism of the philosopher Emile Durkheim who brings “the importance of ‘social facts’ and rules which structure and organize human behavior” to light in his theory on social structure and human behavior (Tan 37). According to the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy (IEP) Durkheim argues that the individual only exists because he or she is part of a social structure. This structure influences many aspects of the individual such as their “actions”, “interpretations of the world”, and their “logical thought”, and forms the foundation for the existence of the individual (IEP). Interestingly, the effect of Durkheim’s theory on the individual can be considered to be extreme as it argues that “it erases any possibility for individual autonomy and freedom” (IEP). In other words, the notions of freedom and individuality do not exist; choices or agency are only able to exist because they are a part of the rules of society and social structure.
From this point of view the term agency is placed in a subordinate position as the will, and freedom of choice of the agent are restricted and controlled by the social environment and structure the agent resides in. Moreover, the limitation and confinement of the social structure
have a clear influence on the agent and his or her activities or choices. It is therefore on the one hand to be expected that many of the outcomes of predetermined goals will be compliant of the social structure. However, one can argue, on the other hand, that this great influence of social structure on the agent, and his or her activities, can be seen as the reason for some selected individuals to act in a defiant manner. In both cases the structure of social life is both the trigger of and influence on the choices agents desire and are able to make. In other words, from this particular standpoint structure plays a central role in the term agency as the agent and social structure are inseparable notions.
It is not surprising that this viewpoint has caused debates and created counterarguments within the social sciences. Some branches of the field, such as
“phenomenological sociology, ethnomethodology and symbolic interactionism” take an entirely opposite stance from the first viewpoint (Encyclopedia69). This perspective enables the individual “to plan, define, understand, organize, and execute [his or her] actions” (Tan 38). Moreover, instead of being influenced and controlled by society and social structure the individual is the creator of society: the individual is autonomous, creative, and takes a superior position in his or her relationship with social structure (Tan 38). To be precise, the individual is portrayed as an independent and superior agent who, without the influence of society, is able to create his or her own life. The independence of the individual and his or her actions influence and create society, but are formed wholly independently.
The consequences of this perspective for agency enactment are altogether dissimilar from the correlation between agency and society as witnessed in the former viewpoint. Instead of being restricted and controlled by social structure in making decisions and reaching goals, the individual, or agent, is entirely free from any form of social control. Furthermore, this viewpoint appears to offer a great range of possibilities for individuals to reveal their agency as the agent is always free to make any choice and is able to live life as he or she
wishes. The society that the individuals create is therefore a changeable and flexible creation as every individual’s choice is able to create a shift in the structure of society, which,
consequently, can be changed by another individual’s choice. All in all, this viewpoint
portrays society as a mere construction which does not have influence on individuals and their choices.
The viewpoints discussed so far can be described as extreme and controversial. Their complete opposite standpoints do not offer the ability to create concessions or nuances. As a consequence of the clash between these two extreme viewpoints some scholars have argued for an equal relationship between agency and structure. Instead of assessing the two notions separately where the one exerts more power over the other, structure and agency are discussed as complementary and equal notions.
An important scholar who has created a theory on the equal relationship between agency and structure is Anthony Giddens. Giddens’ theory revolves around the idea that “structures shape people's practices, but it is also people's practices that constitute (and reproduce) structures.” (Sewell 4). A clear middle ground is taken which both takes the influential aspect, and duality of structure on agency into consideration but also acknowledges the fact that agency is able to shape and create structure. Moreover, Giddens argues that structures do not limit the individual’s agency; he views it as a force which enables agency (Sewell 4). The compromise found by Giddens incorporates the most important aspects of both of the viewpoints on agency and structure discussed earlier in this section. The
emergence of different standpoints reveals the strength and diversity of the term agency. Yet it also exposes the weakness and complexity of the connection between agency and structure as there does not appear to be one correct answer or theory.
The connection between agency and structure is not the sole characteristic of agency. The temporal aspect of agency plays a significant role in the clarification of the term as well.
The scholars Emirbayer and Mische investigate the connection between agency and
temporality as scholars and theorists have, in their opinion, created a vague notion of agency (963). In their critique they clarify that:
“theoretically, our central contribution is to begin to reconceptualize human agency as a temporally embedded process of social engagement, informed by the past (in its habitual aspect), but also oriented toward the future (as a capacity to imagine alternative possibilities) and toward the present (as a capacity to contextualize past habits and future projects within the contingencies of the moment)” (Emirbayer and Mische 963).
By taking the temporality of the agent, character, or individual into consideration a greater possibility is created to investigate the possibilities of the agent to reveal his or her agency in either limiting or encouraging environments (Emirbayer and Mische 964).
Three elements are important in the process of connecting temporality and agency. First, the “iterational element” enables the agent to, selectively, use past memories, thoughts, and actions to establish stability in social environments and to preserve identity (Emirbayer and Mische 971). The second element that plays a role in the agency-temporality connection is called the “projective element”. This element occurs when the agent thinks of his or her “hopes, fears, and desires” about the future and utilizes set social structures in a creative manner in order to imagine certain steps he or she will make (Emirbayer and Mische 971). And lastly, the “practical-evaluative element” offers a more open and free view of agency as it enables agents “to make practical and normative judgments among alternative possible trajectories of action, in response to the emerging demands, dilemmas, and ambiguities of presently evolving situation” (Emirbayer and Mische 971). In addition, it is important to note
that Emirbayer and Mische’s claims about temporality and agency also consider some of the aspects of agency and structure. The past, the present, and the future are all equal factors which have the ability to influence agency. Structures are used in this context to accomplish the agency that is performed and caused by notions of time.
All in all, agency is a power which enables an agent to act on a decision or desire. The way in which the agent acts is supported by the inherent power and longing for freedom of the individual, and can be initiated by circumstances which for example, initiate rebellion or hope. Social circumstances and structures can provide a free or restricting setting for the enactment of agency. Furthermore, temporality is a factor which influences the choices agents make, and can reveal different perspectives on agency. All in all, the diversity and multi-interpretability of agency reveals its presence in many aspects of human life.
Gender Studies, History, and Female Agency
One of the aspects of human life which plays a significant role in agency enactment and further complicates the description is that of gender. The performance of agency by the female gender is, for instance, different and offers greater difficulties than male agency enactment offers due set gender roles in society and the expectations this encompasses. In order to establish these difficulties, the role and history of gender studies in agency enactment will provide deeper insight into the manners in which females are able to reveal and enact their agency. The role of the body in gender studies will indicate that the female body is the main tool for the enactment of female agency. Furthermore, changes in society which enable or restrict female agency enactment are discussed to provide a time-centered perspective on societal beliefs about the female experience in the novels.
The objective of gender studies is the investigation of the “relationship between the social categories of men and women” (Essed et al. 4). Furthermore, the study encompasses more specific angles such as women’s studies, feminist criticism, and queer theory yet, it does
not solely focus on one of these perspectives (Davies 183). In addition, gender studies can focus on many different aspects of the relationship between female and male life such as nation, domestic violence, crime, class, health, and reproduction (Essed et al. V-VII).
Significantly, gender studies shows similarities to the complex and divers notion of agency as “gender is [viewed as] a complex and unfixed mix of significant structural and cultural or representational considerations” (Essed et al 4).
It is striking that, despite the complexity and range of perspectives that can be studied with gendered studies, it was not until the late 1960’s that gender theory, and women’s studies, which is a part of gender studies, was first established and made use of in university courses and degrees in the United States (Maynard 29). Despite this rather late appearance of a study which mainly focused on women it expanded quite rapidly all over the world. In 1990 the British citizen Mary Evans wrote that it is a “confident assertion that there has been a rapid expansion [of Women’s Studies], in the last 10 years” (457). She claims this is principally the case because of the rise of western feminism in the 1960’s which brought forth gender theory, and due to “the efforts of women to claim for themselves a place in the western academy” (Evans 457). Moreover, themes such as race and sexual preference became new perspectives in gender studies in a later stage due to its global expansion: white western women were not the sole focus point any longer (Maynard 31). Finally, it is interesting to note that gender studies show a corresponding development to the history of feminism (Bullen 11). Thus it is to say that gender studies are a means of expression for feminist critiques and standpoints.
The relationship between men and women influences and reveals differences in the way the sexes are able to show and act out their agency. The influence of social structures and cultures shape the ways in which both men and women are able to show agency. What is more, these structures and cultures can dictate the acceptability of actions, and restrict agency
enactment as a consequence of certain beliefs on virtue and family. According to Terri Apter and Elizabeth Garnsey, the world is mainly structured by male perspectives which requires women to take “shrewd measure of the cost of success in male terms in a male world and, accordingly, to choose different goals and other means of achieving them.” (20). This
statement reveals that presumed limitations caused by the male world for the female gender to reveal agency can in fact be considered the cause for creativity. The creative ways in which women are able to enact agency are a result of their defiance of the male-structured world. Thus, the creative use and knowledge of gender enables women to creatively challenge the set social structures and define themselves as independent women who do not wish to obey the male-centered cultural and social rules.
The main way in which women are able to show this resistance is through the use of their bodies. Both gender studies and feminism have, for a long time, been aware of the importance of the female body in its representation of gender. It is important to note that this awareness does not solely studies the white western women, for, according to Catherine Davies: “studies of gender formation and the performance of gender roles in the Latin American novel have concentrated primarily on representations of women and the female body” (183). Furthermore, this universal notion of the female body has caused many debates regarding for example, the subordination of the female body, the control of men over
women’s bodies, and the position of the female body in social situations and structures (Pilcher and Whelehan 6).
There exist three ways in which the representation of the female body can be divided: the connection between body and nature; the way in which the body plays a part in social constructions; and the body as a representation of the individual (Pilcher and Whelehan 6). Within all these three representations a woman has the possibility to reveal her power through agency enactment. The natural aspects of the body, such as the reproductive purposes of the
body and the choices women make regarding giving birth gives her power as it is her body that undergoes change and gives new life. The way in which females use their bodies in social constructions such as the choice to stay ‘pure’, or choose to cover the body can aid them in the search for a suitable husband which can improve their lives. Lastly, the female body can be used to reveal the personality and knowledge of the female agent which can aid her to accomplish a certain goal.
All in all, the different aspects of the female body are a representation of the power of female agency. The control exercised by the male-dominated world on the female body does not restrict female agency. Rather, it encourages a creative and diverse use of the body. The control men and societies wish to employ over women and their bodies unveils the
tremendous power of the female body. Moreover, by rebelling against this male-centered world women do not only show to have power and strength, they also show to have the ability to make choices regarding their personal freedom. This is in accordance with Mary Maynard who claims that every women “has specific projects, things she aims to accomplish, ways she aims to express herself, make her mark on the world, transform her surroundings and
relationships”, and the power of the female body enables this search for freedom (105). In able for a woman to accomplish these goals, thus to reveal her agency, she requires her body as it is a vastly empowering part of her being.
The reason for women in nineteenth-century America to reveal agency was caused by changes in the perspective on expectations of female life and the roles they ought to play in society. One viewpoint which shifted regarded beliefs about marriage and love. Where marriage was first viewed as an economic event or exchange between families, marriage in the nineteenth century increasingly developed into a notion based on love and companionship (Wayne 1). Furthermore, due to industrialization the center of female life gradually moved from the home and the family to work in factories and the rest of the outside world (Wayne
2-3). The center of women’s lives was reversed and, consequently, women had to position themselves in new environments and situations. The great changes in the female experience offer possibilities for agency enactment to, for example discover new parts of the self. Yet, the adjustment caused by the reversal of the position of female life required women to alter their conduct and behavior. The new possibilities -or problems- that could arise from these changes are explored by different writers and movements.
The changes in social life are observed by, for example, the movement the Cult of True Womanhood. Their observations of the changing society and its effects on female life inspired them to write a rulebook in which the role of a woman is described. From their perspective, the woman is a “hostage in the home”, which reveals awareness and
encouragement for women moving away from the household. Despite this change beliefs on female conduct remained unchanged. For, in order to be a good woman there were four virtues which determine a woman’s trueness: “piety, purity, submissiveness and
domesticity.”(Welter 152). In order to succeed in her life, a woman had to live by these four virtues for “without them, no matter whether there was fame, achievement or wealth, all was ashes. With them she was promised happiness and power.” (Welter 152). Thus, even though change appears to be accepted, and possibilities for women to embrace these changes are accepted as well, the four virtues cause restrictions on agency enactment. Therefore, it is to say that the Cult of True Womanhood shows itself to be a progressive and conservative.
Another exploration of female possibilities and agency is performed by the writer Margaret Fuller who in her book called “Woman in the Nineteenth Century” (1845) explores the notion she called ‘Woman’. The book is concerned with female agency and the way in which women could enrich their roles and possibilities in society in that period of time (Stansell 419). Fuller too, mentions the change in perspective on female life when she
her. Before, she could be condemned to perish on the scaffold for treason, not as a citizen, but as a subject” (Fuller 24). Here, Fuller explains that women are no longer seen as an object but as a human being or a ‘citizen’ who, like in marriage, are not merely an object that is useful for economic purposes. In contrast to the, sometimes, conservative views of the Cult of True Womanhood Fuller focuses on the progress a woman can make. Both examples, despite the conservative stance of the Cult of True Womanhood, take the possibility of a more evolved and greater female life into consideration, and appear to allow it. It is, however, the question to what extent female characters in the novels are actually able to succeed in taking action and reaching their goals as the conservative and housebound view of women remains.
Agency and the American Dream
So far, this exploration of agency clarified the meaning of the notion, explored
different characteristics such as structure and temporality, and investigated the role of gender in agency enactment. What has remained undiscovered in this exploration of agency until now is the inspiration which causes the agent to take purposeful action. It is important to bring the reason for the female characters in the American novels The Scarlet Letter, The House of
Mirth, and Maggie: A Girl of the Streets to reveal and use their agency to light as it will
provide deeper insight in their choices and will offer a clarification of their process of decision-making.
In order to shed light on these two aspects it is necessary to investigate a notion which is embedded in American lifestyle and ideology: the American Dream. This notion, or myth, has been present in the American lifestyle from the first beginnings of the country when the first settlers came to live on the continent. According to the Oxford Dictionary the American Dream can be defined as “the ideal by which equality of opportunity is available to any American, allowing the highest aspirations and goals to be achieved”. This not only indicates that, due to the presence of equality, female characters should be able to achieve their goals in
the same manner as male characters should be, it also offers the assumption of the existence of an open society in which anyone should be able to achieve their goal, no matter how high this ambition might be. These ambitions and goals can be aspired in any field of one’s private life or society as “the American dream preserves paramount political, economical, social and cultural significance” (Konovalova 295). However, this one definition does not encompass the entirety of the American dream as it is “a very complicated phenomenon” which is, similar to agency, a multi-interpretable and broad notion (Konovalova 295).
The broad range and interpretability of the phenomenon comes to light in the contrasting manners literary scholars perceive the notion. On the on hand there are scholars who “believe that defining the dream as an entity is impossible since there is no such entity as the American dream” (Konovalova 294). On the other hand scholars do believe in the
existence of the phenomenon of the American Dream as it, to them, mainly derives from the assumption that “the whole American literature is considered to be its reflection”
(Konovalova 295). Even though both assumptions appear bold and can be disputed, the presence of the American Dream in both discussion, and the bold statement that all American literature is influenced by it reveals the necessity to incorporate of the notion in research. As a result, it is to say that the aspirations of a character from a novel to aim for something by using his or her agency can be considered to be caused by the phenomenon of the American Dream.
The reason behind the great influence of the phenomenon on all American literature lies in its adaptability and interpretability. According to Jennifer Hochschild, “The idea of the American Dream has been attached to everything from religious freedom to a home in the suburbs, and it has inspired emotions ranging from deep satisfaction to disillusioned fury” (Hochschild 15). Her claim that the American Dream can be attached to any aspects of human life is the main reason for its great influence on literature and other features that play a role in
human life. Yet, here we encounter one of the difficulties regarding the American Dream, as the diversity of human life and the differences in the norms and values results in many different ‘dreams’ which could upset the social and moral ideas of society (Konovalova 294). Moreover, the danger of enacting and pursuing ones American Dream in an environment which does not support this dream leads to the acknowledgement that there exists a “fatal possibility of losing everything in the process of trying to achieve the goals of the Myth of the American Dream.” (Miller 198). It appears that in order to achieve a goal the agent is required to take social norms and expectations into account as it, otherwise, could lead to demise.
Fortunately, the scholar Hochschild offers a solution to these presumed societal complications. His exploration of success, and the different levels this includes, reveals a new perspective on the American Dream. He claims that success can be either “absolute” which implies that your life improves moderately, it can be “relative” which means it only improves in comparison to something else, or success can be “competitive” which implies that one wishes to beat someone else’s success level (Hochschild 16-17). These three levels of success indicate, once again, the diversity of the American Dream, but also reveal the existence of subtlety and refinement when one wishes to reach a goal. It is therefore not necessary or required of a dream to upset the norms and values of society: success can be reached in numerous ways.
Due to its adaptability, interpretability, and great influence on American life and literature it is to say that the American Dream can be considered as the force that lies behind the exposure of female agency in the three novels. Even though the dreams of the female characters might be different, as they are set in different literary movements with different societies and environments, and the levels on which they attempt to achieve success might be different, the American Dream is embedded in the American way of life and serves as an
inspiration, whether knowingly or instinctively, for the female characters to reveal their agency.
Mediation, Dreams, and Reality: Female Agency in Stephen Crane’s Maggie: A Girl of the Streets
In Stephen Crane’s Maggie: A Girl of the Streets (1893) the ways in which the concepts of the American Dream and agency can be witnessed and performed are clearly influenced by its naturalistic setting. The environmental and hereditary limitations presented by naturalism ought to limit the presence of the American Dream. An exploration of the opportunities for the female character Maggie to create her American Dream will reveal if her agency enactment is indeed influenced by the naturalistic set up of the novella or if this presence is transcended. By exploring both the naturalistic aspects of and the influence of the American Dream on the social structure and environment of the novel a co-existence of both notions will come to the fore. Agency in the novel, furthermore, will be presented as a powerful factor for female enactment of agency, which mainly takes place through the body. Finally, female agency will be exposed as a powerful notion due to its mediating abilities.
Stephen Crane’s short novel Maggie: A Girl of the Streets takes part in the American literary tradition of Naturalism. Due to the great variety and lack of determinism in this literary period not one sole definition for this literary tradition is present. However, it is to say that American naturalism concerns, for example, “the deterministic pressures of heredity and environmental forces, [and] the theologically challenging implications of materialism and biological reductionism” (Newlin 72). Furthermore, the literary tradition of naturalism “rejects[s] the idealization of experience and adopt[s] an objective and often
uncompromisingly realistic approach to art” (Oxford Dictionary). In other words, naturalism revolves around the concept that a human’s future is based on social conditions which are unchangeable. If one is, for example, born in a working-class environment this is where one remains his or her entire life: there is no opportunity in which agency performance enables improvements in one’s position in life.
Interestingly, the research of Donald Pizer, however, discusses both the influence and presence of the naturalistic literary movement in Maggie: A Girl of the Streets and the presence of other influences. He acknowledges that the novella “contains many of the distinctive elements of naturalistic fiction” (Pizer 168). Significantly, however, are the statements that “Crane's fictional techniques imply that the theme of the novel is somewhat more complex than the truism that young girls in the slums are more apt to go bad than young girls elsewhere”(Pizer 168-169), and that Crane’s writing “involves us in the difference between moral appearance and reality in society”(Pizer 175). It is to say that Pizer
acknowledges the naturalistic presence in the short novel; yet, he also argues for the existence of other interpretations and considerations which not involve naturalism to a great extent. Consequently, this encourages the exploration of the presence of the American Dream in the novella.
Yet, before such an exploration can take place it is important to reveal that the presence of Naturalism and the restrictions this imposes on agency is clearly visible in the novella. The description of the environment of the working-class surroundings depicted in Crane’s work, which was inspired by his work as a reporter living in a working-class district, is dark and harsh. Names of streets and descriptions of buildings offer insight into the
harshness in which the story is set. People are wandering streets such as ‘Rum Alley’ and ‘Devil’s Row’, and are living in buildings which consist of “a dozen gruesome doorways [which] g[i]ve up loads of babies to the street and the gutter” (Crane 10). The dark and uncompromising setting of the novel shapes the inhabitants of this area and offers no way out of the harshness of the surroundings.
Despite the apparent influence of the environment on the inhabitants of the district, the ecocritic Robert Myers argues that, “many critics have downplayed the role of the physical environment in the novel” (192). In his ecocritical reading of the novel he argues that “the
physical reality of the city is connected to the psychological and moral attitudes of those living in the slums” (Myers 193). In other words, the description of buildings and street names are a representation of the mental world of the inhabitant. Myers acknowledges the reciprocity of the environment and its inhabitants when he states that “without solitude, Maggie has little chance of developing [her own] interiority” (193). The harshness of the environment does not only impact human conduct, it influences the mental abilities of the inhabitants. Agency, therefore can be seen as a product restricted and influenced by Naturalism.
This is visible in the early portrayal of the female character Maggie. In the first chapter of the novella we encounter Maggie as a little girl. She is, similarly to other children, tainted by the environment she abides in. Maggie is portrayed as a rough girl who does not feel compassion for her little brother. This insensitivity, caused by the influence of the
environment on mental abilities, comes to light in the manner in which she treats her little brother. She, for example “jerk[s] the baby’s arm impatiently [...] [and] with a second jerk she pull[s] him to his feet” (Crane 11). There exists no sense of love and care in Maggie’s
treatment of her brother. Furthermore, Maggie is presented as a selfish child as she only reproaches her brother Jimmie for fighting due to the negative effects this will have on her own life. Thus, Maggie’s representation as a typical insensitive working-class child who is tainted, in her behavior and in her mental abilities, by the environment she lives in indicates that her actions are a representation of her surroundings.
However, it is essential to note that the influence of the physical environment is not the sole naturalistic aspect of the novel. Restrictions caused by social structure, such as the norms and values on virtue, purity, and family pride play a central role in the story, and in the actions taken by the characters. The norms and values, and the societal judgment on Maggie’s conduct expose a high degree of scrutiny. One instance in which this occurs is when Maggie returns home after her controversial time with Pete. Society is aware of the events that occur
as they “through the open door curious eyes [stare]” and witness the family scene (Crane 92). The many witnesses to this scene create a sense of openness which, consequently, enables judgment to occur even more visibly. Therefore, in order to preserve the pride of the family the mother decides to mock Maggie by saying sarcastically: “An’ she was so good to come home teh her mudder, she was!” (Crane 93). Moreover, Maggie’s brother Jimmie chooses to express concern for his own virtue as he is concerned about “contamination” rather then caring for his sister (Crane 93). The control and influence of society on ‘private’
conversations reveals the significance and importance of its norms and values and the effect this has on the purpose of agency enactment of all characters.
In contrast, this scene also reveals society’s connection to the enactment of the American Dream as a distinction is made by society between virtues and purity on the one hand, and the harsh and dirty environment of the social structure on the other hand.
Interestingly, this contrast only exists in the context of female virtue as violent behavior and drinking are expected types of behavior and are not perceived badly from either male or female characters. The explanation for this striking contrast is that expectations for female virtue and purity are a reflection of the longing, which is inspired by the American Dream, for life in higher class environment. However, the constraint put on human life by Naturalism, i.e. the impossibility to change one’s life, creates a fruitless longing for an improved manner of existence. This fruitless endeavor of society to create a better way of life with the use of the enactment of agency is, according to Dingledine, “a troubled inheritance [of the] myth of the self-made man” (88). Thus a complete opposition between restrictive elements of Naturalism and the progressivism of the American Dream is present in the novel.
This clash between reality and longing creates a setting in which even Maggie’s potential longing for an American Dream is unreachable. Yet, the existence of hope in society which is reflected in their continued desire of female virtue offers hope for Maggie’s agency
enactment. Furthermore, even within the constraints caused by the control, focus, and judgment of class imagery on this aspect of female life agency enactment is present. This presence transcends the restrictions on the development of the female individuality and freedom that is required to build an American Dream and perform agency. Therefore, in the case of Maggie a Girl of the Streets it is to say that, despite the fact that the naturalistic viewpoint of the novella ought to overpower Maggie’s potential expression of agency to reach her American Dream, the existence of agency enactment in both notions offers hope. The following exploration will reveal that the opposition between the American Dream and Naturalism enables Maggie’s agency to play a central and mediating role between the two notions: they are able to co-exist because of agency enactment.
There are two instances that give insight into the connection between the existence of Maggie’s agency enactment and the American Dream. The first instance occurs when Maggie is a grown woman and Jimmie communicates to her that “Yeh’ve edder got teh go teh hell or go teh work!” (Crane 31). Jimmie offers Maggie the opportunity to either move down the social ladder, which is the equivalent of hell, or to remain in the same position with a
perspective to move upwards. Maggie’s response to this message is of great importance as she “went to work, having the feminine aversion of going to hell” (Crane 31). This indicates the existence of Maggie’s agency enactment as it reveals both her willingness to improve her life, and knowledge about her social circumstances. Moreover, the message is a representation of a gendered perspective of the American Dream. The use of the words ‘feminine aversion’ reveals that it does not suit the female gender to move down the social ladder – it is imprinted in Maggie’s female being to create an American Dream. It is for this reason that at the start of her ‘career’ Maggie works without complaints despite being surrounded by “twenty girls of various shades of yellow discontent” (Crane 31).
A turning point and the second instance which reveals the existence of Maggie’s connection to the agency enactment and the American Dream, occurs after a change of attitude regarding her work after her return from a date with Pete. The exposure to a higher class life has changed Maggie and has created new perspectives, and diverse possibilities in her mind. As a consequence of this transformation, Maggie is now “strangled” by “the air in the collar and cuff establishment” and realizes she is “gradually and surely shriveling in the hot, stuffy room” (Crane 48). The working environment which, at first did not bother or constrain her in any manner has now become such a constraint on her life that Maggie has become part of the female workers who show their “yellow discontent” (Crane 31).
In order for Maggie to escape this environment she is required to make use of her agency supported by the inherent female longing to improve life. Instead of being content with working at the factory and creating an “absolute” type of American Dream, Maggie is now desiring to create a more “relative” or “competitive” type of American Dream
(Hochschild 16-17) which reveals that she increases the level of success she wishes to
achieve. In order for Maggie to accomplish this she is required to use Emirbayer and Mische’s “projective element” with regard to temporality as she now thinks of her “hopes, fears, and desires” about the future (971). For Maggie’s attempt to be successful she must reveal her agency and creatively utilize set social structures so that she can imagine the necessary steps which enable her to reach her goal (Emirbayer and Mische 971).
Maggie’s purposeful use of this creativity comes to the fore in her striking first
contemplations about the desire to become a middle-class woman. She, for the first time in the novel, is aware of her body and beauty and focuses on these two aspects of her being. Earlier in the novella, Maggie shows unawareness of her beauty even when this is explicitly
expressed to her, as she always “lean[s] back in the shadows” and does not wish to be noticed by men (Crane 35). However, after her exposure to high-society Maggie focuses, and is aware
of her body and beauty. Now, in her thoughts Maggie “speculate[s] how long her youth would endure”, but more importantly she “beg[ins] to see the bloom upon her cheeks as valuable” (Crane 49). According to Andrew Lawson Maggie in this instance “expends her own labor on the commodity in order to fashion [her body] into the desired object” (599). Thus, Maggie realizes that the tools for her agency enactment, which are essential for her to accomplish her goal, are her body and beauty which she presents as a commodity.
The essence of the body and beauty in agency enactment is supported by the critic Howard Horwitz. In his research on the sociological paradigm in the novel he makes significant statements concerning the connection between action, the body, and the
environment. According to Horwitz’s line of thought agency and the actions this involves are assigned “to bodies, or actually to body parts, physical features, or even bodily excretions, rather than to persons (607). This indicates that the power of agency lies in the actions taken by the body, or body parts, rather than by a person. In other words, the body is the main way through which agency is enacted.
Moreover, he continues his argument by stating that the “environment does not determine action, but neither do individuals; instead bodies act or respond ritualistically” (Horwitz 610). Here, he wishes to defy the naturalistic viewpoint that one is shaped by the environment one abides in and establishes a divide between the environment and the body. By defying the naturalistic influences on the individual Horwitz attempts to establish a viewpoint which fully captures the independence and power of the body. As a consequence, the claim that body and beauty are the main tools for agency enactment is justified.
This leads to the question why, despite Maggie’s knowledge of her body and beauty by presenting herself as a commodity, and in contrast to Horwitz’s beliefs, the restriction Naturalism imposes on the American Dream is the cause for Maggie’s inability to accomplish the creation of a middle-class life. The answer lies in the fact that the restrictions do not limit
Maggie in her creative use of her body and beauty to enact her agency, rather it are erroneous decisions caused by the restrictions of unchangeable set social structures which cause her to fail. Maggie has not taken the naturalistic viewpoint of the American Dream into
consideration that “the fatal possibility of losing everything in the process of trying to achieve the goals of the Myth of the American Dream” exists when one does not follow the social structures and rules (Miller 198).
Moreover, the social structures and rules have negatively influenced Maggie’s ability to present herself as a commodity properly. Due to the late awareness of the power of her body and beauty, caused by the restrictions of naturalism, the “imitation of middle-class domestic styles, [and] the fashioning of lambrequins, takes Maggie from standardized
propriety to a self-destructive immersion in the delusory world of appearance.” (Lawson 606-607). Andrew Lawson continues this statement by arguing that Maggie herself is “both self-possessed and socially disciplined” (611), indicating the immense influence of society on Maggie’s character. First, Maggie can be considered to have the ability to enact agency out of the ’self-possession’ which develops her longing to create her American Dream. And second, Maggie is under the influence of society to such an extent that it has become a part of her being. The opposition between individuality and society causes restrictions and
‘self-destructiveness. In Maggie’s failure the naturalistic influence on the American Dream comes to the fore; yet, it also reveals that agency enactment is both present in Naturalism and the American Dream.
It is to say that agency in the novel serves as a means to achieve the American Dream. Reaching this goal is restricted by Naturalism as it ‘rejects the idealization of experience’. However, instead of identifying Maggie’s failure to reach her Dream as a consequence of Naturalism one can argue that the naturalistic presence does not limit the desire for and enactment of agency in order to reach the American Dream. There are many instances in the
novel in which the naturalistic presence in transcended by longings and agency enactment. This mainly occurs in the actions taken by both society and Maggie. The presence of taking action, either by society in their search for class-mimicry and demand for female virtue is not limited, or by Maggie’s longing to develop into a middle-class woman and the actions she undertakes, are not restricted by Naturalism.
In conclusion, the novel reveals its naturalistic aspects mainly through the depiction, influence, and restrictions on actions and desires in social structures and environments. These desires and actions are caused by the notion of the American Dream. The conflict between these two important factors in the novel creates the inability to ultimately reach this goal. However, in this clash between the two opposites the notion of agency is able to play a mediating role: the presence of agency enactment in both Naturalism and in the American Dream allows them to co-exist in the novel. This is mainly visible in the female character Maggie who is influenced by both her environment and her –feminine- desire for an American Dream. Her agency enactment, i.e. through her body and beauty, not only
exemplifies the importance of the female body as a tool for agency enactment, it also reveals the diversity and importance of the notion as clearly bridges the gap between naturalism and the American Dream. The power of agency in Crane’s Maggie: A Girl of the Streets therefore, does not solely lie with the power of the female body; its strength also lies in its bridging, transcending, and mediating abilities.
Creating Barriers out of Fear: Female Agency in Edith Wharton’s The House of Mirth A novel which reveals the power of female agency enactment in a different manner is Edith Wharton’s The House of Mirth. The exploration of the female characters Lily Bart will show that in this novel it is the knowledge of the use of body, beauty, and talents which enable the performance of agency. Moreover, Lily’s American Dream to live in a higher social class will be revealed as the force which influences her agency enactment. The great power knowledgeable use of agency enactment inspired by the American Dream exerts will come to light in society’s requirement to scrutinize female behavior, and create strict
principles on female virtue in order to defend itself against female agency enactment. The counteractive position female agency enactment is forced into by these barriers is further enhanced by realist constructions. However, this chapter will argue that it is indeed this counteractive position of female agency enactment in the novel which reveals the true power of female agency: fear.
Edith Wharton’s novel The House of Mirth is influenced by the American literary traditions Realism and Naturalism. As Naturalism has been discussed in the previous chapter this chapter will focus on the role of Realism, without undermining or denying the existence of Naturalism in the novel. Realism became an important part of American literature after the Civil War when the USA underwent political, economical, social, and cultural changes. The realist literary movement formed a response to these changes as “realist writers sought to understand and explain their changing society, as well as to resist it, celebrate it, influence it, and profit from it” (Barrish 3). In order to do so Realism aims to present itself as objective and accomplishes this with the use of, for example, “free-indirect discourse” which allows for an objective third person narrative which is able to shift between characters (Barrish 3-4).
Furthermore, the close attention writers pay on “the surfaces of everyday life” allows realists to create a detailed and ‘real’ environment which aids them in their wish to truthfully
describe a “wide range of Americans” (Barrish 5-6). The “faithful representation of reality" or "verisimilitude” created by Realism does at first sight not actively complicate or restrict the notions of female agency and the American Dream in the way naturalism does (Campbell). In fact, the definition of Realism offers an ideal starting point for the investigation of female agency enactment inspired by the American Dream as it “focuses on the immediate, the here and now, the specific actions and their verifiable consequences” (Scheidenhelm).
The focus presented by Realism offers clear insight into the agency enactment of the female character Lily Bart, who is presented by Edith Wharton as a knowledgeable and confident woman. Similar to Maggie from Maggie: A Girl of the Streets, Lily is able to reveal the power of her agency through her body and beauty. The impact of the power of Lily Bart’s beauty is presented to the reader through the eyes of Mr. Selden. Despite his awareness of her age, as “she indeed reached the nine-and-twentieth birthday” already (Wharton 4), and his long acquaintance with her, Mr. Selden is still struck by her beauty when he observes her every aspect, from “the modeling of her little ear”, to “the crisp upward wave of her hair” (Wharton 5). Interestingly, he realizes that she is “at once vigorous and exquisite, at once strong and fine” (Wharton 5). This indicates that Mr. Selden is conscious of the fact that Lily is not solely beautiful but has an energetic and indeed powerful personality. In this instance, it becomes clear that Lily’s beauty undeniably has power as it are not merely her favorable features which empower her, rather it is the repeated and permanent fascination of Mr. Selden, who for a long time has been familiar with her beauty, which reveals the true power of Lily’s beauty.
Yet it is significant to note that it is not solely Lily’s beauty which provides this power: it is the awareness and knowledge of the use of her body which provide Lily with the perfect tool for her agency enactment. The message conveyed to her by her mother when Lily was young taught her that she will “get it all back, with [her] face” (Wharton 28). This
message lingers in Lily’s thoughts and is present in all aspects of her life. One instance which reveals this consciousness occurs during Lily’s thoughts and worries about the imperfections on her face such as “two little lines near her mouth” (Wharton 28). These thoughts indicate Lily’s awareness of beauty being a valuable aspect of her life. This statement is supported by an occasion in which Lily esteems it unjust that “pretty cares should leave a trace on the beauty which [is] her only defence against them” (Wharton 28). Thus, Lily is fervently aware of the importance and power of her beauty as it, from her perspective, is a means which supports her life. Therefore, the knowledge of the importance and value of her beauty present itself to be a vital aspect of Lily’s ability to enact her agency and survive in the world.
What is more, Lily has an additional awareness which allows her to survive in the world: that of knowledge about social behavior and men. The knowledge Lily has of her beauty combined with the manner in which she ought to behave is apparent in the manner she approaches Mr. Percy Gryce. In her attempt to obtain Mr. Gryce as her husband Lily employs her knowledge on both her own beauty, behavior, and her understanding of men. During her first encounter with Mr. Gryce on the train Lily’s confidence and knowledge about men comes to the fore as she considers that “some girls would not have known how to manage him” (Wharton 19). Furthermore, the complete description of the scene between Lily and Mr. Gryce discloses her awareness of and ability to employ several devices to raise Mr. Gryce’s interest. In order to do so Lily makes use of her so-called talents and deploys her knowledge.
The decision to deploy and use her talents is another method which exposes Lily’s agency enactment as it enables her to take purposeful action in order to achieve a
predetermined goal. In his research, the scholar Patrick Mullen explores the ways in which Lily can deploy her talent and knowledge. He argues that “Lily’s self-managerial aesthetic” is the center of Lily’s use of knowledge (Mullen 41). In other words, Lily is able to deploy her talents because of her awareness of the importance of self-management. This becomes visible
in Lily’s “underst[anding] that beauty is only the raw material of conquest, and that to convert it into success other arts are required” (Wharton 34). Thus, in order for Lily to obtain these arts Mullen argues that she is required to “actively [seek] out various forms of knowledge” (45) and that the most vital manner in which she does so is through “her ability to understand herself as a visual image within a particular mise-en-scène.”(45). Lily Bart’s artistic abilities offer her a manner in which she can deploy her knowledge and agency.
This statement is in accordance with Leslie Backer’s viewpoint that “Wharton has clearly presented the character of Lily Bart as both object and artist” (34). Furthermore, it is Lily’s “artistic instinct” which allows her to create a “status” in society (Backer 34). That is, the artistic abilities of Lily Bart, and her knowledge to present herself as an artist enable her to present herself properly in a higher part of society. The actual performance of agency required in this process is visible in the manner “Lily successfully manipulates visual elements such as color, texture, form, and composition to create her unique work of art.” (Backer 35). The choices and decisions Lily takes regarding presenting herself as an in an artistic manner are an indication of the deployment of knowledge and agency.
Yet, it is not solely Lily’s artistic deployment and use of knowledge which encompass her talents. In her ‘active’ search for knowledge Lily makes use of talents such as: “the art of giving self-confidence to the embarrassed” (Wharton 18), the “talent for profiting by the unexpected” (Wharton 21), and the realization “that extreme measures [are] necessary” (Wharton 20). All these ‘talents’ are used to maintain a connection with Mr. Gryce and preserve her grasp on him. These extremely purposeful actions are a sign of Lily’s agency enactment as she deploys her knowledge of men and talents in order to connect with Mr. Gryce. Therefore, all these talents, including her artistic abilities, reveal that Lily makes use of an “embodied form of intelligence” in order to enact her agency and reach her goal of capturing and marrying Mr. Gryce (Mullen 48).
