Psychological aspects of driver behaviour

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p S Y C H 0 LOG I C A L ASP E C T S

o F

DRIVER BEHAVIOUR

Papers pres~nted to the international

Symposium on psychological aspects of driver behaviour held at Noordwijkerhout, The Netherlands

2-6 August 1971

V 0 L·U M E 1

Institute for Road Safety Research SWOV

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---CONTENTS VOLUME I

THE AlMS OF THB SYMPOSIUM ON PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF DRIVER BEHAVIOUR

ORGANIZATION

Ir. E. Asmussen, Symposium Director INTRODUCTORY SPEECH

Mr. B.A. Bayrakter INTRODUCTORY

Dr. Donald A. Gordon, Chairman Division I GENERAL VIEW ON DIVISION I

Dr. P. Robert Knaff, Chairman Division 11 GENERAL VIEW ON DIVISION 11

Ir. E. Asmussen, Symposium Director PERORATION

ALPHABETICAL LIST OF PARTICIPANTS AND/OR AUTHORS OF PRESENTED PAPERS

PRESENTED PAPERS

DIVISION I· DRIVER BEHAVIOUR

Section 1.0

GENERAL MODELS AND THEORIES

J.H. Andriessen

MOTIVATIONAL DETERMINANts OF EXPERIMENTAL RISK TAKING BEHAVIOUR

A.F. Sanders and A.A. Bunt

SOME REMARKS ON THE FoFFECTR OF DRUGS, LACK of SLEtP AND LOUD NOISE ON HU\tAN PFJiFORMANCFJ

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.Douglas Vickers

SOME GENERAL FEATURES OF PERCEPTUAL DISCRIMINATION

Section 1.1

CONCEPTUALISATION AND MEASUREMENT

Gerald V. Barrett

REVIEW OF AUTOMOBILE SIMULATOR RESEARCH

Robert D. Campbell, Lawrence E. Schlesinger and·A.L. Roark THE AUTOMOBILE DRIVER AS A VARIABLE IN AN ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEM

A.B. Clayton, B.Sc., Ph.D., A.B.Ps.S.

USE OF PHYSIOLOGICAL MEASURES IN THE ASSESSMENT OF DRIVING LOAD

Clifford P. Hahn

THE USE OF MOVIE FILM AND LABORATORY METHODS FOR ASSESSING DRIVING SKILL

Richard A. Olsen

QUANTIFYING AND SPECIFYING DRIVER BEHAVIOR

Anthony Peranio

AN EXPANDED CYBERNETIC MODEL FOR ANALYZING DRIVER BEHAVIOR

Jaime F. Torres

OBJECTIVE MEASUREMENTS OF DRIVER-VEHICLE EFFORT UNDER FIELD CONDITIONS AND SOME RELATIONSHIPS

David H. Weir and Duana T. McRuer

MEASUREMENT AND INTERPRETATION OF DRIVER-VEHICLE SYSTEM DYNAMIC RESPONSE

Vittorio Wyss

INVESTIGATIONS ON COMPARATIVE· O₂PULSE VALUES MEASURED IN CAR DRIVING AND IN E,QuIVALENT WORK ON BICYCLE ERGOMETER

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Section 1.2

ELABOItATION OF SUBSYSTEMS

Newton C. Ellis, Ph.D.

DRIVER EXPECTANCY: STRUCTURING MOTORIST INFORMATION SYSTEMS FOR SAFETY

DonBld A. Gordon

DRIVER CHARACTERISTICS AND TRAFFIC SYSTEM DESIGN

Gordon H. Robinson, Richard L. Clark, Donald J. Erickson and Gregory L. Thurston

VISUAL SEARCH BY AUTOMOBILE DRIVERS

Gordon H. Robinson and SachidanBnd D. DeaBi

CONTROL OF ATTENTION AS A FUNCTION OF RISK AND RISK PREFERENCE

K.D. Schulz-Helbach and E. Donges

ON STEERING DYNAMICS OF TRACKED VEHICLES - RESULTS OF AN

ANTHROPOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATION BY USING A NOVEL DRIVING SIMULATOR

Kar 1 U. Smi th

EXPERIMENTAL SYSTEMS ANALYSIS OF DELAYED STtERING FEEDBACK

R.T. Spurr

DRIVER BEHAVIOUR DURING BRAKING

Section 1.3

1NDlVIPJJH. AND ENVIRONMENTAl. EFFECTS

P. Everett Fergenson, Ph.D.

DRIVING RESEARCH PROGRAM AT STEVENS INSTITUTE '

M. Stephen Huntley, Jr., Ph.D· and M.W. Perrine, Ph·D·

INFLUENCES OF ALCOHOL ON DRIVER BEHAVIOR IN AN INSTRUMENTED CAR

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P. Robert Knaff and Charles A. Baker

SOME HUMAN FACTORS CONSIDERATIONS IN HIGHWAY SAFETY

Richard F. Krenek, Ph.D. and Thomas H. Rockwell, Ph.D. MAXIMUM DRIVING PERFORMANCE - CAN IT BE PREDICTED?

John A. Michon

SOME MULTIVARIATE ASPECTS OF DRUNKEN DRIVING

S.W. Quenault and R.D. Fairhead

DRIVER BEHAVIOUR AND RESULTS ON SOME PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS

S.W. Quenault and C.F. Harvey

CONVICTED AND NON-CONVICTED DRIVERS - VALUES OF DRIVE INDICES

Abdul Raouf, Ph.D. and S.C. Sharma ON DRIVING ABILITY AND RELATED FACTORS

Girolamo Sorrenti

DRIVER BEHAVIOUR - STUDY OF A SAMPLING OF ITALIAN DRIVERS

Albert Zavala

AFFECTIVE STATES INFLUENCING DRIVERS' DECISIONS AND MOTOR SKILLS

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CONTENTS VOLUME 2

PRESENTED PAPERS

DIVISION 11. APPLIED RESEARCH

Section II.1.A

iIGBWAX INFOBMATION sySTEMS

James I. Taylor and Robert S. Hostetter

TRANSLATION OF DRIVER INFORMATION REQUIREMENTS TO ROADWAY DELINEATION SYSTEMS

Dr. Sauli Hakkinen

PERCEPTION OF HIGHWAY TRAFFIC SIGNS

Thomas M. Nelson and Carol J. Ladan

ENGINEERING OF TRAFFIC MARKERS TO SATISFY REQUIR~NTS OF PERCEPTUAL SPACE

Section II.1.B

1. NIGHT VISIBILITY SYSTEMS

Dr.Ir. D.A. Schreuder

THE CODING AND TRANSMISSION OF INFORMATION BY MEANS OF ROAD LIGHTING

Kare Rumar

NIGHT DRIVING VISIBILITY WITH PRESENT EUROPEAN HEADLIGHTS

2. TAIL LIGHTING SYSTEMS

Rudolf G. Mortimer

CAR AND TRUCK REAR LIGHTING AND SIGNAlLING: TH~ APpLICATION OF RESEARCH FINDINGS

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.R. Roszbach

SOME PROBLEMS IN THE DESIGN OF IMPROVED VEHICLE REARLIGHTING CONFIGURATIONS ,

Henry S.R. Kao

FEEDBACK CONCEPTS IN THE DESIGN OF VEHICLE LIGHTING SYSTEM

3. DRIVER AID SYSTEMS

A. Irving and K.S. Rutley

SOME DRIVING AIDS AND THEIR ASSESSMENTS

Robert E. Fen ton and Ronald G. Ru~e

ON THE EFFECTS OF STATE VARIABLE FEEDBACK ON DRIVER-VEHICLE BEHAVIOR IN CAR FOLLOWING

Section II.2.A

1. OVERVIEW OF DRIVER EDUCATION

Leon G. Goldstein, Ph.D.

DRIVER EDUCATION, A REVIEW AND SUGGESTED INNOVATIONS

Margaret Hubbard Jones

THE PRESENT STATUS OF CURRICULA FOR DRIVER INSTRUCTION AND THEIR EVALUATION IN THE UNITED STATES

S. Raymond and A.W.·Risk

DRIVER EDUCATION: ITS NATURE AND PROBLEMS

Thomas W. Planek, Ph.D.

DRIVER EDUCATION RESEARCH IN THE UNITED STAT~ - CAN THE NEW DIREC -TIONS BE SUPPORTED?

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.2. DRIVER EDUCATION: SPECIFIC SKILLS AND CONTENTS

Ronald R. Mourant and Thomas H. Rockwell

VISUAL SCAN PATTERNS OF NOVICE AND EXPERIENCED DRIVERS

A. James McKnight

THE DEVELOPMENT OF INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES FOR DRIVER EDUCATION THROUGH AN ANALYSIS OF THE DRIVER'S TASKS

F.D. Smitbson

DEVELOPMENT OF AN "ADVANCED" DRIVER EDUCATION PROGRAM

Section 11. 2.B

SIMULATORS FOR TRAINING

Albert Zavala

THE UTILITY OF RELEVANT DRIVER SIMULATION FOR TRAINING

J.P. Henry

AN EXPERIMENTAL EVALUATION OF A SBADOWGRAPH SIMULATOR FOR DRIVER TRAINING

Section II.2.C

SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS IN INFLUENCING DRIVER BEHAVIOUR

John W. Hutchinson and John M. Roberts

EXPRES~IVE CONSTRAINTS ON DRIVER RE-EDUCATION

Frederick L. McGuire

PSYCHOLOGICAL AND EDUCATIONAL METHODS OF INFLUENCING DRIVER BEHAVIOR

Gerald A. Fleischer

MASS MEDIA COMMUNICATIONS AND DRIVER BEHAVIOR

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THE AIMS OF THE SYMPOSIUM ON PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF DRIVER BEHAVIOUR

The object of the symposium was to 'improve the communication between the field of driving task research, human performance theory and research applied to the design of vehicle and road and to driver education.

The symposium was organized in two divisions, each consisting of several sections.

Division I was aimed at giving a review of research on driver behaviour and human performance theory with an eye for application of results as discussed in Division 11.

Division 11 was organized as a survey of applied research and development in the field of vehicle and road design and research on of driver training.

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ORGANIZATION Symposium Director Ir. E. Asmussen Secretary Ir. E. ThiSenes Scientific Committee Drs. D.J. Griep Drs. P.C. Noordzij Organizational Team

Mr. A. van Deth - Social events Mrs. T.C. Meerkerk - Ladies' programme Mrs. E.E. Formijne - Internal organization Miss. I. Piller - Organizational assistance

Chairman Division I Dr. Donald A. Gordon,

U.S. Department of Transportation

Chairman Division 11 Dr. P. Robert Knaff,

U.S. Department of Transportation

1958,

various programmes have contributed to the progress of scientific activities and have done much to increas mutual understanding and co-operation between scientists from the different countries of the Atlantic Alliance.

I should like to take this opportunity to emphasize that the Science Committee's activities are not limited to military applications but are mostly contributary to continued progress of science in non-military domain.

In this connection, I might mention some cases where specific scien-tific and social problems have attracted the Science Committee's interest and triggered action. Seeing a great need for work and research in the field of computer software engineering, the Science Committee formed a special planning group to investigate the possi -bilities of setting up an international institute for computer science. As a result of this study, an international institute is about to be formed under the leadership of France in collaboration with various other countries.

I might also add that the NATO community takes a great pride in its recent engagement in the various problems which challenge modern society. A Committee on the Challenges of Modern Society was set up with the active partic1pation of all the fifteen NATO countries. Ever since its inception, this committee has been very active in recognizing various problems which came about in relation with technical develop-ments and their effect on society. Projects have been initiated by various pilot countries in the areas of water and air pollution, road safety, disaster assistance, flood mitigatio~ etc. Going further and realizing the importance of problems generated.by man's impact on the environment, the Science Committee has recently formed a Panel on Eco-Sciences. It is believed that with this kind of effort, the scien-tif1c community in NATO countries will b~able to engage and solve

the problems related to ecology and environment.

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• I may now take a few minutes and summarize the programme of the Science Committee.

The Science Fellowship Programme: This programme is aimed to increase research capability of young scientists and engineers by financially supporting graduate and post-doctoral workera from member countries.

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More than half of the Science Committee's budget is allocated to this

programme. In 1971 alone, about $ 2,750,000 was distributed within the framework of the fellowship programme.

The Advanced Study Institutes Programme: This is one of the most popu-lar and effective programmes of the Sci~nce Committee. By spending about $ 7 - 800,000 each year, 40 to 50 ASIs, otherwise known as summer schools, are organized in different topics covering the entire spectrum of science in various NATO countries. The purpose of the programme is to give post-graduate research workers the opportunity of getting together, for about 2-3 weeks, in usually a pleasant atmo-sphere away from the pressure of daily work, and of studying a chosen scientific area. Most of the past ASIs were successful enough to attract publishing companies to publish the proceedings on a commer-cial basis.

The Research Grants Programme: The purpose of this programme is to promote international co-operation in research. In 1971, about $ 650,000 were spent to realize multi-national research projects. Grants are made to two or more research groups with similar interest to provide means for complementing each other in scientific compentence as well as in available facilities.

In addition to the above general purpose programmes, some of the Sci-ence Committee's activities are focused on specific scientific fields. Experts from various countries of the alliance form Advisory bodies to help the Scientific Affairs Division in conducting activities in the field of their competence. Among them, the Advisory Group on Oceanography, Meteorology, Radiometeorology, Human Factors and finally the Advisory Panel on Operations ReSearch can be mentioned.

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By realizing the importance of the scientific study of the behaviour of man, the Science Committee set up the Advisory Group on Human Fac -tors in 1959. From the beginning, the Advisory Group has developed a programme which aims at the exchange of information, the provision of advanced instruction and the conduct of co-operative research. To acnieve these goals, the Advisory Group each year organizes a series of conferences, symposia and seminars. In addition, the Advisory Group arranges visiting lectureships and Study Visits. 'rhe Lectureship Pro-gramme enables_distinguished scientists to pay short visits to univer-sities and other centers to lecture on and discuss subjects of current interest on which they are an authority. The Study Visits Programme, on the other hand, allows scientists to visit laboratories and re-earch institutions in the other NATO countries for advice and assistance on a particular problem. The Advisory Group also sponsors applications under the Science Committee's Advanced Study Institutes and Research Grants Programmes.

SYMPOSIUM ON PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF DRIVER BEHAVIOUR 18

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GENERAL VIEW ON DIVISION 1 by Dr. Donald A. Gordon

As Chairman of the Theoretical division of this symposium, 1 have been asked to say a few words concerning the transactions of our division.

It is indeed an honor to have had a part in this First International Symposium on Driver Behaviour. Doubtless, this is but the first of many congresses, whereby scientists will gather to discuss mutual progress in the field of driver psychology.

On occasions such as this, 1 am always impressed with the deep dedi-cation of fellow scientists who have carried out these difficul~ studies. And paradoxically, 1 cannot avoid a secret feeling of frus-tration that we have not made even more progres. Doubtless these feelings are shared by all of us.

It may be of interest to tally by subject, the papers in our division. The most popular subject turns out to be personal i ty assessment, .aimed at predicting good and bad driver performance. Five papers were written on this subject, including Zavala's analysis of drivers who had been involved in fatal accidents. Four papers were presented on physiolo-gical methods of registering a driver's subjective feelings. Three papers were concerned with alcohol and drugs, two on driver models, and two with the interesting subject of driver exp~ctancy. There were also many papers on simulation - a subject of both theoretical and practical importance, and hence represented in both divisions of the

conference.

In a symposium of this sort, particular interest focuses on new ideas and new concepts. In this category, Wyss was able to separate the effects of physical and mental effort on heart rate, and thus simplify the interpretation of heart rate data. The eye movement studies of Rockwell and of Rutley, while not reported in our division, re

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.present basic work in its fines~ traditions. Zavala described very interesting studies of psychological post-mortems. The paper on driv-er's expectancYt and Peranio's paper on transportation systems also introduced new ideas. One may dismiss Peranio's challenge to our automobile-highway system, or Schreuder's call for more practical out-comes to our theoretical work, but these critical ideas return persis-tently to haunt us.

One may perhaps wonder why research solutions have not been forthcoming on the older problems of determining the effects and safe limits of alcohol consumption.

Surely the research literature stretching back 50 years and more must provide some clues and answers to these problems. And surely more progress is possible than has been made in the application of physiol-ogical measures to the driver's subjective states of emotion and fear. Perhaps experimenters in these areas are having difficulties that do not appear in the reports.

In closing, I should like to pay my respects to the participants in the conference, who have gathered 'here from all parts of the world to exchange ideas. It has been a profitable exchange for all of us. I should like to thank Mr. Griep for his personal assistance, Mr.

ThHenes and members of SWOV for providing such excellent accomodation, and Mr. Asmussen for his superb overall direction of the symposium. Finally, I would express my appreciation to the Dutch people for their hospitality. The First International Symposium could not have been staged in a more delightful place.

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GENERAL VIEW ON DIVISION 11 by Dr. P. Rober.t Knaff

You will recall that this was originally to be a confrontation meeting which was to explore the similarities and the differences between the

theoretical and the applied parts of the world. And I'am sure that you have all sensed that, as with all dichotomies, this one is in a very real sense at least in part arbitrary, that there were a large number of papers in the quoted Theoretical division, mine included, which were addressed to very very pragmatic issues. And there were a large number of papers in the Pragmatic division which had a theoretical flavour and perhaps even one or two the applications of which could not be discerned exc~pt by the most perceptive individ-uals. However, in general, I think, that there was more of an applied flavour in the latter papers and indeed that was the intent.

A number of key-areas were reviewed in this second division. One of them, and I'm going to steal just as Dr. Gordon has stolen Rockwell's work for his division, I'am going to steal my' paper for my Division. It waa pointed out that safety activities can best be directed by looking at valid, reliable accident-statistics, and that these not only provide a direction and apportionment for research and programme efforts, but also a feedback loop to improve the cost-effectiveness and to see how effective various safety meas~res are.

It was also noted, both by implication and explicitly, that there is a great need to improve the quality of the accident data, so that the functions cited above can be improved. The specific topics that were covered had a wide range, including training and educating, measuring driver behaviour, and providing the.driver with better information about his vehicle, about other vehicles and the roadway , so that he will be able to operate. more effectively and safely. The status of dr iver education was reviewed.

One paper noted that it was unrealistic to assume ~hat in 30 hours,

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with all the other topics and information that had to be introduced to the driver, it was unrealistic to assume that we could mould and modify driver attitudes. An other paper pointed out that to date, and I now quote, "there exists no single study or series of studies from which we can conclude with confidence that car-driver education programmes do or do not have an effect on subsequent driving records of the graduate compared with records of drivers who are informally trained".

Another paper noted "that this situation has led to a decision in the U.S. to lower the priority of formal driver education as a highway

safety countermeasure", that is also a quote. That paper delineated an approach to research which is quite similar to the research approach that is now being undertaken by the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration in the U.S. In the context of the content of driver education courses, an analysis of the driving task was described. This is of course an essential first step in evaluating and improving driver education. A novel approach to driver skill development and evaluation, utilizing and comparing visual scan patterns of novice and experienced drivers was also described.

Training of advanced driving techniques was also noted in a paper and the floor discussion. It was considered or judged to show great poten-tial for this training in advanced driving techniques for some appli -cations.

The use of simulators as training devices was also covered and the discussion on the floor as well as the papers gave mixed results. Strangely enough, this is an area which requires much more resolution and should be ~ollowed up on a very active basis.

A means of effectively measuring real world driving behaviours were discussed in some detail and in fact were demonstrated here.

Most prominent among these were the eye camera work being conducted in at least three countries. Instrumented vehicles being used in at least four. This point out a very interesting area again, which re-quires follow-up and which is a very good example of where interna-tional co-operation would appear to have great pay-off value. I know that most of my American colleagues were, for example, extremely impressed by the instrumented car that we saw that was brought here

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from Soesterberg. I believe I speak for representatives of other countries as well.

Several approaches were described to provide the driver with better information. These ranged from very very pragmatic kinds of results addressed to tail lighting configurations, including data which has profoundly influenced the rule-making activities in the U.S., to more theoretical concepts for providing the driver with systems which were designed specifically to be more compatible with his information processing capabilities. In this same area of providing the driver with information, two papers were devoted to providing him with night-time information, both papers addressed very pragmatic issues about improving lighting systems both on the vehicle and in the environment.

On the subject of the environment some considerable attention was also given to improving the characteristics of roadways and again we can point to an arbitrary gap, because designing roadway so that they provided the driver with optimal information was covered both in the theoretical and in the applied sections.

Lastly several papers were devoted to influencing drivers after they had been exposed to formal education or outside of the formal education sphere by means of mass media and in at least one case there was

preliminary evidence and perhaps even more than preliminar)" evidence to indicate that these publi"c media techniques have been effective. If this is in fact verified and we can discern the key-elements that discriminate between effective and non-effective mass media approaches, I think that we may have uncovered a very important area to act on in the future. I think that represents a complete coverage of the papers in Division 11. Obviously I cannot do full service to all the papers in the available time here. I do want to thank the participants and particularly those who were involved in the active, stimulating floor discussions that took place.

I really believe that the key-value of these kinds of conferences is the face to face exchange of information by knowledgeable, capable, informed individuals suCh as the participants in this conference. That the key--value of these conferences is in these interchanges. I

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I would like to thank Mr. Asmussen for his conception of and organi-zation of this ~eeting. I would like to thank Mr. Noordzij for his very active contributions to the meeting, its organization and my part in it, and the partiCipants for providing such a stimulating meeting.

I would also like to thank our hosts here, as Dr. Gordon has, for providing a very warm receptive, stimulating and beautiful atmosphere, which I have enjoyed personally. I can only weakly echo the enthusi-astic reactions of my collea8bes about our visit here in Holland.

SYMPOSIUM ON PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF DRIVER BEHAVIOUR

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-PhlRORATION

by Ir. E. Asmussen

Before I close this symposium I should like to give you a few of my own impressions. In my opening speech I told you what I thought were the special goals of this symposium.

1 focused your attention on what I described as the gap between human behaviour research on the one hand and the practical rules and solu-tions of decision-makers and designers on the other.

I raised the question whether there is also a gap between applied research and more fundamental research on the driver behaviour theory. And Mr. Knaff told us that in fact this is arbitrary.

In the first division, that is the theoretical one, we learned that much time and effort are devoted to developing new methods of ob-servation and quantification of driver behaviour.

Especially ~e development of all different types of simulators used for research, as well as for driver-training purposes, requires our special attention.

Research simulators, if they entail a general-purpose driver simula-tor with enough degrees of freedom, do not seem rational now·

In fact different purposes require different properties of the simu-lator. In applied research only the part-task-simulator has proved to.be successfully used, in addition to instrumented cars on closed tracks, or in actual conditions.

In my opinion the whole problem of driving simulators and the appl ica-bility of all simulator types for research-purposes is a urgent

problem Dow, as in many countries big investments have already been made, or are planned in this field. I think we should take stock of all the aspects of research simulator uSe if we are to draw up gen -eral, international recommendations.

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Physiological m~asurement techniques like galvanic skin response (GSR), heart frequency and O₂-consumption, as described in the first division, so far only have a restricted use for applied research. In future the tests may be used to detect and evaluate road hazards. Very promising is the development of new technique~ for registering eye-movements. As Dr. Rockwell eXplained, they can be used for either measuring driver-experience, or for diagnostical and remedial pur-pos~s in a field of driver-training and education, as Dr. Knaff has mentioned.

My impression on the applications of general theories and models of driver behaviour in practical research is that these models, however simple or sophisticated, always contain in principal perception-, decision-, response- and feed-back-elements.

In my opinion there are numerous quantitative theories and models for perception and decision-processes directly fitted for applied research. There are cybernetical models for the response and feed-back processes too; but there seem to be no workable integrated models dealing with all the four elements in quantitative terms. The theory oi driver behaviour has not reached such a level that complete quan-titative manoeuvre-models can be described •

. However, qualititative models and theories are available, containing more elements and interactions, and I have noticed that the cyber-netical quantitative models have practical application for display design and vehicle control in the field of the driver-vehicle interface. Up till now there has been no practical application of the cybernetical models in the field of driver-roadway interface. In this field the more isolated perception elements seems to give a workable base for applied research. I have the impression that in this open loop approach some closed loop elements are ignored.

In the field of driver education (training) as well as mass-media-communications and other methods of influencing the driver, only a restricted use of the general knowledge of driver behaviour theory has been made up till now· But I think there is a new development in this field, directlng the relevant research by analyzing the

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er's task and making more, use of the general knowledge of driver be-haviour.

So my general conclusion is that there is no real gap no~· between the theory of driver behaviour and applied research in this field; the only real gap being in fact between general driver behaviour research and the practical rules and solutions of the decision-makers, traffic-engineers and designers. This is a serious problem, as the decisions for traffic and traffic safety have a great impact on the welfare of the society. The question now is what can we do about ttis.

In my opening speech I mentioned that the research results should be applicable to practical situations and decision-making. And to my mind few research findings satisfy these conditions. Let me give you an example:

If a research project deals for instance with the perception of traf-fic signs, the conclusions are invariably that one type of sign is perceived better (or more easily) than another. This is only inter-esting for a decision-maker or a traffic sign designer if this was his specific problem. What these people actually need to know in this respect is: what are the general or basic principles for optimalizing traffi c signs.

So, in fact, we as researchers must "translate" the research results into general or basic principles for improving the current traffic situation, and so proceed one step further. Quite often we shall find that one basic principle may relate to more than one problem. For instance the principle of uniformity of road design, traffic situa-ions, etc. is a correct answer to driver expectancy, yet it also affects the indiv~ual differences in driver behaviour between

different road users. There are fewer unknown situations, so that the motivational variables have less effect on the driver's behaviour, in so far as we may generalize. This is just one example of a basic principle we can derive from research findings.

Well, ladies and gentlemen, I think we have had a interesting week with this symposium, we have worked hard, there have been many infor -mal discussions.

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As Dr. Gordon and Dr. Goldstein have already said, this is the first international symposium on driver behaviour that has ever been held. In fact this is .. qui te remarkable, since driver behaviour is the central element" of the automotive traffic system. It is in fact the output, but also, to a greater or lesser extent, the input of our activities in traffic.

For that reason I think this first symposium needs a follow-up. In my opinion the goals of a first conference on this subject have been fully realized: the active exchange of information may serve to focus attention on key areas which must be specifically covered in a follow-up meeting. Although several of these areas must be defined in greater

detail before being proposed as specific agenda items for a next meeting.

Some of the critical topics might include:

1. Simulators for training and research purposes.

2. Special instrumented vehicles for registering_driver behaviour. 3. Methods for measuring driver behaviour and skill.

~. Quantitative, integrative models for describing' driver behaviour.

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The effect of alcohol and dru.gs on driver behaviour.

6. The development of special aids for driving.

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New methods for driver education and training.

8. Basic principles for designing roads and road networks based on driver behaviour theory.

I think it might be a good idea to invite decision-makers and design -ers to the second meeting.

Research into driver behaviour covers such a wide field of interests and so much research is carried out in this field that coordination of the systematic accumulation of knowledge could be of great use for all of us. Dr. Knaff, Dr. Gordon and myself shall try to work out a plan for the future to achieve some kind of international coordination.

Before closing this symposium I must thank you Very much for the way you have contributed. I wish you a very good trip back home and I hope "au revoir".

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.ALPHABETICAL LIST OF PARTICIPANTS AND/OR AUTHORS OF PRESENTED PAPERS

ANDRIESSEN, Drs:

J.H.-Laboratorium voor Psychodiagnostische- en Bedrijfs-psycholcgische Research

Vrije Uni~ersiteit (Free Reformed University) De Boelelaan 1087 A

Amsterd'am-Bui tenveldert, The ~etherlands

ARDOUILLIE, L.F. Ing. A.I.Br. (presented paper of Smithson, F.D.) General Motors Continental S.A. B 2000 Antwerp, Belgium

ASMUSSEN, Ir. E. (Symposium Director)

Stichting Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek Verkeersveiligheid SWOV (Institute for Road Safety Research SWOV)

Deernsstraat 1, P.O. Box 71 Voorburg 2119, The Netherlands

BAKER, Charles A. (with Knaff, P.R.) Division of Lighting and Visibility

National Highway Traffic Safety Administration U.S. Department of Transportation

Washington, D.C. 20590, U.S.A.

BARRETT, Dr. Gerald V. Management Research Center

The Graduate School of Management The University of Rochester Rochester, New York 1~627, U.S.A.

• Present at Symposium if name is underlined ~. Psper presented to Section mentioned

SYMPOSIUM ON PSYCHOLOGICAL AspECTS OF DRIVER BEHAVIOUR

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BULGER. Peter ~l.J. Department of Psychology University of Sheffield

Sheffield, Yorkshire, Great Britain

BUNT, Drs. A.A. (with Sanders. A.F.) Instituut voor Zintuigfysiologie RVO-TNO (Institute for Perception RVO-TNO) Kampweg 5

Soesterberg, The Netherlands

CAMPBELL, Prof. Robert D. (with Schlesinger, L.E. and Roark, A.L.)

Department of Geography The University of New Mexico

Albuquerque, New Mexico 87106, U.S.A.

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1.1

CLARK, Richard L. (with Robinson, G.H., Erickson, D.J. and 1.2 Thurston, G.L)

Department of Industrial Engineering The University of Wisconsin

Madison, Wisconsin 53706, U.S.A.

CLAYTON, A.D •• B.Sc., Ph.D., A.B.Ps.S Road Accident Research Unit

Department of Transportation

&

Environmental Planning The University of Birmingham

Birmingham, B15 2TT, Great Britain

DESAI, Sachidanand (with Robinson, G.H.) Department of Industrial Engineering The University of Wisconsin

SYMPOSIUM ON PSYCHOLOGICAl, ASPECTS OF DRIVllit BEHAVIOUR

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1.2.

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DONGES, Dipl.-Ing. D. (with Schulz-Helbach, K.D.) Gesellschaft zur Erfijrderung der Astrophysikalischen Forschung e.V.

Forschungsinstitut fUr Anthropotechnik LUftelberger Strasse L 1123

5309 Meckenheim, Germany

ELLIS, Newton C., Ph.D.

Highway Safety Research Center Texas Transportation Institute Texas A & M University

College Station, Texas 778~3, U.S.A.

ERICKSON, Donald J. (with Robinson, G.H., Clark, R.L. and Thurston, G.L.)

FAIRHEAD, R.D. (with Quenault, S.W.) (see Henry, J.P.) Road Research laboratory

Department of the Environment

Crowthorne, Berkshire, Great Britain

FENTON, Robert E. (with Rule, R.G.) Highway Research Group

Department of Electrical Engineering The Ohio State University

Columbus, Ohio ~3210, U.S.A.

FERGENSON, Prof. P. Everett, Ph.D. Laboratory of Psychological Studies Stevens Institute of Technology Hoboken, New Jersey 07030, U.S .A.

SYMPOSIUM ON PSYCHOLOGI CA L ASPECTS OF DRIVER BEHAVlO'llR

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.FLEISCHER, Prof.Dr. Gerald A.

Department of Industrial and Systems Engineering University of Sputhern California

Los Angeles, California 90007, U.S.A.

GOLDSTEIH, Leon G., Ph.D. Research Psychologist 8209 Ellingson Drive

Chevy Chase, Maryland 20015, U.S.A.

GRIEP. Drs. D.J. (Member Scientific Committee)

GORDON. Dr. Donald A. (Chairman Division I) Traffic Systems Division

Federal Highway Administration U.S. Department of Transportation Washington, D.C. 20591, U.S.A.

McGUlRE. Frederick L •• Ph.D.

Department of Psychiatry

&

Human Behavior California College of Medicine

University of California

Irvine, California 9266~, U.S.A.

HAHN. Clifford P.

Accident Research Center

American Institutes for Research 8555 Sixteenth Street

Silver Spring, Maryland 20910, U.S.A.

SYMPOSIUM ON PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECT~ OF DRIVER BEHAVIOUR

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• BiKKINEN, Prof.Dr. Sauli Institutet for Arbetshygien

(Institute of O~cupational Health) Haartmaninkatu 1

Helsinki 29, Finland

HARVEY,

C.F. (with Quenault, S.W.) (see Henry, J.P.) Road Research Laboratory

HELMERS, Gabriel

(presented paper of Rumar,

K.)

Traffic Safety Research Group Department of Psychology University of Uppsala S-75220-Uppsala, Sweden

HENRY, J.P.

(presented also papers of Quenault

&

Harvey and Quenault

&

Fairhaid)

Road Research Laboratory Department of the Environment

HOSTETTER, Robert S. (with Taylorj J.I.) Division of Highway Studies

Institute for Research

HUNTLEY, M. Stephen, Jr., Ph.D. (with Perrine, M.W.) Department of Psychology

The University of Vermont John Dewey Hall

Burlington, Vermont 05401, U.S.A.

SYMPOSIUM ON PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECts OF DRIVER BEHAVIOUR

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--HUTCHINSON, Prof. John W., Ph.D. (with Roberts, J.M.) Department of Civil Engineering

University of Kentucky

Lexington, Kentucky ~0506, U.S.A.

IRVING, A. (with Rutley, K.S.) Road Research Laboratory

JONES, Mrs.Dr. Margaret H.

Institute of Transportation and Traffic Engineering University of California

Los Angeles, California 9002~, U.S.A.

KAO. Henry S.R •• Ph.D. National Chengchi University Taipei, Taiwan, Republic of China

II.2.C

II.l.B.3

II.2.A.l

II.l.B.2

KNAFF. Dr. P. Robert (Chairman Division 11) (with Baker, C.A.) 1.3 Research Institute

National Highway Traffic Safety Administration U.S. Department of Transportation

Washington, D.C. 20590, U.S.A.

McKNIGHT, Dr. A. James

Human Resources Research Organization HumRRO 300 North Washington Street

Alexandria, Virginia 2231~, U.S.A.

KRENEK, Richard F., Ph.D. (with Rockwell. T.H.) School of Industrial Engineering

The University of Oklahoma Norman, Oklahoma 73069, U.S.A.

(35)

LADAN, Mrs. Carol J. (with Nelson, T.M.) Department of Psychology

The University of Alberta Edmonton

7,

Alberta, Canada LEHTlMAKI. Re ina

The Central Organisation for Traffic Safety TALJA

1I-1.A

The Traffic Section of the Society for Prevention of Accidents Iso Roobertinkatu 20

Helsinki 12, Finland

MICHON, Prof.Dr. John A.

Instituut voor Zintuigfysiologie RVO-TNO (Institute for Perception RVO-TNO) Kampweg

5

Soesterberg, The Net~erlands

MOURANT, Ronald R. (with Rockwell. T.H. _ Systems Research Group

Department of Industrial Engineering The Ohio State University

Columbus, Ohio 43210, U.S.A.

MORTIMER. Rudolf G •• Ph.D.

Highway Safety Research Institute Institute of Science and Technology The University of Michlgan

Ann Arbor, MichiR,"an ~8105, U .S.A.

NELSON, Prof. Thomas M. (with Ladan, C.J.) Department of Psychology

The University of Alberta Edmonton

7,

Alberta, Canada

Sl1-1POSIUH ON PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECTS

or

DRIVER BEHAVIQlLR

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11.2.A.2

11.1.B.2

II.1.A

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NOORDZIJ, Drs. P.C. (Member Scientific Committee)

stichting Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek Verkeersveiligheid SWOV (Institute for ~oad Safety Research SWOV)

OLSTIN, Richard A., Ph.D. Road User Research Division

Pennsylvania Transport and Traffic Saf~ty Center The Pennsylvania State University

Research Building B

University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, U.S.A.

PERANIO, ADtony

Faculty of Civil Engineering

Technion - Isra~l Institute of Technology Haita, Israel

PERRlNE, M.W., Ph.D. (with Huntley, M.S.) Dep~rtment of Psychology

The University of Vermont John Dewey Hall

Burlington, Vermont 05~01, U.S.A.

PLANEK, Thomas W., Ph.D. Research Department National Safety Council

0hicago, Illinois 60611, U.S.A.

1.1

1.3

II.2.A.1

QUENAULT, S.W., B.Sc. (with Fairhead, R.D.) (see Henry, J.P.) 1·3

and (with Harvey, C.F.) (see Henry, J.P.) 1.3

Road Research Laboratory Department of the Environment

SYMPOSIUM ON PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF DRIVER BEHAVIOUR 36

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• RA13ANI. Mrs. Z •

Road Safety Research Director Ministry of Tr~nsport

1 Eben Gvirol Jerusalem, Israel

RAOUF, Abdul, Ph.D. (with Sharma, S.C.) I)epartment of Mechanical Engineering University of Windsor

Windsor 11, Ontario, Canada

RAYMOND, Dr. S. (with Risk. A.W.) Road Safety Research Unit

University of Salford

Salford, Lancashire, Great Britain

RISK. A.W. (with Raymond, S.) Road Safety Research Unit University of Salford

Salford, Lancashire, Great Britain

ROARK, A.L. (with Campbell, R.D. and Schleslnger, L.E.) Department of Geography

The University of New Mexico

Albuquerque, New Mexico 87106, U.S.A.

ROBERTS, Dr. John M. (with Hutchinson. J.W.) Andrew W. Mellon Professor of Anthropology The University of Pittsburgh

Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.

ROBINSON. Prof. Gordon H. (with c1a1_rk, R.L. a.o.) and (with Desai, S.D.)

Madison. wiscOgsin 53706, U.S.A.

SYMPOSIUl-l ON PSYCH OLOGICAL ASPECTS OF DRIVER BEHAVIOUR

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ROCKWELL, Prof. Thomas H., Ph.D •. (with Krenek, R.F.) and (with Mourant, R.R.)

Driving Research Laboratory Systems Research Group

Department of Industrial Engineering The Ohio State University

ROSZBACH, Drs. R.

McRUER, Duana T. (with Weir, D.H.) Systems Technology, Inc.

13766 South Hawthorne Boulevard Hawthorne, California 90250, U.S.A.

RULE, Ronald G.

(m

th Fenton, R.E.) Highway Research Group

Department of Electrical Engineering The Ohio State University

RUMAR, KAre, Ph.D. (see Helmers, G.) Psykologiska Institutionen

University of Uppsala S-75220-Uppsala, Sweden

RUTLEY, K.S. (with Irving, A.) Road Research Laboratory

snlPOSIUM ON PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF DRIVER BrnAVIOUR

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-SANDERS, Dr. A.F. (with Bunt, A.A.) Instituut voor Zintuigfysiologie RVO-TNO (Institute for Perception RVO-TNO) Kampweg 5

Soesterberg, The Netherlands

SCHEFFLER, Dipl.-Psych. H. Regierungsrat

Bielefelder Strasse 85 4000 DUsseldorf, Germany

1.0

SCHLESINGER, Lawrence E. (with Campbell. R.D. and Roark, A.L.) 1.1 Department of Geography

The University of New Mexico

Albuquerque, New Mexico 87106, U.~.A.

SCHREUDER, Dr.Ir. D.A.

Stichting Wetenschappe1ijk Onderzoek Verkeersveiligheid ~WO' (Institute for Road Safety Research SWOV)

SCHULZ-HELBACH, Dipl.-Ing. K.D. (with Donges, E.) Abteilung Simulations Technik

Forschungsinstitut fUr Anthropotechnik LUftelberger strasse L 1123

5309 Meckenheim, Germany

SHARMA, S.C. (with Raouf, A.) Department of Technical F~gineering University of Windsor

Windsor 11, Ontario. Canada

Si-iITH, Dr. Karl U.

Behaviora1 Cybernetics Laboratory The University of Wisconsin Madison. \visconsin 53715, U.~.A·

SYMPOSI \( Oll, PSY(,·HOLuGIC~L .\SPECTS OF DRIVER BEHAVIOUR

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·SMITHSON, F.D. (see Ardouillie. L.F.) General Motors Proving Grounds

Milford, Michig~n, U.S.A.

SORRENTI. Prof. Girolamo (see Tinti. L.)

Ispettorato Generale della Circolazione e del Traffico Ministero dei Lavori Pubblici

Via Nizza 152 Rome, Italy

SPURR, Dr. R.T. Ferodo Ltd.

Chapel-en-Ie-Frith, Stockport, Great Britain

STROH, Dr. C.

Road

&

Motor Vehicle Traffic Safety Office Canadian Ministry of Transport

Ottawa, Ontario, Canada

TAYLOR, Dr. James I. (with Hostetter, R.S.)

Pennsylvania Transportation and Traffic Safety Center Department of Civil Engineering

. The Pennsylvania State University Research Building B

University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, U.S.A.

THOtNES, Ir.

E

·

(Symposium Secretary)

Stichting lvetenschappelijk Onderzoek Verkeersveiligheid SWOV (Institute for Road Safety Research SWOV)

Deernsstraat 1, P.O.Box 71 Voorhurg 2119, The Netherlands

THURSTON, Gregory L. (with Robinson. G.H., Clark, R.L. and Erickson, D.J.)

II.2.A.2 1.3 1.2 II.l.A 1.2 ~O

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TINTI, Dott. Ins. Lamberto

(presented paper of Sorrenti, G.)

Ispettorato Gene~ale della Circolazione e del Traffico Ministero dei Lavori Pubblici

Via Nizza 152 Rome, Italy

TORRES, Jaime F.

Transportation Systems Department System Development Corporation 2500 Colorado Avenue

Santa Monica, California 90~06, U.S.A.

VERHAEGEN, Prof.Dr. P.

Afdeling Industri~le Psychologie en Ergonomie

Faculteit der Psychologie en Pedagogische Wetenschappen Katholieke Universiteit Leuven

Tiense Straat 100-10~ 3000 Leuven, Belgium

VICKERS, Dr. Douglas Department of Psychology The University of Adelaide Adelaide, South Australia 5001

WEIR, David H. (with McRuer, D.) Systems Technology, IQc.

13766 South Hawthorne Boulevard Hawthorne, Cal1fornia 90250, U.S.A.

WYSS, Prof. Vittorio Direzione Generale FIAT Laboratorio di Ricerche Corso G. Agnelli 200 Turin 10100, Italy

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ZAVALA, Albert, Ph.D.

Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory, Inc. Cornell University

Buffalo, New York 14226, U.S.A.

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PRESENTED PAPERS

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...

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DIVISION I DRIVER BEHAVIOUR

Section 1.0

GENERAL MODELS AND THEORIES

J.H. Andriessen

MOTIVATIONAL DETERMINANTS OF EXPERIMENTAL RISK TAKING BEHAVIOUR

A.F. Sanders and A.A. Bunt

SOME REMARKS ON THE EFFECTS OF DRUGS, LACK OF SLEEP AND LOUD NOISE ON HUMAN PERFORMANCE

Douglas Vickers

SOME GENERAL FEATURES OF PERCEPTUAL DISCRIMINATION

(46)

(47)

J.B. Andriessen

MOTIVATIONAL DETERMINANTS OF EXPERIMENTAL RISK-TAKING BEHAVIOUR

(48)

'r .H. Andriessen 2

(49)

~IOTIV.\TIO!XAL DF·TERNI\iA.".:TS OF F.XPERHIENTAL RI:::,h-T.AJ\1 \'c.,' lIt.'lL.\.YlOlTR 3

SUMMARY

This paper reports the first part of a two-part proJ'ect on individual-psychological and social-individual-psychological determinants of risk-taking behaviour. The first part consists of laboratory experiments. An ex -perimental situation was "created" that

a. had all the features of a !!!!!-task;

b. made it possible to measure quite accurately individual skill on this task (i.c. future probabilities of success) and distortion of individual risk-perception.

A decision-theoretical motivation model (Atkinson, Vroom a.o.) was used to analyse the interaction of variables such as ability, risk-perception, experience and personality-variables as well as their in-fluence on risky or safe behaviour.

The most important dependent variable was the choice between tasks which varied in success-probabilities and pay-off (money).

The subjects in this experiment were technical employes (different ages) of the Free Reformed University, Amsterdam.

The results indicated that:

1. In a novel situation, when there is only a small amount of infor-mation about situational parameters, variance in task-(risk) pre~er ences is "explained" by

a. individual ability;

b. accurateness of risk perception;

c. interaction of personality-variables (i.c. achievement motivation and fear of failure).

2. After some experience with the task the influence of personality-variables disappears.

Almost all variance in the dependent variable was explained by ability and perception i.e. the subjects chose tasks with an almost equal (subjective) success probability (i.c. slightly below optimum).

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J.H. Auuriessen

This paper is a report of a study on the relation between situational and motivational factors and behaviour in experimental risk situations. One of the startingpoints of t~e researc~ project was tee observation

that the accident-rate as criterion for research on motivational fac-tors in accident behaviour is quite inadequate.

There are several reasons why this criterion is unreliable and invalid. Especially when one wants to study the influence of personality factors on accidents, the psychological distance ~etween tests cores as predic-tor, and accident-rate as criterion, is too great.

The conclusion was that it would be better to study the determinants of human behaviour, instead of the determinants of accidents. And more precise, to study the extend in which this behaviour is safe or un-safe, the extend to which people will take risks.

The second observation was that students in the field of accidents and safety point to the many determinants of human behaviour (technical, social, individual) and their often very complicated interaction. And again, the result of many investigations on the influence of person-ality factors shows that if there is indeed some influence, propor-tionedly it is quite small. This second observation led to the con-clusion that an experimental study probably would give answers that a field study could not give.

So the central theme of the project was the interaction of situational and personal variables and their influence on motivated behaviour in (experimental) risk situations.

The key concepts are a. motivated behaviour, b. risk, c. situationa1 and d. personal variables.

Motivated behaviour

The basic model in this study was a model for motivated behaviour as used by the industrial psychologist Vroom (1964), but also in a slightly different form by psychologists as f.i. Atkinson and Tolman. fhis model is in fact one of the decision theoretical models as used by f.i. Edwards.

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-MOTIVATIONAL DETERMINANTS OF EXPERIMENTAL RISK-TAKING BEHAVIOUR

""

Person ~ ... Figure 1.

""

; ' ; ' ; ' ... ... ... ...

Utility .. Expectation x Att:-activity

1

1 I

Outcome

_A11

IOutc~me

_A21

loutc~me

_ADI

~

loutcome

~Ioutc:me

~

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~

_ _ 'L: _ _

~

L.:.::...:J

~

IOutcome Bnl

Motivation in Vroom's terms is the process that determines the choice between (at least) two activities. The actor will choose the act that will result in the highest expected utility. And the expected utility of an act is a function of the attractivities of its outcomes multi-plied by their subjective probability of occurring (see Figure 1).

According to this model two people choose differently in the same situation, as a consequence of one or more of the following reasons: 1. The probabilities of the outcomes are not the same for different individuals. This could be because:

a. the objective probabilities are different and they know it; this is the case woen people differ in skill, in ability;

b. the subJ'ective probabilities are different; that means that one or both individUals have a wrong expectation.

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J.H. Andriessen 6

2. The attractivities of the outcomes are not the same for different individuals. Some outcomes may even be nonexistent for some persons.

How do personality factors fit into this model?

First of all they can emphasize the attractivity of special outcomes. In this study the outcomes of success or failure are especially im-portant. Secondly they can cause a discrepancy between objective and subjective probabilities. That means, they could be the cause of optimism or pessimism in probability perception or, in other words, the cause of misperception.

In this paper the following personal factors will be discussed: 1. Age, 2. Experience,

3.

Skill, q. The personality factors need for achievement and fear of failure.

The choice of the achievement and failure motives was based on the following arguments:

a. they fit into the motivation model in a very good way (see Atkinson's motivation theory);

b. they can be measured quite simple and with reasonable good instru-ments (i.e. questionnaires: Hermans, 1967).

Atkinson's motivation theory

This theory concerns decisions, taken in a situation where the out-comes "achievement of success" and "failing" are very central. These situations have a strong appeal to the motives of achievement need and fear of failure, which are present in every person, but in varying proportions. There is no need to go into details, but Atkinson's theory states that persons with a high achievement need prefer inter-mediate changes of success. Psychologically speaking, this 50/50 prob-abillty of success or failure gives the biggest challenge to them. And the individuals with a high fear of failure - so the theory states - prefer extreme, that is high or low probabilities of success. In psychological terms one could say that a high probability of success is the surest way of preventing failure. While failure as a consequence