Understanding the work of IT employees: Capturing tasks in a fast
changing environment
Abstract
Although traditional job analysis techniques were considered to be the most fundamental tools for HR practitioners, it is not clear anymore whether these methods are still relevant for nowadays workplace. Job tasks were analyzed in order to research to what extent jobs changed during the last five years in IT sector. The emphasis of nowadays literature is put on alternative tools and do not pay attention to traditional job analysis anymore. Thus, in this paper it was questioned whether the change of a workplace has an impact on tasks and whether the activities have changed so radically that job analysis tools should be modified or replaced by new ones. This was tested using coding technique for 120 vacancies of two IT jobs: .Net developer and Network administrator. Results showed that job descriptions changed only to a certain extent including new type of tasks but also still containing the ones that were used five years ago. Consequently, conclusion of this research suggests that traditional job analysis tools should be still used, but in a combination with the new ones such as competency modeling in order to capture all the information needed.
Student: Enrika Medelinskaite Student number: 10231234
Track: BSc Business administration Supervisor: Hannah Berkers
Statement of originality
This document is written by student Enrika Medelinskaite who declares to take full responsibility for the contents of this document.
I declare that the text and the work presented in this document is original and that no sources other than those mentioned in the text and its references have been used in creating it.
The Faculty of Economics and Business is responsible solely for the supervision of completion of the work, not for the contents.
Table of Contents
1. Introduction ... 4
2. Literature review ... 6
2.1 Workplace nowadays ... 7
2.1.1 Changing nature of work ... 7
2.1.2 Job description nowadays ... 7
2.1.3 Person-environment fit ... 8
2.2 Job analysis ... 8
2.2.1 Traditional methods for job analysis ... 8
2.2.2 Traditional job process in nowadays environment ... 9
2.2.3 Competency modeling ... 9
2.2.4 Modified job analysis techniques nowadays ... 11
2.3 IT sector and importance of technology ... 12
2.3.1 Information Technology (IT) change ... 12
3. Conceptual Framework ... 12 3.1 Propositions ... 12 3.2 Context ... 13 3.3 Conceptual model ... 14 3.4 Predictions ... 14 4. Methodology ... 15
4.1 Context of the case study ... 16
4.1.1 .Net Developer ... 16
4.1.2 Network Administrator ... 17
4.2 Sample and data collection ... 17
4.3 Data analysis ... 19
4.3.1 Analyzing Proposition 1 ... 21
4.3.2 Analyzing Proposition 2 ... 22
4.3.3 Analyzing Proposition 3 ... 22
5. Results ... 23
5.1 Findings regarding Network Administrator ... 24
5.1.1 Comparing 2009 and 2014 ... 24
5.1.2 Sequential timeline of codes for Network Administrator ... 26
5.2 Findings regarding .Net Developer ... 29
5.2.1 Comparing 2009 and 2014 ... 29
5.2.2 Sequential timeline of codes for .Net Developer ... 31
5.3 Conclusion on the results ... 34
6. Discussion and limitations ... 34
6.1 Theoretical and practical implications ... 35
6.2 Limitations ... 35
7. Conclusion ... 36
1 Introduction
Job analysis is a primary step of a variety of human resource management functions including employees’ selection, training, evaluation, compensation and other applications (Sanchez & Levine, 2012). It is also considered to be one of the most powerful tools capturing the organizational information used for the development of human resources (Morgeson, Delaney-Klinger, Mayfield, Ferrara & Campion, 2004). Moreover, it is believed that job analysis application helps HR practitioners to find the right fit between employees’ abilities and tasks that are required to be performed by workers. Thus, in order to be efficient, it is essential to understand job analysis process in a detailed manner because it lays an important foundation for further organizational development (Fine & Cronshaw, 1999).
Job analysis has been always a standardized and static process (Schneider & Konz, 1989). However, nowadays because of the dynamic working environment, requirements for jobs are also different compared to the requirements in the past (Sanchez & Levine, 2012). As Singh has claimed, these changes in business environment were mainly caused by growing competition, development of the organizational structures, shorter product life cycles as well as a rapid increase in technological improvement (2008). Hence, according to Sanchez & Levine, these are the reasons why the needs of today’s organizations have also changed significantly (2012). Companies might even perceive the creation of jobs that did not exist so far (Singh, 2008). The creation of these new positions is assumed to have a significant impact on job analysis methods assuming that traditional techniques might not be capable to fulfill the needs of HR practitioners (Sanchez & Levine, 2012).
To conclude, it is not clear anymore whether a standardized job analysis process and traditional job analysis methods are still suitable and effective for recently created tasks (Singh, 2008). Consequently, a gap in the existing literature arises: did tasks have really changed in practice or is it only a theoretical assumption? Besides, which job analysis tools should be applied in order to capture the necessary information and still be effective in nowadays environment?
Changes of job analysis are present in many different sectors. However, in this paper the focus is put on Information Technology (IT) sector. Due to the rapid change of a workplace, jobs' tasks have recently changed significantly in this sector. In order to adapt to the new environment and understand the market, organizations have to retrieve, proceed, and
much faster manner than ever before (Smith & Ali, 2014). Thus, this job analysis was conducted in in the most extreme case - IT sector. In this research paper specific case regarding the transformations of IT tasks will be analyzed.
Another important fact to be mentioned is that job analysis nowadays is based on a number of predictions and assumptions (Sanchez & Levine, 2012). That is why the effectiveness of traditional job analysis methods is questioned and it is therefore essential to test whether traditional job analysis techniques should be still used in the same manner. It also important to test their applicability in practice and conclude whether the methods can be modified in order to be effective or should they be rather eliminated and replaced. In order to, draw these conclusions, tasks of IT jobs should be analyzed in a detailed manner and researched if they have changed lately. Thus, the purpose of this paper is to provide deeper insights towards job analysis and in particular to answer a research question:
To what extent did tasks of IT jobs change during the last five years?
The period of the last five years (from 2009 till 2014) is taken. Starting from 2009, the IT industry was experiencing radical changes regarding operation systems. One of the examples occured on 8th June 2009 during the Worldwide Developers Conference Apple released their updated operating system Mac OS X Snow Leopard (version 10.6). This launch doubled their sales of smartphones: 25 million units were sold within a single year (International Data Corporation (IDC) 2010). Such radical changes in IT sector gave a beginning for extremely intense competition and further technological developments. That is why in IT industry the demand for talented and skilled employees raised significantly and intensive software developments begun.
The remainder of this paper is divided into the following sections: first an overview of the current literature about the changing IT workplace, job characteristics, job analysis methods, alternative tools and their effectiveness is provided. Based on previous discussions, a theoretical framework is developed from which several propositions are drawn. Then the methodology and research method used are described in a more detailed manner. This is followed by the analysis of the results and discussion. Finally, the limitations of this research paper are discussed and in the end conclusion with future research are provided.
2. Literature review
Job analysis – a concept that is often used by HR practitioners to describe various tasks such as examining, documenting and making insights regarding work activities and tasks, worker attributes and organizational context (Sackett & Laczo, 2003). Job analysis is also commonly used within Industrial and Organizational (I/O) psychology and is considered to be one of the foundation activities that provide information regarding job related processes (e.g. selection systems, training programs) (Sackett & Laczo, 2003).
In the literature for a long time job analysis was believed to be a very powerful tool used to capture the information that was essential for decision-making. Moreover, job analysis with its systematic approach helped to understand the capabilities that were necessary for successful performance of the organizations (Sanchez & Levine, 2012). According to Sanchez and Levine, work analysis does play an important role in a fast changing industries such as electronics where constant innovation and improvement is essential (1999).
However, as Morgeson and Dierdorff claimed, nowadays job analysis is fading from practice and researchers are paying less attention for this technique saying that the concept is rather outdated (2011). Consequently, the gap in the literature still remains regarding the usefulness of the traditional job analysis tools. As Sanchez and Levine (2012) have stated, the number of articles related to job analysis is diminishing in the recent times. This fact raises the question whether job analysis techniques are still needed and worth paying attention. Furthermore, the question remains whether traditional job analysis techniques are still relevant and applicable for such dynamic and unpredictable business environment as nowadays.
In order to analyze the background literature, first of all the workplace of 21st century is researched in a more detailed manner. Besides, a comparison of job specifications before and now is done. As far as the researched industry is concerned, IT sector where the job specification is predicted to be changing the most is studied. In addition, technological change is taken into consideration. This theory gives an overview regarding the comparison of the past and current situation not only regarding the job description but also the applicability of the traditional job analysis techniques. To be more precise, existing theory helps to understand what are the capabilities of work analysis tools for capturing information that could be applied not only theoretically but also practically in human recourse
2.1 Workplace nowadays
Author Cascio in his paper said that 20th century is a time of big changes in the work environment. He was also predicting the 21st century to be even more complex, fast-paced and turbulent (1995). Author explains that due to the change in the structure and design of the organizations, workplace features are also different nowadays. To be more precise, in today’s fast moving global markets intense competition formed new characteristics of the workplace: there is a shift from vertically integrated organizations to network of specialists. Besides, employers are also willing to pay more for worker’s skills rather than for his official position. Casio also emphasized that there was an essential switch from making a product to providing a premium service (1995). Thus, due to new characteristics of work, the term “job” is not seen as a concrete term with a fixed amount of tasks anymore.
2.1.1 Changing nature of work
As it was mentioned before, tasks are getting more abstract and fixed duties are disappearing. That is why nowadays there is a big change in the nature of work (Casio, 1995). Eicker, Kochbeck and Schuler (2008) claim that in recent times, dynamic workplace has impact not only on organizations’ overall structures but also specifically on the employees who are performing the tasks. Authors explain that companies in order to stay competitive are putting their focus on the core competences that are significantly influenced by the skills and knowledge of their employees (2008). Organizations are trying to improve their overall business and operational processes using different types of techniques that would help to improve their performance. Consequently organizations are experiencing a vast amount of changes including the creation of new roles and modification of the existing ones (Eicker, Kochbeck and Schuler, 2008).
2.1.2 Job description nowadays
Organizations due to the workplace change have also modified the responsibilities that are required from the existing workers. As a result, job descriptions in the vacancies published by nowadays companies also are different (Casio, 1995). Thus, the conclusion regarding tasks
can be drawn that they are subject to constant change due to the globally expending markets, new products and innovations.
2.1.3 Person-environment fit
In nowadays changing environment the emphasis of HR specialists is put not only on new concept regarding job description, but also on person-environment (P-E) fit (Sanchez & Levine, 2012). It is believed that the success of the organization is partially based on how well occupations were analyzed and whether the appropriate employees were selected for particular positions (Sanchez & Levine, 2012). Authors agree on the idea that successful match of P-E fit depends on the job analysis quality and the interaction of both parameters. Sanchez & Levine (2012) explain that in order to reach the desired results towards P-E fit, job analysis has also to be modified due to the changing nature of work. To summarize, the importance of P-E fit is another reason why the effectiveness of traditional job analysis methods have to be reconsidered.
2.2 Job analysis
2.2.1 Traditional methods for job analysis
Talking about the traditional methods for job analysis, the primary purpose of this tool is to describe precisely the behavior of employees (Sanchez and Levine, 2009). Traditional job analysis method also provides the information for HR department regarding staffing, training, and compensation. According to Sanchez and Levine traditional job analysis also seeks for appropriate ‘channels’ such as employee attributes while using the name of the task or work assignment (2009).
Another characteristic of traditional job analysis is that the method usually consists of the long lists of tasks and attributes of the employee such as knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics (KSAOs). These characteristics provide a deep understanding of the requirements that are necessary for a particular position. Besides, Sanchez and Levine claim that KSAOs provide a deep understanding regarding the nature of work (2009).
job analysis method might not be able to communicate effectively and thus the communication issues arise.
2.2.2 Traditional job process in nowadays environment
A number of researchers are concerned that the primary aim of job analysis is too standardized and narrow for nowadays work environment. Sanchez and Levine state that job analysis should aim to explain the successful experience of work and employees’ behavior and even link it to the strategic goals of the organization rather than just sticking to its primary purpose which is job description (2012). Traditional job analysis method is also criticized that it sticks only to formal responsibilities and the equipment that is prescribed for particular job excluding other essential factors that might influence the job requirements or job behavior (Sanchez and Levine, 2009). Authors explains that under the usage of traditional job analysis method in nowadays changing environment a valuable information is missed because of its resource which is not captured by this limited tool. Sanchez and Levine say that traditional job analysis approach is too narrow and thus it do not identify the performance characteristics that are coming not from job requirements but from the organizational identity itself (2009).
Because of the primary purpose of this tool, traditional job tasks are expected not to be capable of fulfilling the needs of nowadays organizations. Sanchez and Levine analyzed the job-analytical data based on three aspects: tasks, characteristics of people performing the tasks and the environment or context in which specific tasks are performed (2012). After conducting their research, authors proposed the idea the traditional job analysis methods are not capable to capture all the necessary information and the weak part of the method is its exclusion from the strategy of the company. As a solution Sanchez and Levine are suggesting the usage of cross-fertilization, believing that it might be able to stimulate the innovation regarding job analysis techniques (2012). They believe that including necessary aspects from other domains such as job design, crafting, strategic change and international psychology, job analysis will be able again to capture all the needed information in nowadays work environment (Sanchez and Levine, 2012).
A lot of organizations nowadays are replacing traditional job analysis tool by incorporating alternative ones. One of the most commonly used tools is competency modeling (CM). CM is believed to be a more effective alternative mean to analyze jobs in the human resource management (Lucia & Lepsinger, 1999).
According to the researchers, in contrast to job analysis, competency modeling takes into account strategy of the organization, which increases the overall effectiveness of the analysis (Schippmann et al., 2000). Moreover, CM is more flexible in terms of data collection and documentation of the research process. Traditional job analysis is time consuming and requires a high level of details, thus a number of nowadays organizations tends to switch to competency modeling or other alternatives due to the time constraint. However, according to Sanchez and Levine, the difference between job analysis and CM remains to be blurry and that they are often merged together (2012). Sanchez and Levine (2009) after comparing traditional job analysis techniques and competency modeling tool conclude that CM is easier to be implemented and also communicated throughout the different layers of the organization. In order to have a better understanding regarding different approaches of traditional job analysis method and competency modeling, a table based on the characteristics such as purpose of the method, view of the job, focus, time orientation, performance level and measurement approach was designed by Sanchez and Levine (2009).
From the table it is visible, that traditional job analysis method is job and past oriented whereas competency modeling focuses on the future and the organization overall. Thus, the conclusion can be drawn that competency modeling in contrast to traditional job analysis provides more general and broader view regarding jobs. However, according to Morgeson, Delaney-Klinger, Mayfield, Ferrara & Campion, (2004), a number of important questions regarding competency modeling remain. As authors have stated, it is not completely clear how HR practitioners can accurately make judgments based on these more global and general criteria.
2.2.4 Modified job analysis techniques nowadays
Even though some authors were proposing alternative methods and suggested the idea that traditional job analysis should be replaced, others believe that it is effective enough only to modify the traditional job analysis tools. Sanchez and Levine claim that job analysis is based on a number of assumptions that do not apply for nowadays workplace and that the assumptions should be reviewed and modified in order to be effective for the recent decade (2012). With this idea also agree McEntire, Dailey, Osburn & Mumford, saying that due to the changing nature of work environment, the techniques regarding data collection for job analysis should be also changed (2006). Morgeson & Dierdorff the term job analysis replaced by the concept work analysis demonstrating the boundaryless nature of the role that employees are playing in the companies in this dynamic workplace (2011). As it was mentioned before, one of the ways adapting the traditional job analysis method is to use cross-fertilization (Sanchez and Levine, 2012). Authors believe that by merging different attitudes of groups of people and functions throughout the organization, better results will be achieved. Another suggestion to improve the traditional job analysis is by borrowing some of the features from competency modeling.
2.3 IT sector and importance of technology
The world of work is affected by dramatic changes in the IT sector. There are constant improvements that affect not only the IT sector but also other industries (Cascio, 1995). As Brynjolfsson and Hitt said, most of the modern industries are being significantly affected by computerization (2000).
First of all, the primary purpose of IT sector is to identify the needs of organizations in different types of industries allowing them to make not only the value chain improvements but also identify and develop organizations’ driving factors of business. Thus, IT sector makes a number of valuable improvements for organizations to operate in a more effective manner.
Secondly, the speed and amount of information that is exchange has increased significantly nowadays. According to Cascio, in order to be successful in current
organizations, employees are required to be motivated and have at leas a moderate level of IT knowledge (1995).
Any other sector nowadays highly depends on information technologies. IT specialists help organizations to capture significantly important data that later on is used for various business purposes. IT helps not only to analyze consumers’ preferences, factors that determine the volume of sales but also by capturing valuable information IT opens new business opportunities for companies (George, 2014).
2.3.1 Information Technology (IT) change
Markus & Robey claim that there is a strong relationship between information technology and organizational change (1988). Due to the instability of the business environment, organizations are required to update their mode of operations constantly (Bloodgood, & Salisbury, 2001). IT sector is currently experiencing a rising demand to develop the tools that could open the sources for new opportunities. In other words, IT sector is responsible to develop the newest software for companies that could retrieve valuable information and strengthen their position in a highly competitive environment (Bloodgood, & Salisbury, 2001). In conclusion, because of the external factors there are many changes in IT sector and thus companies are obliged to be successful in analyzing their jobs and requirements for new employees and ocupations.
3. Conceptual Framework
As reviewed in the previous section, the current literature has been mainly focused on criticizing traditional human resource management tools such as job analysis specifying that due to the changing nature of work, this tool is not fully capable to capture the information needed for effective HR analysis regarding jobs. It is argued that job analysis do not provide enough benefits anymore compared to the costs it requires (Sanchez, 2000). Sanchez is also claiming that jobs have lost their strict boundaries and that stable job assignments no longer exist (2000). Moreover, job analysis is very time-consuming and thus the usefulness is diminishing in the dynamic work environment (Sanchez, 2000).
In order to analyze the current situation regarding the workplace and job analysis tools, a number of propositions are formulated. First of all, in the literature the emphasis is put on the changing workplace and dynamic environments of the organizations (Cascio, 1995). Markets are globalized and intense competition changed the nature of work. Thus the first proposition is designed regarding work environment nowadays:
Proposition 1 (P1): workplace has changed significantly during the last 5 years Another factor that will be taken into account during this study is description of jobs. Casio also claims that changing work environment also affected the specifications of jobs significantly (1995). For this reason, the analysis will be conducted while comparing job specifications five years ago and nowadays. In order to do that, the following proposition is formulated:
Proposition 2 (P2): job description has changed during the last 5 years
Finally, in order to be able to draw conclusion towards our research question regarding the usefulness and the applicability of traditional job analysis tool, the analysis of this method and its capability to capture the essential information for HR practitioners will be conducted. The following proposition will help to understand whether the existing techniques are still applicable:
Proposition 3 (P3): traditional job analysis techniques are not capable anymore to capture information for decision-making and thus should be eliminated from HRM
The research is guided by using these propositions and after analyzing each of them, the conclusions towards the main research question are drawn.
3.2 Context
As it was mentioned before, the biggest changes regarding job descriptions is expected to appear in IT sector. That is why this study is conducted specifically in the IT sector where the nature of job is developing extremely fast. IT sector develops the systems needed for the
(George, Haas & Pentland, 2014). Thus the requirements for IT specialists are also increasing. These changes affect IT jobs characteristics making them more general and abstract. New jobs also require a high level of flexibility.
3.3 Conceptual model
Based on the propositions that were formulated, the following conceptual model was designed. Proposition number one (P1) refers to a change in workplace between 2009 and 20014. The second proposition (P2) refers to the change in tasks in the period of 2009 and 2014. In the center of the model the icon refers to job analysis (JA) methods (P3), which is the most applicable based on the tasks’ characteristics.
Figure 1. Conceptual model
3.4 Predictions
Based on the proposed conceptual model, predictions regarding formulated propositions are drawn. First of all, it is predicted that the literature analysis proves the assumption that work environment did indeed change and that tasks of IT sector are affected significantly in the period of 2009 and 2014.
Secondly, it is predicted that collected data analysis proves the fact that due to the change of job specifications, traditional job analysis methods are not capable to collect sufficient information and thus have to be either modified in order to stay relevant and efficient tools for HR practitioners or replaced by new methods.
4. Methodology
The aim of this thesis is to identify the extent to which tasks of IT jobs changed during the last five years due to changes in the workplace and to investigate whether adaptations of the traditional job analysis methods can ensure their applicability to capture valuable information nowadays. The research is conducted using non-numerical data, thus a qualitative design is used. According to Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill, qualitative research is highly connected to interpretive philosophy (2011). This research is also conducted based on abductive approach. This approach is commonly used in research practice and connects inductive inferences that are developed together with deductive ones that are researched throughout the analysis (Saunders, Lewis & Thornhill, 2011). Existing literature on job analysis methods very briefly explain whether traditional techniques are fulfilling the needs of HR managers. For this reason, abductive approach was chosen in order to research further based on the existing implications (Verd, 2004). Abductive research strategy creates rich cross-fertilization where new outcomes are created using a mixture of existing theoretical models and its confrontation with real-life situations (Dubois & Gadde, 2002). Abductive approach also uses interpretations of social life and draws the insights on the existing concepts. Thus, using this technique, the research question regarding the applicability and usefulness of existing traditional job analysis methods is answered.
In order to study real-life situations and discover existing concepts’, confrontation with reality is made: a case study for this research is chosen. Case study explores a research topic within its context and real-life situations (Saunders, Lewis & Thornhill, 2011). Besides, according to Dubois and Gadde (2002), learning from a particular case provides well-supported outcomes due to the interaction between phenomenon and its environment. In this particular research the focus is put on occupations from the IT sector. Analysis is conducted while using coding techniques of qualitative data that was retrieved from different types of databases. According to the characteristics of qualitative data analysis, collected results are non-standardized and hence it has to be classified in order to make precise comparisons and analysis. In addition, analysis is conducted through the use of conceptualization that is the most appropriate technique for qualitative data analysis (Saunders, Lewis & Thornhill, 2011).
4.1 Context of the case study
This thesis is a part of the OntoTechnology project – which aims to analyse the utilization of job knowledge and uses it as a predictor for future job performance. This predictor of job performance of IT professions is then used to improve the curriculum of the IT studies provided at CVO Antwerpen to improve a fit at the labour market for its graduates. The project is collaboration between Amsterdam Business School, CVO Antwerpen, BVBA Tom Baele, Corvinno Technology Transfer Center Nonprofit Ltd. This paper takes part in the project and thus the case study is conducted. The case is limited by two occupations in the IT sector that were most relevant to CVO Antwerpen: .Net Developer and Network administrator.
4.1.1 .Net Developer
.Net Developer’s job, according to O*Net OnLine mainly focuses on developing, creating and modifying computer software. Besides, users’ needs have to be analyzed and based on the acquired information software solutions have to be developed. Employee also is responsible for designing and customizing programs for the clients so that the process is optimized and efficient. .Net Developer has to be able to work in both environments: as a team player and as an individual with his own projects. This job also requires the employee to supervise teams of computer programmers. As it is stated on O*Net OnLine, .Net Developer’s tasks include:
ü Modifying existing software and correcting the occurring errors ü Allowing the software to adapt to new hardware
ü Improving software’s performance
ü Developing and directing software system testing procedures ü Programming
ü Designing system and obtaining information about limitations and capabilities regarding performance requirements
ü User need analysis
ü Working under time and cost constraints
While describing .Net Developer’s working styles, O*Net OnLine emphasizes analytical thinking, attention to detail, reliable and responsible attitude, demonstrate creativity and focus on innovation, showing cooperative attitude.
4.1.2 Network Administrator
Network Administrator’s responsibilities on O*Net OnLine are described as installing, configuring and supporting an organization’s Internet systems. Moreover, a part of his daily tasks network monitoring is also included. Network administrator also ensures the availability of network to all its users. Testing and monitoring the performance of the websites is also part of the daily duty. Furthermore, employee may supervise computer user support specialists and computer network support specialists. Network administrator is also expected to administrate network security measures. According to O*Net OnLine, Network Administrator’s tasks include:
ü Maintain and administer computer networks ü Perform data backups and recovery operations ü Troubleshoot and diagnose systems’ problems
ü Plan, coordinate and implement network security measures for data protection
ü Configure virus protection software.
As far as the working skills of Network Administrator are concerned, O*Net OnLine indicates critical thinking and reading comprehension as a necessity for this job. Besides, system analysis, complex problem solving as well as judgment and decision-making are also emphasized.
4.2 Sample and data collection
In this research a new approach of collecting and analysing data is applied. All information regarding tasks of .Net Developer and Network Administrator is retrieved from vacancies. This method is highly dynamic and was not applied in the previous research. Thus, the new perspective of research analysis is demonstrated. The use of vacancies is expected to reflect the actual reality how tasks in IT sector changed over time. This change is tracked using keywords of indicated requirements regarding .Net Developer and Network Administrator
positions. The sample was picked from 5-year period: 2009-2014. This time frame was chosen first of all due to the limited time of this research. Secondly, during this period IT sector has changed dramatically.
In order to have a broader picture how vacancies were affected, organizational context is also analyzed. In the vacancies and jobs’ advertisements companies are specifying their corporate culture. Thus, while coding, the contexts’ specifications will be also taken into account in order to see whether it is influencing the characteristics and descriptions of jobs. The sample of .Net Developer vacancies is picked from the data pool containing in total 12917 vacancies in the period of 2009-2014 (see Table 2). The sample of Network Administrator regarding vacancies from the same 5-year period is based on a pool of total 3594 vacancies (see Table 3). From each year 10 vacancies were selected. Thus in total the data sample that is analyzed contains 120 vacancies. Vacancies are picked using purpose sampling. It is selected one by one in a row based on the availability of information: whether the name of the position and organization are know, whether job description is available, whether the website from which vacancy was retrieved is given. In case one of these aspects is missing, the vacancy is skipped.
A sample of 120 vacancies are selected and retrieved from the database of the Onto Technology project. According to Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill, it was shown by statisticians that the sample size of more than 30 units per category will usually result in a sampling distribution for the mean very close to normal distribution (2011). Thus, the samples of 60 vacancies per category (60 for .Net Developer and 60 for Network Administrator) are chosen for the analyses.
Table 2. Data pool of .Net Developer vacancies
Data pool of .Net Developer vacancies
Year 2 009 2 010 2 011 2 012 2 013 2 014 Vaca ncies 1 329 1 358 1 356 2 248 3 264 3 362 Vaca ncies selected 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0
Table 3. Data pool of Network Administrator vacancies
Data pool of Network Administrator vacancies
Year 2 009 2 010 2 011 2 012 2 013 2 014 Vaca ncies 1 026 9 37 8 86 7 74 4 92 4 16 Vaca ncies selected 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 4.3 Data analysis
First of all descriptions of selected vacancies are all translated from the original language (Dutch) into English. Then, in order to match the previous analysis of the project Onto Technology and to maintain the consistency of data grouping, the secondary data is categorized as follows: source of information, type of organization, job title, and year of publishing. This is the general organization of the data sample that is analyzed more precisely afterwards.
The first step of sample analysis is two-cycled coding. During the first cycle in Vivo coding method is applied on the selected data. During the second cycle of coding, data was categorized according to the type of activities. These categories allow recognizing patterns in selected data. Moreover, in order to apply consistent and precise analysis, codes are organized applying taxonomy method.
During the first cycle, the information regarding job tasks in each vacancy is retrieved from the descriptions. The definition of task describes this term as a definite element of work that belongs to someone’s duty and which results a particular output (Roberts & Glick, 1981). According to authors, the best way to analyze the tasks is connecting them to the working environment (Roberts & Glick, 1981). Thus, codes describing the organizational environment are also retrieved in this stage.
During the second cycle selected codes regarding tasks are grouped into three categories: “Daily activities”, “Problem solving activities” and “Future development activities”. Moreover, codes regarding corporate culture of the organization are categorized under the name of “Organizational context”. Context category describes the working
workplace. Table 4. and Table 5. show these major categories regarding classification of initial codes which later were split according to the year of vacancy publication.
Table 4. Major categories for Network Administrator
Major categories Associated concepts
Daily activities Monitoring, Optimizing, Reporting,
Managing, Documenting, Ensuring, Contacting, Providing, Operating, Maintaining, Delivering
Advising, Directing;
Problem solving activities Solving, Testing, Modifying, Adjusting,
Criticizing, Installing, Identifying, Preventing,
Resolving, Analyzing, Finding; Future development activities Setting up, Developing, Improving,
Consulting, Proposing, Designing, Researching, Implementing, Optimizing, Changing
Analyzing (possibilities), Preventing, Changing, Challenging, Innovating;
Organizational context Computerized, Automated, Quality
oriented, Digitalized, Dynamic, Connecting internationally, Communicating
Proactively managing, Strategy involvement,
Dynamic, Complex network, Informal, Multidisciplinary teams.
Table 5. Major categories for .Net Developer
Major categories Associated concepts
Daily activities Working (on assignments), Mailing,
Linking, Planning, Maintaining,
Translating, Structuring, Communicating, Programming, Advising, Learning (on a daily basis), Working (with marketing team), Acting proactively, Delivering (quality), Knowing (up-to-date developments);
Problem solving activities Tailoring (solutions), Dealing, Solving (assignments);
Future development activities Developing, Designing, Creating, Searching (for new Demands), Possibilities oriented, Focusing (on continuous Integration), Realizing (opportunities);
Organizational context Regular trainings, Challenges, Unique
structure, Complexity, Highly automated, Teamwork, International environment, Freedom, Space,
Own planning, International
development, Growth, Informal, Highly innovative.
As it was mentioned, information from different time periods is compared. In order to compare and obtain a better understanding whether vacancies were gradually changing over the selected years, a profile for each year per job containing the relevant codes is created. This data organization in clusters allows identifying the patterns and comparisons over the years. Each year profile is put in the timeline where not only patterns can be visible but also new tasks that occurred in each particular year are identified. These codes regarding the tasks are also linked with the codes describing the environmental context and thus we can see how changing workplace influences the duties.
Profiles of each year are created using inductive coding technique. First of all, with the help of open coding, activities and tasks are identified. These concepts form the basic units of the analysis. Afterwards, codes are grouped according to the mentioned categories.
4.3.1 Analyzing Proposition 1
Besides the categories that were created based on the activities, additional section of codes describing the organizational culture is added. This category is expected to help to obtain a better understanding about the nature of working environment in the organizations and to test the first proposition ((P1): workplace has changed significantly during the last 5 years). Thus, the cluster called “Organizational context” is used. This category includes codes that explain
corporate culture of the organization, approach of working, management style, beliefs, values and preferences (e.g. informal, dynamic, quality-oriented, highly monitored).
4.3.2 Analyzing Proposition 2
In order to test the second proposition ((P2): job specification has changed during the last 5 years) coding is made based on the activities (tasks) that were mentioned in the vacancies’ descriptions. They were clustered together into three groups based on the type of activity.
First cluster was named “Daily activities” which includes repetitive, day-to-day tasks (e.g. monitoring, organizing, reporting). Another cluster was called “Problem-solving activities” containing codes related to technical issues in the company (e.g. testing, modifying, adjusting). The third cluster is named “Further development activities” and includes codes that are focusing on further improvements or broader, more creative types of activities (e.g. developing, proposing, designing).
These categories were created after the first cycle of inductive coding. While categorizing codes, the pattern was noted that tasks are either everyday activities that help to monitor the general process, or problem and future development oriented. For this reason, these particular clusters are made. Proposition 2 is made in order to capture information regarding the change in tasks. For this reason, the categories describing the nature and type of activities are created for each job (.Net Developer separated from Network Administrator) and for each year.
Based on the analysis regarding these two types of occupations, the findings will be generalized for all IT sector. Information regarding .Net Developer and Network Administrator illustrates how IT industry overall is changing. Analysis of proposition 2 regarding job descriptions and tasks will help to get a better understanding towards IT sector and its dynamics nowadays compared to 5 years ago.
4.3.3 Analyzing Proposition 3
Based on two previously mentioned propositions (workplace and job specifications) the conclusion and critics towards the last proposition ((P3): traditional job analysis techniques are not capable anymore to capture information for decision-making) is made. Based on the extent to which job specifications have changed (or did not change) the conclusion regarding
5. Results
Based on the methods that were explained in a previous section, this part of the paper reveals the findings of the vacancies descriptions’ analysis. First the Network Administrator was analyzed and represented followed by .Net Developer. All the findings are illustrated in the four figures.
5.1. Findings regarding Network Administrator
5.1.1 Comparing 2009 and 2014
Before making a detailed year-by-year analysis, in order to obtain a rough contrast, two extreme cases were compared. Each cluster was created for two time periods: year of 2009 and 2014. For network administrator position, in 2009 the list of day-to-day activities was much richer than in 2014. Tasks such as monitoring, reporting, documenting, maintaining frequently occurred in the vacancies’ descriptions. Besides rich “Daily activities” category, the remaining two (“Problem solving and “Further development activities”) were relatively extensive as well. For example: solving, testing, modifying, criticizing and identifying show the importance of critical thinking emphasizing the need of solutions to the problems. These tasks can be related to the organizational context code quality oriented. Organizations were focusing on high quality standards and we can assume that this influenced the variety of tasks towards solving the issues. “Further developments” section provided the tasks that were focused on improvement and steady development (relevant codes: designing, researching, improving). Besides, the code proposing suggests the idea that organizations are valuing initiative and proactive employees.
On the contrary, in 2014 the number and importance of daily activities decreased significantly. Vacancies were providing a small range of repetitive tasks that were clearly defined. The same applies to “Problem solving activities” section – the importance and focus of these activities decreased in this year. However, the section regarding future development tasks was especially extensive. In 2014 common codes were challenging, innovating, designing, implementing. This future development oriented attitude might be caused by the environmental change. As it is illustrated in Figure 2, organizational context includes codes
the sample became more complex and less defined. The increase of the collaboration among different departments (code: multidisciplinary teams) might also be a reason why tasks became more challenging and broad.
While comparing organizational contexts from both periods, in 2009 and 2014 the concept dynamic appeared rather often. This might be explained by the fact the IT sector is usually deadline-driven and highly competitive (Hetland, Sandlan and Johensen, 2007). However, in contrast to 2009, in 2014 organizational context concepts such as strategy involvement, proactively managing, and multidisciplinary teams were added showing that the nature of workplace is even more vibrant. These clusters and categories of codes regarding Network Administrator’s activities in the period of 2009 and 2014 are illustrated in the following page, Figure 2.
5.1.2 Sequential timeline of codes for Network Administrator
In order to capture the evidence whether job tasks changed over years gradually and how did it happen, the timeline containing codes for each year was created. Findings showed that in contrast to 2009 which is mostly based on repetitive day-to-day activities, in 2010 activities such as customizing, bringing changes, meeting new demands, providing fast results appeared in the activities’ profile. Thus, these codes demonstrate that in year of 2010, tasks became more future development oriented rather than focused on the current trends. Organizations put their attention on utilizing their employees’ abilities in order to expand the business and adapt to the workplace, which in 2010 became more dynamic (code: Challenging environment).
In 2011 activities were directed towards problem solving and process improvement: troubleshooting, optimizing, changing, analyzing. In 2012 the code such as training appeared. This shows that besides optimizing the process, problem solving and future demand predictions, organizations also included staff training and workers’ personal development. This leads to ongoing improvement and development. The year of 2013 in the tasks description added a code responding immediately. This phenomenon can be connected to the fact that the workplace is described as challenging and innovative in this period. Consequently, employees are also expected to include in their daily tasks a quick response to various issues. In 2014, as it was mentioned in the previous section, the focus was put on general, broad tasks that were future development oriented: innovating, challenging, designing. These tasks are less defined and descriptions in the vacancies appeared rather vague.
Comparing only the context sections, workplace was called dynamic during the years of 2009, 2010 and 2011. In 2010 codes such as enthusiastic and proactive teams appeared. Which shows that employers started paying attention not only to employees’ abilities but also social aspects such as extra motivation. In 2011 codes such as international, informal and fast growing were added ad appeared quite frequently, strengthening the impression that organizational context became even more unpredictable and rapidly expanding. The year of 2012 contributed the workplace attributes’ pool with customer-oriented approach. Interpretations can be made that organizations started valuing customers’ loyalty and their feedback more. Besides, codes such as teamwork, working on projects and young environment suggest the idea that the workplace in this period was focused on young professional who were in charge of group projects. Companies instead of focusing on
candidates with rich experience became open for young professionals who might have a lot of new ideas and could contribute the organizations with their new suggestions.
In the year of 2013 organizational context is described as challenging, proactive and innovative. Consequently, the impression of dynamic and challenging environment is mentioned more often, thus companies put their focus on seeking for flexible candidates who would adjust to changing workplace better and quicker. In 2014 IT department started collaborating closely with other departments and thus in this year strategy started playing a more important role not only for other departments, but also for IT: codes such as strategy involvement, complex network and multidisciplinary teams took place.
Figure 3 illustrates the sequence of activities from 2009 till 2014 on a yearly basis. In blue sections codes describing the organizational environment are provided respectively for each year. It gives a better understanding about the context and change of a workplace.
Managing Reporting Contacting Maintaining Testing Adjusting Developing Designing Creating Researching Customizing Providing fast results Collaborating with partners Participating Communicating Responding quickly Managing issues Meeting New Demand Bringing changes Studying Training Installing Analyzing Communicating Virtualizing Monitoring Contacting Advising Documenting Solving Implementing solutions Implementing Optimizing Managing Delivering (quality) Advising Directing Preventing Resolving Analyzing Improving Changing Preventing Challenging Innovating Designing Coordinating Visiting Supporting Analyzing Troubleshooting Problem-solving Optimizing Preventing Proposing Changing Providing customized care Responding immediately Managing systems daily Bringing changes Monitoring availability Estimating impact & consequences Administrating
Figure 3. Timeline of Network Administrator codes and context
2010 2012 2014 2009 2011 2013 Connecting internationally Proactively managing Strategy involvement Dynamic Complex network Informal Multidisciplinary team Young environment Challenging Working on projects Customer-oriented approach Teamwork Customized care and
quality Flexibility Challenging environment Enthusiastic team Proactivity Changing teams 1 Challenging Enthusiastic teams Proactivity Innovations International Fast growing Dynamic Informal Computerized Automated Quality oriented Digitalized Dynamic 2
5.2. Findings regarding .Net Developer
5.2.1 Comparing 2009 and 2014
The year of 2009 and 2014 regarding .Net Developer’s vacancies differ significantly. First of all regarding the category ‘Future development activities’, in 2009 codes that appeared in the vacancies were not explicit (e.g. developing, designing, creating). It only refers to current products and existing customers without paying attention to possible expansions are broader working perspectives. However, in 2014, the same category of codes is much more dynamic. Codes such as searching (for new demands), demonstrating (continuous integration), focusing (on possibilities) took place. Companies demonstrate that their focus is on new possibilities and that they are seeking for more creative employees who would be able to make significant changes and bring his notable contribution. Moreover, in 2009 tasks were rather administrative (planning, maintaining, mailing, translating). These tasks focus on well-defined output without asking for creativity or additional contribution. On the contrary, in 2014 employees of the same job now are asked to provide their own insights from the market: code realizing new opportunities appeared. This expansion of employees’ responsibilities can be explained by environmental change.
Organizational environment in these two periods differed in two aspects: first of all in 2009 workplace was quite structured compared to the organizational context in 2014 which is described using codes such as international development, space, growth. Working environment in 2014 was proposing the fact that people should plan their time on their own and take responsibilities for their own projects (codes: own planning, innovation, freedom, informal). Such freedom encourages employees’ to look for possibilities, express themselves in less restricted frames and constraints. Organizations have changed their workplace in order to capture growth possibilities that might be brought by their new talents. However, despite the differences, in both periods organizations were experiencing difficulties (codes complexity and challenges appeared in both years).
Figure 4 illustrates the categories of codes regarding each time period as well as the organizational context.
5.2.2 Sequential timeline of codes for .Net Developer
In order to have a better understand regarding the tasks change for .Net Developer’s position, the timeline of codes was created. In the period between 2009 and 2014, activities such as communicating, maintaining and planning remain the same. This shows that .Net Developer position requires performing a number of tasks that do not change over time and are rather administrative. However, besides these repetitive tasks, there were additional tasks occurring in every period. For example, in the year of 2010 codes learning and improving were added. Companies started investing in employee development offering them constant updates and trainings.
Starting 2011 the extent of responsibilities was growing significantly, including activities such as rotating, leading, gathering knowledge from colleagues as well as using the latest technologies. Employers were also putting the emphasis on utilizing their workers (codes: working effectively). Moreover, in 2012 besides the same codes from 2011, the code regarding involvement with organization’s strategy appeared. Companies put their emphasis on giving more freedom to workers, letting them delegate the team and also encourage exchange of information. This can be connected to the code from organizational context section: process recognition. Thus, in 2012 the pool of tasks became more explicit and rich compared to 2009: efficient use of modern techniques, putting technology in a creative way, contributing to continuous improvement fell in the category of employees’ responsibilities that the worker is expected to perform. The year of 2013 had a boom in the variety of tasks regarding .Net Developer’s responsibilities. Vacancies such as offering solutions, experimenting, expanding, building interactive websites were added. Besides, the focus also was put on customers’ feedback: building online-surveys. This allowed organizations to capture the opinion of consumers regarding their experience of the product. Employees were also encouraged to contribute to the business. Codes such as looking for opportunities, analyzing market and extending business were spotted in the vacancies’ descriptions in 2013. If the appearance of these new responsibilities were linked to organizational environment, it would be visible that the workplace in this period is described as creative environment requiring proactive attitude and attention for details, innovative and full of challenging projects that are performed in young and ambitious teams. In 2014 tasks remained mostly the same as in year of 2012 and 2013. However, the codes such as developing user-friendly products and developing apps appeared. Which is a big step towards innovation, because as it
is described in the workplace, the organizational context became highly innovative. Products now are required to be easy to use and the demand in app development increased.
Comparing organizational context, from 2009 till 2014, the workplace was changing rapidly. 2010 was the year where focus was put on proactive attitude, freedom, close collaboration with other departments and enthusiastic teams. Starting from 2011, term innovation took place. Codes such as latest technologies, efficiency, growth opportunities, quality oriented appeared. Companies paid more attention to technology development, using up-to-date software and tools. Competition was rising, so organizations were forced to be efficient and look deeper for growth opportunities. Besides, a few times the term sustainability was mentioned. We can assume that this happened due to the regulations regarding corporate social responsibility. Companies started competing not only on their products and services but also the image: the extent to which sustainability was applied in the organizations. Other than that, in the context section, the term development of high traffic products appeared. In the year of 2012 innovation remain a key and significant changes in the workplace were not noticed. 2013 again was emphasizing the innovation and creative environment encouraging new employees to be more proactive and demonstrate their abilities and “out of the box” attitude. In 2014 space, freedom, own planning and complexity were mentioned. This also might have affected the fact that tasks in vacancies in this last period became significantly broad and vaguely described. Employees are in charger of broader scale projects with less precisely defined expectations, thus for employees it became harder to predict what kind of output is expected to be produced.
Codes regarding .Net Developer in the period from 2009 till 2014 are demonstrated in Figure 5.
Communicating Programming Planning Maintaining Dealing Developing Designing Creating Developing Designing Creating Developing Designing Creating Engaging (consumers) Managing Following (latest developments) Contributing Implementing Building Documenting Transforming Expanding Learning Innovating Improving
Using graphic designs Efficient use of modern techniques Involvement in org. strategy Consulting Putting technology in a creative way Realizing Testing Analyzing Optimizing Contributing to continuous improvement Rotating Leading Working effectively Gathering knowledge from colleagues Implementing Using the latest technologies Demonstrating creativity Adapting
Developing your own projects
Setting new trends Developing user-friendly designs Developing Apps Analyzing Reporting Rotating Consulting Ensuring Leading Working effectively Gathering knowledge from colleagues Using the latest technologies Demonstrating creativity Linking customers with organization Offering solutions Designing Maintaining Training Improving Challenge Experimenting Testing Expanding Building (interactive websites) Building online-surveys Discussing Ensuring accuracy Looking for opportunities Analyzing market Extending business
Figure 5. Timeline of .Net Developer codes and context
2010 2012 2014 2009 2011 2013 Creative environment Informal
Attention for detail Proactive attitude Innovation Challenging projects Young and ambitious teams Structured Freedom Space Complexity Own planning International Customer satisfaction oriented Enthusiastic Different departments and different teams Close collaboration
with other departments (marketing) department Proactive attitude Freedom Performance oriented Enthusiastic team Process recognition Sustainability Latest technologies High traffic products Informal Quality oriented Efficiency Individual work Growth opportunities Dynamic environment Focus on trainings Challenges Unique structure Complexity Teamwork International
5.3 Conclusion on the results
IT sector is one of the most rapidly changing sectors. Thus, changes and improvements were expected to appear over years. Constant early changes appeared in both jobs: Network Administrator and .Net Developer. More significant changes appeared regarding Network administrator position. 2014 compared to 2009 included broader view and not so clearly defined tasks. In 2009 .Net Developer started with creative tasks, but till 2014 the profile of tasks were brought to different level incorporating close relation with other departments and the extent of freedom that employees were given. Both jobs mentioned organizations strategy involvement in IT department. Besides, .Net Developer’s position required also a certain level of sustainability which was new factor regarding the vacancies in IT department.
After analyzing the sample of selected vacancies, conclusion can be drawn, that organizational context indeed have changed and thus might have had an influence on the change of the tasks regarding both: .Net Developer’s position and Network Administrator’s position.
6. Discussion and limitations
The findings of this study show that the nature of workplace indeed is rapidly changing. Organizational context comparisons revealed that in contrast to five year ago, nowadays companies are facing a workplace, which is even faster, more dynamic and harder to predict. Results confirm the insights of Doyle (1990), who claimed that rapid developments in information technology and the speed of movement of development regarding global economy have shaped business competition and the type of tasks. These findings also support the proposition 1 and 3, which stated that workplace has changed during the last five years and these changes were especially noticed in information technology sector.
Organizational change was predicted to have an impact on job description. Proposition 2 stated that job tasks has changed during the last five years. Findings of this research showed a lot of evidence to support this proposition illustrating that job tasks were not only expanded with a higher number of responsibilities but also changed the extent of responsibilities. In contrast to the tasks five years ago, nowadays jobs descriptions involve a deeper understanding of the whole business environment, collaboration with other business units, experiencing strategy involvement and higher level of task recognition.
6.1. Theoretical and practical implications
Analysis revealed that a big part of the duties regarding .net developer and network administrator positions remain unchanged and the core of the tasks is still the same as five years ago. Thus traditional job analysis methods are still applicable. However the disadvantage of focus only on traditional activities is that in this way analysis process might be too much standardized while measuring the contribution of each individual’s contribution (Lawler, 1994).
A change of a workplace and tasks suggest the idea that proposition regarding traditional job analysis techniques and its applicability should be questioned. Results show that nowadays job tasks not only contain the same regular duties as five years ago, but also new duties were added. These new duties are broader and less specified.
Thus, it might be effective for HR practitioners to combine traditional job-based analysis methods with the new competences modeling tool. According to Lawler (1994), traditional job analysis tools are effective in training, selecting, career development activities, but they cannot capture the significant information regarding the utilization of individuals’ competences and how to manage them. Consequently, managers should still use the traditional job analysis technique to a certain extent but in a combination with competency modeling in order to adapt job analysis tools to this fast changing environment and dynamic markets and capture the part of information that traditional techniques do not acquire.
6.2 Limitations
First of all, As Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill claimed, qualitative research is rather an interpretive philosophy, thus it might be subjective to a certain extent (2011) and using this particular method the reality might be shaped. Secondly, data of this research capture jobs only in IT sector, thus it might not be generalizable on a broader scale. In other words, it might not be applicable for different type of sectors.
Another aspect that should be taken into account is that according to Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill researchers of qualitative data have to ensure that collected data is comparable (2011). Thus the extreme precision is required while grouping and analyzing data and the absence of it might lead to wrong interpretations.
