Disability in Corporate Settings:
How Information Regarding CSR Practices Is Communicated to Employees With Disabilities Kimberlin C. Patton – 10583556
Master’s Thesis – Corporate Communication Graduate School of Communication
University of Amsterdam
Master’s Programme Communication Science Thesis Supervisor – James Slevin
Abstract
The purpose of this study is to examine how companies effectively communicate corporate social responsibility (CSR) initiatives regarding the inclusion of individuals with disabilities in the workplace. Three separate investigations were conducted in order to gather a more complete understanding of CSR practices. The first investigation examined the messages communicated in print media (i.e., newspapers); the second investigation analyzed the messages communicated on company websites; and the third investigation explored the real world experiences of persons with disabilities who were already in the workplace, and examined how they perceived various CSR practices. The first investigation was analyzed through a content analysis of articles appearing in two major newspapers over a three-month period; the second investigation incorporated an analysis of the websites of ten companies who had been known for their disability inclusion; and the third investigation involved interviews with individuals with disabilities in order to understand the practices in action. The results of the study showed that virtually no companies communicated CSR messages of disability inclusion through print media sources. Additionally, company websites did not contain accessible or cohesive CSR messages, and therefore did not effectively communicate disability initiatives effectively. Finally, CSR messages of disability inclusion initiatives did not effectively reach individuals with disabilities, perhaps the most important target audience of these messages. Implications for addressing these findings were provided.
Disability in Corporate Settings:
How Information Regarding CSR Practices Is Communicated to Employees With Disabilities Companies and organizations have started to acknowledge the benefit of diversity and inclusion in the workplace. This diversity includes a range of individuals who for whatever reason have often been unrepresented in the workplace. One group that represents significant diversity includes individuals with disabilities. This particular group has often been overlooked as a source of talent, but recent research and activism have shown the advantages of including these individuals within the workplace.
In recent times, many companies have begun to introduce socially responsible initiatives of disability inclusion. The reasons for doing so vary; however, companies who embrace the concept of corporate social responsibility (CSR) realize that there are benefits for doing -- not only for the company but also for their employees.
While CSR initiatives are now being incorporated for employees with disabilities, systematic studies of how these practices are communicated have largely not been conducted. Therefore, studying corporate social responsibility in the workplace as it related to persons with disability is warranted. Moreover, this type of study will contribute to a more accurate
understanding of ongoing practices and provide suggestions for companies to consider in the future.
For many years, people with disabilities were ostracized when it came to inclusion in the workplace. Even to this day, individuals with disabilities are not employed at the same levels as those who do not have disabilities. Companies often operated under the impression that hiring individuals with disabilities would result in a decreased efficiency in their organizations. This was, and continues to be, a misguided view. In more recent times, research has shown the exact
opposite to be true, as persons with disabilities can bring new insights to companies and heighten productivity. This inclusion can also expand the knowledge capacity of the company, and improve work culture through awareness and understanding of disabilities and begin to break down barriers previously in place.
However, as views of disability in the workplace become increasingly progressive, it also becomes even more important to communicate these initiatives effectively. Even though many companies start to become more accepting and accommodating of individuals with disabilities, if they do not effectively communicate these practices, especially to individuals with disabilities, they will ultimately be ineffective. Therefore, the investigation of factors that can influence a company's sense of corporate social responsibility is warranted.
This paper will examine three key areas that are associated with corporate social responsibility. The first area of investigation reviews how print media convey CSR messages about disability in the workplace. The second area of investigation looks at the ways by which select companies convey their CSR practices about recruiting, hiring, and supporting employees with disabilities. The third area of investigation adds a personal perspective on corporate social responsibility by examining the personal views of employees with disabilities in regard to how they perceive CSR practices.
Corporate Social Responsibility
Corporate social responsibility, or CSR, is defined as ‘the continuing commitment by business to contribute to economic development while improving the quality of life of the workforce and their families as well as of the community and society at large’ (Holme & Watts, 2000), which has continued to become a greater priority in recent years. According to
appeal to business organizations to deliver wider societal value beyond shareholder and market value alone” (p. 236). It is way for businesses to benefit themselves while also benefitting society (Epstein, 2012), and is becoming a more mainstream practice for forward-looking companies.
CSR practices typically take one or more of three forms: environment, philanthropy, or ethical labor practices (Fallon, 2014). Environmental aspects involve being consciously aware of the environment and the company’s carbon footprint. Philanthropy consists of practices such as donating to charities, whether this is through money or time contributions. And finally, ethical labor practices encompass a broad range of human-rights issues such as treating employees fairly and ethically.
Above and beyond “doing the right thing,” companies can benefit from CSR practices in a number of ways. There is a strong business case for implementing CSR initiatives as well. Companies can benefit from improved innovation aspects, cost savings, brand differentiation, long-term thinking, consumer engagement, and employee engagement (Epstein, 2012). However, there are various different justifications for implementing CSR practices. As previously stated, for many it is a moral obligation to do the right thing, but for some there are other driving forces behind implementation.
One motivation behind employing CSR practices is sustainability, or “meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” (Porter & Kramer, 2006, p. 3). This allows companies a license to operate without negatively impacting the future, thus upholding ethical values and respect of people, communities, and the environment. Another incentive for the implementation of CSR initiatives is that a company’s reputation can benefit from doing so, as these practices are seen to “improve a company’s image,
strengthen its brand, enliven morale, and even raise the value of its stock” (Porter & Kramer, 2006). When implemented correctly, CSR practices can benefit society, employees, and companies.
CSR initiatives generate a better public image for companies since consumers are drawn to companies who give back. The practices also provide companies with better media coverage, foster a positive work environment, and influence where top talent chooses to work (Double the Donation Foundation, 2015). CSR also plays a role in routine consumer behavior “over and above economic or ‘ration’ considerations such as product attributes” (Klein & Dawar, 2004). The CSR practices of companies have a spillover or “halo effect” on otherwise unrelated routine consumer judgments, such as the evaluation of new products (Klein & Dawar, 2004).
CSR practices have been shown to work in companies that make these initiatives part of the core of what they do. For example, the ice cream company Ben & Jerry’s only uses fair trade ingredients and has created sustainability programs in its home state of Vermont (Fallon, 2014). Additionally, the giant coffee company Starbucks has created C.A.F.E. Practice guidelines C.A.F.E. Practices guidelines for their company that are “designed to ensure the company sources sustainably grown and processed coffee by evaluating the economic, social and
environmental aspects of coffee production” (Fallon, 2014). Furthermore, the footwear company Tom’s Shoes donates a pair of shoes to children in need for every pair a customer purchases (Fallon, 2014).
But more than just corporate concerns, employee considerations are important to take into account. Many different groups of people can benefit from CSR practices. For example, diversity and inclusion initiatives such as race and gender concerns have been implemented, and now disability advances are staring to be introduced. In turn, companies can benefit from these
initiatives in terms of recruitment and retention. When implemented properly, CSR practices can make a workplace an attractive environment, and see an increased interest employment as well as engagement. Specifically, people with disabilities have been shown to be productive and reliable workers, and even improve the company culture through new perspectives and increased understanding (Sokolovsky, 2013).
However, CSR practices with a focus on employees with disabilities can be seen as more than a respectable endeavor, but as a worthwhile human-rights issue (Cordero, Oritz de Zuniga & Rueda, 2014). These initiatives can add value for both companies and persons with disabilities. However, companies must understand the aspects of disabilities that need to be taken into consideration in order to improve CSR practices and communicate them effectively.
Disability in the Workplace
The concept of disability has existed throughout all of history, yet has never had a common definition (Hirandini, 2005). Consequently, defining what constitutes ‘disability’ is a complex process, and brings about even more uncertainty about doing so. Disability can also be considered contextually defined. What might be considered a disability in one setting or culture may not be so defined in another context based on the functional demands of the setting.
Clay Houghton, the director of the Civilian Equal Opportunity for the Department of Defense, states that disability is “an equal opportunity situation,” since anyone has the potential to acquire one at any time (Smart, 2008). Events ranging from car accidents to diseases, or even old age, can render one debilitated and require severe changes to one’s life. Therefore, it is not so incompatible to our own interests to be concerned about disability, as it is prevalent in many aspects of life, and has the potential to one day affect us all.
The common disabilities to be examined in this study lie in four main categories: physical disabilities, developmental disabilities, cognitive disabilities, and psychiatric disabilities.
Physical disabilities are categorized as “mobility impairments; neurological impairments such as cerebral palsy and seizure disorders; traumatic brain injuries; musculoskeletal conditions, such as muscular dystrophy and arthritis; sensory loss; and health disorders” (Smart, 2008, p. 23). Developmental disabilities include conditions such as intellectual disability and autism. Cognitive disabilities are known as disabilities that "impair perception, memory, information processing, reasoning, sensory discrimination (auditory and visual), and attention" (Smart, 2008, p. 30). Cognitive disabilities include conditions such as learning disability and traumatic brain injury. It should be noted that in some countries such as England the term learning disability is used to describe individuals with intellectual disability. Psychiatric disabilities include various types of mental illness and other behavior-related conditions (Smart, 2008).
Employment of Persons with Disabilities
Even with many advances in employment laws and demonstrated success of inclusion in schools in the United States, the employment rate of individuals with disabilities remains low, and those who are employed tend to be in low-paying occupations (United States Department of Labor, 2012). According to the Department of Labor, only 32% of working-age people with disabilities are employed, compared to 72.7% of people without disabilities. Additionally, this population is underrepresented in management and professional jobs, but overrepresented in service, production, and transportation jobs.
According to Lengnick-Hall, Gaunt, and Kulkarni (2008), the gap in employment of people with disabilities is most likely because many employers still hold stereotypical beliefs about hiring people with disabilities such as job qualifications and performance concerns, the
costs associated with hiring people with disabilities, and also reactions and responses from others both in the workplace and from customers. However, research has shown that these concerns are not supported when studies closely (Lengnick-Hall et al., 2008). Hartnett, Stuart, Thurman, Loy, and Batiste (2010) that employing people with disabilities has significant benefits:
Benefits derived by employers include the ability to retain quality employees, increased company profitability, and an avoidance of costs associated with hiring and training a new employee. In addition to these benefits, providing accommodations in order to retain employees is shown to improve organizational culture and climate, as well as fostering a sense among all employees that employers recognize both the value of the individual worker as a human being, and the inherent social benefits of creating and sustaining an inclusive workplace. (p. 17)
Disability Inclusion in the Workplace
In the United States, the civil rights movement of persons with disabilities happened much later than it did for gender, race or ethnic concerns. This may partially be because of the absence of issue awareness, or manner in which, these individuals were portrayed in the media, as previously explained. However, more current laws in the U.S. have been passed to include this group, one of the most influential being the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (later amended in 2008), which prohibits discrimination on the basis of disability in employment (Szymanski and Parker, 2010). These improvements in the workplace emulate policies previously implemented in the education system in the United States, which guarantees free, equal educational opportunity for children, birth to 21, with disabilities (Smith, Polloway, Patton, & Dowdy, 2012).
As research has shown, inclusion of individuals with disabilities in the workplace makes good business sense. Not only will companies benefit from increased productivity, but also
experience a better work culture. However, disability inclusion has often been left out of many CSR initiatives concerning diversity, which have mostly focused on race or ethnic groups and gender (Lengnick-Hall et al, 2008). Fortunately, more recently, companies have realized the benefits of hiring individuals with disabilities and have begun to incorporate disability inclusion into CSR diversity practices. As more companies begin to recognize the benefits of hiring and including individuals with disabilities, it becomes even more important to communicate these practices effectively.
Communication of CSR Practices
According to the European Commission (2011), effectively communicating CSR
practices can directly and positively benefit businesses. These benefits include “higher levels of customer satisfaction and loyalty; improved company, brand and product reputation; more motivated and productive employees; better relations with the local community and public authorities; and increased cost savings” (EC, 2001, p. 4). However, it is necessary that CSR messages reach the intended target audience in order for this communication to be considered effective. In this case, disability inclusion initiatives are aimed at individuals who identify with this condition and benefit from the initiatives; moreover, it is essential that persons with
disabilities are aware of and receive these disability inclusion messages. However, it is not yet clear if these messages are being communicated to the target audience effectively.
Print Media Conveyance of Practices
According to McQuail (2010), “the media are expected to have considerable potential for influence on the opinions of individuals, although mostly without intention, by providing the
information that issues exist and indicating the options” (p. 516), which is done primarily through the processes of agenda-setting and priming. Agenda setting is a phenomenon that presents to the public what to think about, and priming promotes subject matter so that certain issues become more salient (McQuail, 2010). Therefore, these processes can have a huge impact on what the general public is aware of regarding persons with disabilities, and why it remains important to present disability issues in a proper manner, and with sensitivity.
One of the first aspects to be aware of when presenting information about people with disabilities is the language that is used to describe them. One recommendation from Riley (2005) is to “omit mention of an individual’s disability unless it is pertinent to the story” (p. 51), in addition to using people-first logic to help avoid the pitfall of characterizing someone by their disability. Likewise, it is also advocated to not portray a “super-achiever,” but a typical achiever with a disability. Similarly, it is relevant to note what type of article stories in which individuals with disabilities typically appear to better understand how they are typically being portrayed. Riley states that disability stories stereotypically fall into three categories: medical, local coverage of charity events, and soft human-interest classifications. Additionally, he cautions against utilizing certain words when portraying people with disabilities such as victim, invalid, and even normal since most people are in fact seen this way (Riley, 2005, p. 220).
Consequently, it is important to understand how persons with disabilities are being portrayed in society today, especially concerning the workplace. According to Haller (2010), “mass media images still provide many of the cultural representations of disability to American society” (p. 29). These images have an impact on how the public perceives individuals with disabilities, and perhaps even their competencies and abilities. This can ultimately have an affect on their inclusion and acceptance in the workplace since the mass media remains a primary
source of information for much of society, and a way to obtain information about issues of relevance.
According to the European Commission initiative on corporate social responsibility (2011), use of media is one of the recommended ways to most effectively communicate a message in order to reach the largest possible audience. This includes both the general public and people with disabilities, and may in fact be a principal source of information for those that do not have access, or cannot access, information by other means. Therefore, it is important to examine whether this channel is being utilized effectively to communicate messages of disability inclusion to the general public.
Corporate Communication Regarding Disabilities
It has been shown that the Internet has become a primary manner to find information about work, with many websites designed to find jobs (Szymanski & Parker, 2010). Typically, job openings and background information on a company will be provided on a specific
employer’s website. However, this brings about accessibility issues, especially regarding individuals with disabilities. The nonprofit group, Center for Applied Special Technology (CAST), has developed a simple battery of tests to evaluate the Web accessibility, which
frequently show many of the most popular websites are virtually inaccessible to users with vision problems (as typically assumed), but also a great amount of the entire disability community (Riley, 2005).
Personal Perspectives of Corporate Communication
The last, but perhaps most important component of communicating disability initiatives, is what is experienced by individuals with disabilities themselves. Much research can be done on how to communicate disability initiatives properly, but if the target audience and the group of
people these practices aim to affect the most do not receive the CSR messages, it will ultimately be ineffective. According to Smart (2008), “those with disabilities have experience and
knowledge that are not available to those without disabilities; furthermore, these experiences and knowledge are important for those without disabilities. Thus, the disability experience is an important source of knowledge” (pg. 580), which remains a significant aspect to be explored.
Research Questions
This study will explore the relationship between CSR messages and employees with disabilities by answering the following three research questions.
1. How are CSR messages regarding disability inclusion communicated in the print media? 2. How are CSR initiatives related to disability communicated on company websites? 3. How do employees with disabilities perceive corporate messages related to CSR
initiatives?
This will allow companies and organizations to understand what they can do to better communicate their CSR initiatives regarding disability by way of print media, company websites, and to employees with disabilities in order to increase the awareness and efficacy of these practices.
Methods
To answer the major questions of this study that are related to corporate social
responsibility, three different methods of exploration were conducted to generate data to address the questions. First, a content analysis of print media was conducted. Second, a focused analysis of company websites for attributes of disability inclusion in the workplace was undertaken. Third, interviews were conducted with a number of individuals with disabilities, and in some
cases close family members, to gather a more complete examination of the CSR messages concerning disability initiatives communicated by companies.
Print Media Conveyance of CSR Practices Related to Disabilities
The first investigation was designed to examine the way one form of print media (i.e., newspapers) reflects disability CSR initiatives in the workplace. The specific goal of this investigation was to review how companies convey their message of CSR as reported to the general public in two major newspapers.
Sources of information. This part of the investigation aimed to gather media messages surrounding disability initiatives in the workplace. The goal of this section was to assess how and if companies communicate their CSR disability initiatives to the general public, including individuals with disabilities, by way of mass media – a source that remains a crucial manner through which the overall population receives information (McQuail, 2010). The two most popular daily news publications in the United States by circulation, The Wall Street Journal and The New York Times, were chosen for the maximum amount of reach (i.e. people that would see these messages), which were then analyzed for relevant information over a course of three months from October 2014 to December 2014.
Variables. The variables coded for these newspapers included general identifying information such as the story identification number, title of the article, news source, date of the article, type of news story, and primary topic of the story. Additional variables were coded to gather more descriptive information such as number of times ‘disability’ was mentioned, type of disability described, tone, traits and characteristics, as well as the context of the article,
specifically regarding the workplace. If the article discussed disability in the context of the workplace, further information was recorded.
Identifying Variables. These variables consisted of basic identifying information, and gave background on the type of article. The consecutive order number of the article was
recorded for sequential purposes, as well as the title of the article. Moreover, the news outlet of either The Wall Street Journal or The New York Times in which the article originally appeared in was documented in addition to the date of publication. Furthermore, the type of story was logged. These categories included: News Story; Reportage or Background Story; Portrait or Interview; Editorial; Column or Commentary; Letter to the Editor; Question to the Newspaper; Bullet; Headline Only; Documentation; Picture/Graph/Map; Review; or Other. Lastly, the primary topic of the story was noted. These topics included: Workplace/School;
Health/Healthcare; Economy; Politics/Policy; Law/Legal Proceedings; Veterans/War;
Accessibility; Rights/Inequality; Arts/Culture/Technology; and Soft/Human Interest (including misconduct and scandal pieces).
Disability Variables. A disability filter was added after the identifying variables. More information would only be recorded if ‘disability’ or any synonyms, including descriptions of a disability, were present. This was done to eliminate extraneous articles that were not of
importance and only mentioned disability in passing, without discussing any information of relevance. After the filter was applied, the type of disability was distinguished with four main categories, modified from the four categories outlined by Smart (2010) to fit the analysis of news articles. These included the areas of Physical Disability, Intellectual Disability, Mental
Disability (including cognitive and psychiatric distinctions), and a new category of
‘Veteran/War-related Disability’ since this is a subject commonly discussed in the news. Also coded were ‘Not Specified’ and articles that mentioned more than one disability. Additionally, the tone of the article regarding the disability was examined. This was assessed on a five-level
Likert scale ranging from Negative, Rather Negative, Balanced/Neutral, Rather Positive, and Positive. Furthermore, the traits associated with the disability were evaluated and recorded to gather the perception of disability put forth by the media. These traits included categories such as Disadvantaged/Vulnerable, Incapable/Incompetent, Incapacitated/Impaired,
Empowered/Resilient/Inspiring, Different/Dissimilar, Dangerous/Problematic/Troubled, and Other or Not Specified, which were expanded from guidelines for portraying people with disabilities in the media (Riley, 2005).
Communicated CSR Messages. Finally, the context was taken into consideration in order to be examined for messages about workplace disability initiatives. The ‘Context’ variable was divided into five different sections that included Work/School, Law/Legal, Hospital/Health Facilities, General and Other, or More than One. If the context was in the category of
Work/School, the article would be further examined for information about the workplace. School-related articles were not coded further. Work articles were assessed for any CSR messages about disability initiatives in the workplace, and if present, those messages were recorded. Full codebook attached. (See: Appendix A)
Data gathering technique. Information was gathered from newspaper articles published in The Wall Street Journal and The New York Times from October 2014 to December 2014. The articles were accessed utilizing the database Factiva. In Factiva, a search for the keyword of ‘disability’ was completed to capture the greatest amount of articles regarding disability. The selected articles were all coded for their identifying variables. Subsequently, a ‘disability’ filter was applied on each of the articles to eliminate irrelevant articles that only mentioned disability in passing, but did not actually discuss any issues relating to disability. If the articles passed this filter, they were then coded for the remaining disability variables. Finally, the context
surrounding disability was analyzed for information regarding disability in the workplace, and the communicated messages were recorded.
Corporate Communication Regarding Disabilities
The second investigation focused specifically on the issues related to corporate social responsibility, as communicated by selected companies in the United States. This part of the study examined the specific messages that companies communicate about hiring employees with disabilities, as reflected by information provided on the company websites. To do this, company websites were examine for disability inclusion initiatives. Components of importance were the availability of key messages put forward by the companies as well as how these messages were communicated, including factors such as ease of accessibility and message cohesion. The components of accessibility and message presentation were adapted from the Center for Applied Special Technology’s suggestions for universal design (Riley, 2005).
Sources of information. Companies were selected on the basis of successful disability inclusion practices in order to understand what CSR messages companies with effective
inclusion initiatives communicate to potential employees. These companies were taken from a list of ‘Top 10 Companies for People with Disabilities’ compiled by Diversity Inc (2014). This ranking was based on a number of factors assessing how inviting and inclusive the organization is of applicants with disabilities. Also addressed were accessibility factors and resource groups available to individuals as an employee. The companies, in order, were Ernst and Young, Procter & Gamble, Boehringer Ingelheim, IBM, General Motors, Wyndham Worldwide,
WellPoint, The Hartford Financial Services Group, BASF, and AT&T. These top ten companies and organizations known for disability inclusion were evaluated on the basis of whether their websites effectively communicated these messages of inclusion to applicants with disabilities.
Variables. The first variable assessed was whether or not CSR disability initiatives were available on the website, based on what an average user could find. This means that if the message was too difficult to obtain, it was seen as unavailable. This was measured through the ease of access of this information. If it took more than three links to obtain or find information on disability inclusion, it was classified as ‘inaccessible.’ Conversely, three or less links was considered ‘accessible.’ This was evaluated based off of either the company website or the company career page, chosen by where the particular organization communicated information about the company itself, including any other CSR information. The second variable considered the cohesiveness of the message. If all the information concerning disability inclusion was organized together within a cohesive structure it was ‘cohesive.’ If it was organized in a haphazard manner, for example information on different pages only accessible from disparate areas of the website, it was considered ‘dispersed’ and therefore not a cohesive message. Finally, if a message was present, it was analyzed for the key disability messages that were communicated in order to understand what messages companies with successful disability inclusion practices are actually communicating about disability initiatives. Full codebook attached. (See: Appendix B)
Data gathering technique. Company websites were accessed directly after doing an online search of the most prominent company page available to the general public. Once the website was accessed, the entire website was analyzed for CSR messages of disability inclusion in the workplace. If a message of disability inclusion was available, it was then analyzed for its accessibility and cohesion of the message. Finally, any and all CSR messages regarding
disability were recorded, including content and methods of communication (i.e., pictures, videos, text).
Personal Perspectives of Corporate Communication
The third component was designed to get a sense of the social validity of the messages that companies convey to individuals with disabilities about their hiring practices. The goal was to obtain information from individuals with disabilities who had gained employment, who have insights and knowledge about real experiences of CSR messages in the workplace (Smart, 2008). This section aimed to understand disability inclusion messages in practice by interviewing
individuals with disabilities to understand their personal experiences and attitudes. Subjects. All participants were interviewed on the basis of anonymity in order to safeguard identities and provide confidentiality, as certain disabilities may not be revealed to employers. Only basic demographic information and type of disability are disclosed, as well as the type of job and company in which they are employed. The company names are also not divulged for privacy reasons. The purpose of this part of the investigation is not to highlight what particular companies may or may not be doing wrong, but what practices are currently being used and what improvements can be made. Table 1 provides the descriptive information about each of the interviewees.
Table 1
Descriptions of Interviewees
Interviewee Gender Age Disability Employment (US) Comments 1 female 23 intellectual
disability (Down syndrome)
major retail clothing store (assistant)
mother present at interview to assist with questions that were difficult for subject to
understand 2 female - - - mother of
interviewee #1 3 male 26 autism &
dyslexia major telecommunications company (technician) subject preferred to respond to questions via email; his mother assisted in helping him understand and properly answer questions 4 female - - - mother of interviewee #3 -- interview conducted via email -- due to convenience 5 male 24 physical disability (C5-C6 quadriplegia) software development company (software developer) interview took place via email -- scheduling reasons
Data gathering technique. Five interviews were conducted with persons with a range of different disabilities to gather the most information. Furthermore, if available, parents of the individuals were also interviewed in order to gather a more complete view of the experience. The participants were recruited through the personal network of the researcher and acted as a convenience sample, as the primary goal was to obtain a variety of respondents with disabilities in any way possible. Interviews took place in the United States both in person and over email,
depending on the interviewee’s preference. It is important to note that in some cases, the individuals with disabilities elected to answer questions by email, as they felt more comfortable responding in this manner. In other cases, email provided an easier method of communication. For each interviewee, the same general questions were posed, but altered for the individual situation: ‘How did you find your job, and how was this process?’; ‘Do you like the company you work for?; What helps you be successful and your job?’ Full script attached (see: Appendix C).
Results
This section of the paper provides the results from the data gathering activities that are associated with three major questions posed in this multipart study. Quantitative data are reported for the first two research questions and qualitative data are reported for the personal perspectives related to third research question.
Question 1: Media Coverage of Issues Regarding Employees with Disabilities A content analysis of mass media articles was carried out in order to gain a more
complete picture of media messages surrounding disability initiatives in the workplace. A search of the keyword ‘disability’ covering a three-month period resulted in identifying 126 articles. Of these articles, as shown in Figure 1, only 66 (52.4%) discussed disability in any depth. The majority of articles simply mentioned disability in a descriptive fashion -- for example, referring to disability benefits or disability laws, without going into any further detail. Other articles utilized the term disability, or variants of this term such as disabled, and specific descriptions of disabilities such as ‘autistic’ to describe people. For this reason, these articles were not
considered relevant to the nature of the study, which examined actual issues related to disability. Only those articles that contained actual information surrounding disability issues were coded
further. Of the resulting 66 articles, 37 articles (29.4%) came from The Wall Street Journal and 89 articles (70.6%) came from The New York Times.
Figure 1. Comparison of the article components Disability, Work, and Communicated CSR Message by
total number of articles.
Out of the 66 articles concerning disabilities, 40.9% focused on physical disabilities, 18.2% covered developmental disabilities, 13.6% discussed cognitive disabilities, and 6.1% centered on psychiatric disabilities. In 16.7% of the articles, the disability category was not specified, and 4.5% of the articles contained more than one disability mentioning. Many articles did not specify any one type of disability, but rather mentioned disability as a general term.
Other articles combined a range of disabilities and referred to all disabilities in the same manner without specification. However, the majority of articles discussed physical disabilities such as mobility impairments and disabilities resulting from various health conditions. A limited number of articles discussed developmental (autism, intellectual disabilities) and cognitive disabilities (learning disabilities). Very few articles focused on psychiatric disabilities, and those
that did, most discussed veteran or war-related disabilities such as posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD).
Out of the 66 articles that discussed disability, only 13 (19.7%) discussed disability in the workplace (see Figure 1). Three of these articles discussed inclusion in school settings, which was then disregarded for analysis purposes as the articles only pertained to school situations. The remaining ten articles offered information about individuals with disabilities in the
workplace and provided coverage of a range of workplace topics. Two of the articles discussed disability in relation to programs in place such as healthcare or benefits, many of which are required by law and not revolutionary pieces of information. Additionally, two articles examined economic and policy issues regarding people with disabilities, which again is fairly common subject matter regarding disability concerns in the workplace. Three of the articles focused on negative aspects of disability including stigmas of disabilities in the workplace, discrimination issues, and mistreatment such as taking advantage of workers with disabilities. Conversely, two articles described disabilities as assets to companies and certain lines of work and presented “success stories” of individuals with disabilities as employees.
However, half of these articles (5) discussed the disability in the workplace with a negative tone. Only two articles conveyed a positive tone towards disability in the workplace, and three had either a balanced or neutral tone. Furthermore, the most common traits associated with individuals with disabilities in the workplace, as determined through the coding process, were Disadvantaged/Vulnerable (50%), Empowered/Resilient/Inspiring (20%),
Different/Dissimilar (10%), Dangerous/Problematic/Crazy/Troubled (10%), and Other/Not Specified (10%).
Only one article, out of all 126 examined, communicated a message of disability inclusion in the workplace, as noted in the last column of Figure 1. Less than 0.8% of all
articles, and only 1.5% of articles in which disability is discussed at length, mentioned disability initiatives (see: Figure 1 for comparisons). This single article appeared in The Wall Street
Journal as a Portrait/Interview in a report on leadership with Frances West, a top executive at the company IBM (International Business Machines). This individual discussed her new role, as chief accessibility officer, in this global company.
The new CAO describes in detail the emerging need for a position within the company that specifically addresses the wide range of disability issues a company should consider. Some of these issues are described as changing laws that require federal contractors to aim for 7% of the workforce to consist of people with disabilities. Additionally, she states that it is the company’s ethos to create technological advances that allow accessibility to anyone and everyone, including and especially those with disabilities. But perhaps most relevant and poignant, she notes that the general population is becoming more aware of social issues and recognizes the need for solid CSR practices within a company as a reason for disability initiatives.
West further communicates the need for disability inclusion initiatives by referring to the United Nations Convention on the Rights of People with Disabilities which suggests that Inclusion is a salient human-rights issue that businesses can work to incorporate into their CSR practices. West describes a way in which this is achieved at her company, through a new concept called “Accessible Workplace Connection.” The ‘Connection’ is described as a global app that walks employees through accommodations available to them at IBM and how to put
them in place. This example illustrates one of the numerous practices that can be implemented to advance disability inclusion in the workplace through CSR initiatives.
Question 2: Corporate Communication of Disability Inclusion Via Website Information In the second investigation, the ten company websites from the ‘Top 10 Companies for People with Disabilities’ were analyzed for CSR messages regarding disability inclusion. Of these ten companies, only six communicated messages of disability inclusion. Four of the companies’ messages were determined unavailable, which meant that no messages of CSR practices relating to disability inclusion were found on the particular website that was accessed. Of the available messages, all were accessible, but only one was considered ‘cohesive.’ This meant that all of the CSR messages regarding disabilities were arranged in a consistent and organized manner, with all messages of disability initiatives communicated in a unified method. After taking accessibility and cohesion issues into account, all communicated messages available were recorded. Table 2 provides a summary of this information.
Table 2
Communicated Messages of Disability Inclusion by ‘Top 10 Companies’
Rank Company Accessible Cohesive Communicated
Messages
1 Ernst and Young No - -
2 Procter & Gamble Yes No 4
3 Boehringer Ingelheim No - -
4 IBM Yes No 4
5 General Motors Yes No 3
6 7 8 9 10 Wyndham Worldwide WellPoint The Hartford BASF AT&T Yes No Yes No Yes No - No - Yes 1 - 3 - 6
Four of the companies, Ernst and Young, Boehringer Ingelheim, WellPoint, and BASF, did not have any messages of CSR disability practices available on their respective websites. The companies who did have information related to CSR practices are discussed below.
Procter & Gamble communicated CSR disability messages through statements of diversity and inclusion initiatives; information about employee affinity groups for persons with disabilities; entirety of the diversity and inclusion report available online with a personal employee story regarding disability inclusion; statement of
IBM communicated CSR disability messages through an equal opportunity statement; entirety of diversity and inclusion report available online with the company history of disability inclusion; information regarding cultural communities for persons with disabilities; commitment statement to make reasonable accommodations in the workplace.
General Motors communicated CSR disability messages through an equal opportunity statement; information about employee resource groups for persons with disabilities; statements regarding consideration of disabilities when developing products. Wyndham Worldwide communicated a CSR disability message through an equal
opportunity statement.
The Hartford Financial Services Group communicated CSR disability messages through information about an employee resource group for persons with disabilities; a video presentation about the sponsorship of an annual even for persons with disabilities; statement of partnership with the U.S. Paralympic Team.
AT&T communicated CSR disability messages through a showcase of awards for disability inclusion; statement of relationships with Career Opportunities for Students with Disabilities where active recruitment of college graduates with disabilities takes place; information about employee resource groups for persons with disabilities;
statements of support for the disability community in gaining technology access and the spread of knowledge; statements of accommodations for those that may need assistance in the application process; presentation of a personal story of disability accommodation in the workplace, including pictures for full demonstration.
Question 3: Personal Reactions of Employees with Disabilities to Corporate Communication
Personal experience interviews provided a real sense of disability initiatives
communicated by companies, as seen by actual employees. Individual responses were analyzed for themes of CSR disability inclusion messages in job acquisition, ongoing employment, and the underlying attitudes towards the company as a result of CSR practices. Full transcripts of the each interview are located in Appendix D. In general, obtaining and maintaining jobs were the result of personal effort, not because CSR messages regarding individuals with disabilities were communicated effectively to the target audience. However, when accommodations were
provided in the workplace, personal impressions of the company as a whole were improved. CSR messages related to job acquisition. All of the individuals with disabilities had some form of assistance in order to find their current job, yet no assistance was provided by the companies themselves. No CSR messages of disability inclusion were communicated in the job application process. However, the process was generally seen as rather positive, since it allowed for help and guidance opportunities from outside sources. Table 3 highlights respondent
Table 3
Interview Comments About CSR Messages Related To Job Acquisition
Interviewee Comments
Individual with intellectual disability
Found current role through job coach Parent of Interviewee 1 Found job through program at school
“I don’t think that they really had anything in place about employing people with disabilities… [the job coach] went in to talk to the manager to say ‘would you consider hiring somebody with a disability in your store?’ And he said yes.” Individual with autism
and dyslexia
Found current role through job fair
Parent of Interviewee 2 Found current role through job fair where an aptitude test was taken, the rest of the process was online
“time to read and understand what was being asked and expected”
"my son never made reference of discussion with them regarding questions about learning disabilities or disabilities. So, I suspect they do not know he has a learning disability. I suspect that application or hiring process did not broach the topic"
Individual with physical disability
Acquired current role through previous internship at company, which was originally found through a university recruiting center
“I interviewed twice and then got an offer. The process was pretty slick and easy.”
CSR messages related to ongoing employment. After obtaining employment, the individuals with disabilities have developed coping strategies and identified aspects that help them be successful in their jobs. However, no messages of CSR disability initiatives were communicated to these individuals as employees their respective companies. Table 4 illustrates some strategies that these individuals utilize in their current roles, and in some cases what can be done to communicate CSR disability practices to employees more effectively.
Table 4
Interview Comments About CSR Messages Related Ongoing Employment
Interviewee Comments
Individual with intellectual disability
---
Parent of Interviewee 1 The company her daughter works for "gives her clear instructions of what they expect of her ... it helps her know what her job is every day when they tell her what she needs to do, and what's next, and that sort of thing."
Individual with autism and dyslexia
"Break problems down into small simple components helps be successful.”
Parent of Interviewee 2 Does not believe there is a good support system in this role “My son would benefit from having a mentor. Probably, he
would have opened up to someone like a mentor after he established a trusting relationship and told him about his disability."
Individual with physical disability
“I work as a software developer, so my disability has little effect on my ability to complete tasks within my job description.”
Employee attitudes as a function of CSR messages. Overall, CSR messages regarding persons with disabilities were not directly communicated to the individuals. However, other aspects of inclusion did help improve the view of the companies, such as acceptance and accommodation. These features, noted by respondents, are highlighted in Table 5. Table 5
Interview Comments About Employee Attitudes As a Result of CSR Messages
Interviewee Comments
Individual with
intellectual disability ---
Parent of Interviewee 1 Surprised when the company hired her daughter
“Absolutely, absolutely” improved her view of the company Individual with autism
and dyslexia ---
Parent of Interviewee 2 --- Individual with
physical disability Company was great with accommodations - only really needed parking accessibility beyond what was provided Smaller company may have allowed for more acceptance
Discussion and Conclusions
This section of the paper discusses the findings in the context of the importance of corporate social responsibility. The findings of this study provide information and guidance for effectively communicating CSR initiatives to include more individuals with disabilities into the workforce.
Potential Influence of Print Media on Corporate Communication Practices
The results indicate that an important type of print media (newspapers), which research has shown serves as a primary source of information for much of society, is not utilized
effectively to communicate CSR messages of disability inclusion in the workplace. Slightly more than half of the articles coded discussed disability beyond a brief mentioning, and these articles contained no actual information of relevance regarding disabilities. Additionally, much of the information provided in the newspaper reports discussed mainly physical disabilities, while developmental, cognitive, and psychiatric disabilities were represented much more
infrequently. Articles that did have information about disability appeared more often in The New York Times, a liberal news source, and much less often in The Wall Street Journal, a more
conservative source. These findings illustrate that disability issues in the workplace are not frequently communicated to the public by way of print media. It seems that The New York Times readers are more likely to be aware of disability issues in general. Interestingly, the only article that did discuss CSR messages of disability inclusion appeared in The Wall Street Journal and was in the context of business.
Overall, only about twenty percent (19.7%) of all 126 articles from both newspapers discussed disability in the workplace. Most of these articles were about policies or benefits, a few were about stigma and discrimination, and some were human-interest stories of success
intended to inspire. However, the tone of these articles surrounding disability in the workplace was generally negative. Only the one article from The Wall Street Journal about IBM’s CSR disability practices contained a message of disability inclusion in the workplace.
The article that about IBM’s CSR practices in the workplace described them as a “reason for innovation and then translate that into business differentiation,” which illustrates how CSR practices can help companies as a whole. Other companies and organizations can look to IBM as a model for how effectively to communicate CSR initiatives, as they have developed a way to address disability inclusion and awareness. Essentially, they have accomplished this goal by creating a new position of chief accessibility officer who is specifically responsible for
overseeing this task throughout the global company. The changes are then implemented in the company itself, and even further, communicated to the press to raise awareness for the company CSR disability inclusion initiatives. The IBM examples clearly show how the media can be utilized in order to communicate these messages effectively.
Actual Corporate Communication of Disability Information via Websites
The results found in this investigation show that companies need to make use of their own websites in order to better communicate CSR messages regarding disability. Many companies have comprehensive and well-produced websites, but CSR messages related to disability are not communicated effectively to the target audience of potential employees with disabilities. A few companies did not present their messages of disability inclusion clearly enough so that they were easily accessible, and the majority of the websites examined in this study did not have cohesive messages. Companies need to understand that this as a major error in which their messages, if available at all, are not being properly communicated. Therefore, it is important for companies to implement steps to better communicate their disability inclusion
initiatives such as communicating easily accessible, cohesive, and robust messages that are then available online for public viewing.
A number of the companies reviewed in this study did have effective strategies for communicating CSR messages and highlighting important practices. These strategies include statements of diversity and inclusion (including but not limited to equal opportunity employer statements and accommodations), availability of CSR reports, and the presence of employee resource or affinity groups for persons with disabilities. Certain website features such as pictures and videos of employees with disabilities, often accompanied by personal narratives, were
especially helpful for communicating CSR practices. Even more remarkable were unique aspects of the websites of certain companies. Examples include General Motors’ consideration of people with disabilities when developing new products, The Hartford’s partnership with the U.S. Paralympic Team, and AT&T’s relationships with career service organizations for actively recruiting individuals with disabilities. Additionally, AT&T was the only company whose CSR message was considered cohesive, and this may have helped communicate disability initiatives more effectively. Companies and organizations who are interested in enhancing their CSR initiatives should look to those companies like IBM who have developed effective ways to communicate their CSR disability initiatives via their websites.
Personal Perspectives of Corporate Communication
The personal experiences of the individuals with disabilities demonstrate a "real world" representation of what occurs in practice at the workplace. The results of the study of personal perspectives indicate that none of the individuals were readily aware of any CSR messages of disability inclusion at the companies where they worked. However, the comments from these
individuals can help companies better understand where the gaps are in implementation, and what can be done in order to make CSR messages more effective and available to employees.
For example,there were no CSR messages about disability inclusion during job
acquisition, which is one area in which companies can improve their practices. All respondents found current jobs through programs and services such as school recruiting centers or job fairs, not because disability CSR messages were communicated to individuals when they began their job search process. This issue remains an area where companies can improve CSR messages to gain more receptive and able applicants. Messages that encourage individuals to apply and make them feel like they will be included need to be readily available in all parts of the job application process in order to be effective.
Similarly, there were no CSR disability initiatives communicated to the respondents once they were employed in their current jobs. While there may be some practices in place, the individuals interviewed were not aware of these practices, which could possibly help them be both more comfortable and productive in the workplace. It seems clear that communication about disability practices to current employees needs to be improved. Companies need to recognize this discrepancy and implement regular lines of communication about initiatives in order to keep up a continuous dialogue to foster further awareness of CSR disability practices in the workplace to current and future employees.
However, even when not explicitly stated, awareness of CSR practices regarding individuals with disabilities improved perceptions of the company. In some instances, companies were confronted with issues of disability inclusion. For example, one respondent required particular accommodation needs, and when the company complied and reacted in a positive manner, the attitude towards the company was enhanced. Moreover, one company was
directly questioned about inclusion for an individual with a disability and responded in a
receptive manner. This somewhat ‘surprising’ response from a company with a rigid reputation, “absolutely, absolutely” improved the view of the company for one respondent who was happy they embraced her daughter in the workplace. The demonstrated ability to step outside the ‘typical hire’ resulted in a dramatically improved attitude towards the company, thus improving its overall image. Another positive outcome of these positive practices is that customers are able to observe CSR practices of inclusion.
Corporate Social Responsibility and Employees with Disabilities
Without question, CSR covers a wide range of initiatives of which the issue of employees with disabilities is only one. However, this topic is clearly related to the goal of employee engagement and respect. The results obtained in this multipart study provide implications for effectively enhancing employee engagement, as Epstein (2012) pointed out as a key aspect of CSR practice. Companies who develop CSR practices encouraging employees with disabilities to apply for a job and supporting these employees after they are hired can benefit significantly from creating such initiatives. As discussed previously, these companies can create a better public image, enhance their reputation, receive more media coverage, and influence other top recruits to choose to work for the company.
With these dynamics in mind, certain suggestions related to CSR practices associated with employees with disabilities are warranted. First, since companies do not adequately utilize the print media to promote messages of disability inclusion, companies should take advantage of this method of communication to promote CSR messages of disability initiatives to the public. Second, since companies in general do not communicate CSR initiatives on their websites very effectively, companies need to present accessible and cohesive CSR messages that are readily
available on their websites. Third, since individuals with disabilities who have been employed are typically not aware of the CSR practices in their own workplace, companies need to improve communication about disability inclusion initiatives to their own employees. Addressing these issues, which were investigated in this study, would go a long way in validating the idea of employee engagement in the workplace.
Limitations of Current Study
While the results of this study provide a number of suggestions to improve CSR communication about disability initiatives in the workplace, the study does have some
limitations that must be acknowledged. First, since the study was conducted in a limited time range, the data collected only provide a limited sample of what might be found if a more
extensive time range was utilized. The newspaper articles coded only consisted of three months, which may have been a relatively short time for reflecting CSR disability initiatives.
Additionally, the analysis of company websites was based on a previously published study of the best companies for people with disabilities. Different results may have been found if companies were chosen at random. Lastly, the convenience sample of people with disabilities was relatively small and the resulting attitudes cannot be generalized to all individuals with disabilities who are currently employed.
Future Directions and Research
Future research related to how companies engage employees with disabilities is needed. Additional research could explore whether other trends might be found about CSR practices as reported in newspapers if a longer period of time was used. In addition, further research could be conducted using a variety of sampling techniques to identify and then analyze a more
depth the personal attitudes of employees about the companies for which they work. Utilizing a larger sample of individuals with disabilities would likely include a greater range of disabilities and a variety of other occupational situations. Such a study might also include individuals who are not employed in terms of how they perceive CSR practices. Furthermore, a larger sample size would improve the generalizability of the findings, which would be important to understand in order implement and improve upon the CSR communication of disability initiatives in the workplace. After all, it is not just good business, but it is the right thing to do.
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