A Canyon of Doubt:

By Kyley Bakker

A Canyon of Doubt:

Exploring Post-Purchase Dissonance

Amongst Luxury Travellers During the

Pre- and Post-Travel Phase

A Canyon of Doubt

: Exploring Post-Purchase Dissonance

Amongst Luxury Travellers During the Pre- and Post-Travel Phase

- Bachelor Thesis -

Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Bachelor of

Business Administration in Tourism Management

Saxion University of Applied Science

Amersfoort, 2015

Name: Kyley Bakker Student Number: 2432499

Place: Amersfoort, Netherlands

Year: 2015

Client: TravelEssence First Examiner: Inge Hermann Second Examiner: Katya Pushkarskaya Cover page image by Kyley Bakker (2014)

Cover page image ‘TravelEssence logo’ (TravelEssence, n.d.)

Preface

Dear reader,

In your hand lies the bachelor thesis written for TravelEssence and Saxion University of Applied Science and submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Bachelor of Business Administration in Tourism Management. TravelEssence is a tour operator that is specialised in Australia and New Zealand. Having travelled to both countries myself sparked my interest in the company instantly. Together with the subject proposed by Andrew Morten, founder of TravelEssence, made for an opportunity I am very grateful for.

I would like to thank Laurens Barendrecht for trusting in my capacities and giving me the chance to start this thesis. Thank you Andrew Morten, for also giving me this chance, challenging me and for the patience throughout the project. A special thanks to my first examiner, Inge Hermann, who always believed in me, supported me and who was there when I needed it. Rienk van Marle, who helped me with the SPSS part, despite not being my official research supervisor.

The one person who I can always rely on, who supports me in everything and is my anchor when I’m adrift, thank you mom, for listening and the support. Steven Bakker, thank you for your input and thinking with me. To all my friends, who listened to me complain time and again and stood by my side. Finally, thank you Akini Ross for the support, love and distraction when I needed it most.

Kyley Bakker

Amersfoort, Netherlands January 2015

Summary

This research was conducted in cooperation with TravelEssence, a growing tour operator specialised in Australia and New Zealand. TravelEssence provides Dutch luxury travellerss with an authentic experience by creating a customised itinerary including flights, car rental, unique accommodations and activities. As many customers book their holiday far in advance, a perceived drop in the personalised service after the booking may occur. It is believed this drop could create uncertainty and doubt amongst some customers and may still be present after the customer has returned from their holiday. These feelings have been identified as aspects of the psychologically uncomfortable state known as post-purchase dissonance. Therefore the following objective was set:

The objective of this project is to gain insight in the post-purchase dissonance experienced amongst luxury travellers in the pre- and post-travel phase in order to identify and implement effective ways for TravelEssence to reduce post-purchase dissonance amongst their clients.

From this objective, a main research question was formulated as well as an advisory question:

 In which ways do luxury travellers experience purchase dissonance in the pre- and post-travel phase of the consumer decision-making process?

 What can TravelEssence implement or change to reduce post-purchase dissonance amongst their clients?

A theoretical framework was developed to provide a coherent understanding of the core concepts within the research, which are underlined in the main research question. The core concept of luxury tourism and its consumers, the time frame between purchase and departure of the consumer decision-making process and the measurement of post-purchase dissonance are all underdeveloped research subjects. Nevertheless, after exploring the available literature, the relationship between these concepts becomes clearer.

Consumers who purchase luxury travel products are likely to experience complex buying behaviour and therefore go through all the stages of the consumer decision-making process. The time between purchase and departure is widely ignored within the tourism literature. However Toedt (2012) does recognise this timeframe and defined it as the pre-travel phase. As advanced purchasing is common within the tourism industry, it is surprising this is widely ignored. Furthermore, advanced purchasing can lead to buyer uncertainty, also known as post-purchase dissonance. Some debate this psychologically uncomfortable state is best measured in the pre-travel phase however it has been established it appears throughout the consumer decision-making process, including the post-travel phase. Few attempts have been made to measure post-purchase dissonance. These attempts were mainly based on purchases of tangible products. Koller and Salzberger (2007) developed a measurement scale that was based on previous measurement scales and considered characteristics of the tourism industry. The latter measurement scale was used within this research.

As many of the core concepts are underdeveloped research subjects, this led to the choices made for the methodological framework of this research. An exploratory quantitative research strategy was selected with a cross-sectional case study design in which the customers of TravelEssence were defined as the case. As this research used the post-purchase dissonance measurement scale developed by Koller and Salzberger (2007), their survey method was replicated as well. Due to the indirect implementation of the survey method in this research, an online semi-structured questionnaire was used to collect the data. As this research wanted to compare those yet to and those that had

already travelled, the questionnaire was sent to two groups, one of which was in the between purchase and departure phase, or the pre-travel phase, and the other in the post-travel phase. The clients of TravelEssence were selected as sample subjects due to convenience sampling method and the case study design. After subjecting the sample subjects to the set criteria, the respondents consisted of 107 within group one and 260 within group two.

The results of the research showed that respondents within the pre-travel phase experience post-purchase dissonance to a greater degree compared to those in the post-travel phase. Furthermore, eleven indicators were identified that are associated with post-purchase dissonance amongst the two groups. These indicators are mainly behavioural aspects of the customer, on which TravelEssence can have an influence by relating them to the internal way of working. The how is elaborated within the advisory part of the research.

The discussion shows the research has high construct validity due to the AAOCC criteria applied, the operationalization based on the theoretical framework, personal contact with the authors of the used measurement scale, translation by language experts and the homogeneity of the groups. However low internal and external validity exists due to the nature of post-purchase dissonance, the use of a cross-sectional design, selection bias, indicators that were based on the way of working within TravelEssence, low generalization possibilities and because the questionnaire was not anonymous. On the other hand, the research was determined reliable because Koller and Salzberger (2012) determined the measurement scale reliable within their research and because of the calculated Cronbach’s alpha in the research.

In order to determine what interventions TravelEssence can implement to reduce post-purchase dissonance amongst their consumers, two alternative solutions to the management problem were suggested: a customer relationship management system and training of the staff: actively signalling of post-purchase dissonance. These were subjected to set criteria of people, time and efficiency and financially viable after which the second alternative was determined as the best solution.

The PDCA Cycle by Deming (1950) was used for the suggested implementation of a training program. This four-step cycle ensures the quality control when implementing an improvement or process. Furthermore, a suggestion of what the training program should contain was given. The indicators of post-purchase dissonance defined in the research results were implemented within the training program as well. The financial impact of the suggested implementation consisted mainly of Taanman Training and employee costs. The final cost to reduce the experienced post-purchase dissonance amongst customers of TravelEssence was estimated at €2,800.- after deducting the regular annual training costs.

Table of Contents

Preface

1

Summary

0

1. Introduction

7

1.1 Background Information of TravelEssence

7

1.2 Management Problem

8

1.3 Objective and Research Questions

9

1.3.1 Objective

9

1.3.2 Research Question

9

1.4 Global Work Breakdown Structure

10

1.5 Reading Guide

11

2. Theoretical Framework

12

2.1

Luxury Tourism

12

2.1.1 Luxury Travellers

13

2.2 The Consumer Decision-Making Process

15

2.2.1 Between Purchase and Departure

15

2.2.2 Post-Travel

16

2.3 Post-Purchase Dissonance

16

2.3.1 Measuring Post-Purchase Dissonance

18

2.4 Relationship Between Core Concepts

21

3. Methodological Framework

22

3.1 Research Strategy

22

3.2 Research Design

22

3.3 Research Method

22

3.3.1 The Questionnaire

23

3.4 Sampling

24

4. Results of the Field Research

26

4.1 Frequency Results Demographical Variables and Behavioural Variables

26

4.2 Differences Amongst the Groups

26

4.3 Post-Purchase Dissonance Results

27

4.4 Relationship Between Variables and Post-Purchase Dissonance Scores

28

5. Conclusion

30

6. Discussion

35

6.1 Construct Validity

35

6.2 Internal Validity

35

6.3 External Validity

36

6.4 Reliability

36

7. Advice for TravelEssence

38

7.1 Determining the Solution to the Management Problem

38

7.1.1 Overview of Alternative Solutions

38

7.1.2 Overview of Criteria

39

7.1.3 Evaluation of the Alternatives

40

7.1.4 Final Recommendations

41

7.2 Implementation of Advice

41

7.2.1 Financial Implications

43

7.4 Conclusion

44

Bibliography

47

Appendices

51

A. Organizational Chart of TravelEssence

52

B. Global Work Breakdown Structure

53

C. Gantt Chart

54

D. Overview AAOCC Criteria Applied

55

E. Search Engines, Terms Used and Amount of Hits

57

F. Grand Model of the Consumer Decision-Making Process

58

G. Hotel Customer Journey by Toedt

58

H. Translation Items Measurement Scale

59

I. Final Translations Items Measurement Scale

61

J. Operationalization Luxury Travellers

62

K. Operationalization of Post-Purchase Dissonance

63

L. Operationalization all core concepts

64

M. Questionnaire Between Purchase and Departure

65

N. Questionnaire Post-Travel

70

O. Elaborate Description of Frequency Results

76

Elaborate Results Background Information

76

Elaborate Results of the behavioural variables

81

Results of the Post-Purchase Dissonance analysis

93

Statements analysis

98

Determining Post-purchase dissonance

99

1. Introduction

The Netherlands is the third-largest source of visitors from Europe coming to New Zealand. Although smaller than other markets, the Dutch tend to stay longer, spend more and travel more widely than other visitors (Tourism New Zealand, 2010). The average Dutch tourist visiting New Zealand is either under the age of 30 or older than 55. Together with the Germans, the Dutch are the most likely visitors to participate in adventure tourism such as hiking, walking and cycling (Watson, 2013). However, Dutch tourist arrivals in New Zealand have gradually decreased from 25,493 in 2009 to 20,944 in 2013 (Statistics New Zealand, 2013).

Notably, the tourism industry is a complex and dynamic environment. Unlike other industries, the tourism industry does not have the usual production function or physical output that can be measured. It cuts through international boarders and requires input from economic, social, cultural and environmental nature. It does not have a common structure and core components of tourism can be different in every country (Lickorish & Jenkins, 2007).

One sector within the tourism industry is luxury tourism. Three per cent of all tourists are defined as luxury travellers and represent 25% of tourism spending (Verissimo & Loureiro, 2012). Despite its benefit to the tourism industry, the luxury tourism sector and its consumers remain an underdeveloped research subject as identified by Low in 2012 and the wide literary review for this thesis.

Another underdeveloped research subject is the measurement of post-purchase dissonance, also known as ‘buyers remorse’ or ‘buyers regret’ (Sweeney, Hausknecht, & Soutar, 2000). The measurement scales that have been developed focus mainly on, or are based on, purchasing durable goods, for example the scale developed by Sweeney et al. (2000). This is surprising as most purchases within the tourism industry evoke complex buying behaviour (Sirakaya & Woodside, 2004), and post-purchase dissonance is known to occur when this type of buying behaviour is evoked (Tanford & Montgomery, 2014). Furthermore, Tanford and Montgomery (2014) have stated that high levels of post-purchase dissonance are likely to occur with travel product purchases. However the occurrence of post-purchase dissonance amongst luxury travellers has, to the best knowledge of the author, never been researched before.

This research looked at the post-purchase dissonance experienced by customers who have purchased luxury tourism products. This is best measured during the period between the purchase, the moment the customer pays for the holiday, and departure, the moment the customer departs for his holiday, moment (Koller & Salzberger, 2007). This time frame has also been widely ignored within the tourism literature, which is a surprise since this time frame can be extensive when customers purchase tourism products (Sirakaya & Woodside, 2004). Furthermore, this research considers post-purchase dissonance in the post-travel phase, as this psychologically uncomfortable state occurs throughout the consumer decision-making process (Koller & Salzberger, 2007), to see if differences between those yet to travel and those that have travelled exist.

1.1 Background Information of TravelEssence

All information provided regarding the background information of the client TravelEssence, the management problem and any other insight information on TravelEssence were acquired through personal contact with Andrew Morten, the founder of TravelEssence.

Andrew Morten, a New Zealander by birth, founded TravelEssence in 2006 in the Netherlands. His intention was to provide the Dutch luxury tourism consumer (generally defined by TravelEssence as

higher educated, aged 40+, high income) with the best small scale, mostly sustainable, off-the- beaten-track accommodation and activities integrated into a complete holiday through Australia and/or New Zealand including airline tickets and rental cars.

Today TravelEssence creates and sells itineraries to customers based on their individual wishes and needs. TravelEssence employees visit most of the 900 suppliers throughout Australia and New Zealand on a regular basis and TravelEssence maintains direct contact with their suppliers. Furthermore, all employees have travelled extensively or lived in Australia or New Zealand and have extensive local knowledge. This, together with the close and personal contact, makes TravelEssence able to anticipate and fulfil customer needs and create an itinerary that matches the specific needs of each customer. TravelEssence is an international company that employs 15 people in total. As visible in the organizational chart, which can be found in appendix A, TravelEssence is represented in the Netherlands, Germany, Australia and New Zealand. Within this research, only the Dutch office and customers are considered. Therefore, whenever TravelEssence is mentioned, it refers to the Dutch office and Dutch customers only.

In the last three years, the amount of holidays sold by TravelEssence has almost tripled. This growth is expected to continue to increase in the upcoming years due to a strong marketing focus. Table 1.1 shows the increase in the amount of enquiries in index figures, using 2010 as the base.

TravelEssence is a growing company despite the economical crisis.

Year: 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

Index: 100 123 189 286 413 564 (forecast)

Table 1.1. Amount of enquiries in Holland in index figures, by Morten (2014)

As the enquiries almost tripled, additional staff have been employed to assist in the growing demand. With the forecasted growth, rise of the customer knowledge and emerging mass customization, TravelEssence wants to maximise systems to gain efficiency instead of employing additional staff. However, as the company keeps growing, they want to continue to focus on the individual customer and in fact improve the provision of personal services based on the individual customer needs.

With the background information of TravelEssence provided, the management problem is described. Simultaneously, the relation between the relevance of the research and background information becomes clear.

1.2 Management Problem

The time between purchase and departure can be extensive for customers who book far in advance. This can result in a perceived drop in the personalised service they receive from TravelEssence, as contact is less extensive than prior to their booking. TravelEssence believes some of these customers experience uncertainty and doubt caused by this decrease of personalised service and want to be able to identify in advance when this occurs and how to avoid it.

An example of the experienced uncertainty or doubt is shown in the questions TravelEssence receives regarding itineraries. The customers receive a personal day-to-day itinerary in which all transport, accommodation and activities are mentioned together with the connected websites. However, many local accommodations and activities are privately owned and don’t have a representative website. This causes concern amongst customers. Another example of uncertainty or doubt amongst customers is regarding the flights. After the airline tickets have been booked, it happens that customers contact

TravelEssence with questions about special deals on airline tickets they have seen online and are worried if they have gotten the best possible deal.

Furthermore, TravelEssence would like to know if this uncertainty and doubt still exists after the customer has returned from their holiday. They often receive emails from customers who have returned with feedback regarding the authenticity of their holiday. For example, some mention they had seen many other TravelEssence customers who had very similar itineraries or found the price they paid too high for some of the accommodation included in their holiday.

TravelEssence would like to know to what extent their customers experience uncertainty and doubt between the purchase and departure phase and after they have returned from their holiday and how they can reduce this. TravelEssence believes they can increase word-of-mouth recommendations and ultimately increase the amount of repeat and recommended customers when uncertainty and doubt is reduced.

Feelings such as uncertainty and doubt are identified as aspects of post-purchase dissonance (Sweeney et al., 2000). Therefore the main goal of this research is to gain an understanding of the possible existence of post-purchase dissonance amongst luxury travellers between the pre- and post-travel phases.

With the management problem and goal of the research set out, the research objective is provided together with the research questions derived from aforementioned.

1.3 Objective and Research Questions

The following part will outline the objective and the research questions of the thesis project. The produced knowledge by this thesis project is explained as well.

1.3.1 Objective

Based on the management problem described previously, the objective of this thesis project is to gain insight in the purchase dissonance experienced amongst luxury travellers in the pre- and travel phase in order to identify and implement effective ways for TravelEssence to reduce post-purchase dissonance amongst their clients.

The knowledge this research attempts to provide is to gain a deeper understanding of the psychologically uncomfortable state known as post-purchase dissonance amongst luxury travellers. It explores elements of post-purchase dissonance and how this is measured. Furthermore, this research tries to identify the indicators that can predict the occurrence of post-purchase dissonance amongst luxury travellers.

By comparing two different groups of consumers, each in a different stage of the consumer decision-making process, the development of post-purchase dissonance can be identified. This allows us to identify whether or not TravelEssence can have an influence on the experienced post-purchase dissonance and advise them on possible effective interventions to reduce post-purchase dissonance amongst their clients.

1.3.2 Research Question

A central research questions is set as well as an advisory question and were based on the previous information provided. The central research question is formulated to help guide the research, whereas the advisory question helps translate the research results into a valid and reliable advice for

TravelEssence. Sub-questions are formulated to explore each core concept within the questions in a structured way. The central research question and sub-questions for this research are as follows:

1. In what way do luxury travellers experience purchase dissonance in the pre- and post-travel phase of the consumer decision-making process?

A. What is the definition of luxury travellers?

B. What is the definition of the consumer decision-making process especially in the context of luxury travellers, the time between purchase and consumption and post-travel?

C. What is the definition of post-purchase dissonance in the context of luxury travellers? D. What are the differences between luxury travellers in the pre- and post-travel phase and

the experienced post-purchase dissonance elements? The advisory question and sub-questions for this research are as follows:

2. What can TravelEssence implement or change to reduce post-purchase dissonance amongst their clients?

A. What indicators are associated with high levels of post-purchase dissonance in the pre- and post-travel phase of luxury travellers?

B. What influence does TravelEssence have on the level of post-purchase dissonance experienced by their clients?

By reviewing the literature, current knowledge is applied and used to gain an understanding of each core concept.

With the basis of the research set out, the relevance, management problem, produced knowledge, objective and research questions, the global work breakdown structure is outlined in the following sub-chapter to give an insight in the structure of the thesis project.

1.4 Global Work Breakdown Structure

The following chapter will discuss the global work breakdown structure (hereafter: WBS), which shows the composition of the different elements and work to be completed throughout the entire project to ensure the realisation of the objectives and required outcome (Norman, Brotherton, & Fried, 2008). It is used to keep focus, stay on track and includes a time planning. An overview of the global WBS for this thesis project can be found in appendix B. The GANTT chart for the time planning of this thesis project can be found in appendix C.

According to the required content of the ‘Thesis (C)’ test of Saxion University of Applied Science, the WBS is derived in three parts: the theoretical framework, the field research and the advisory part. Within the theoretical framework, previous knowledge regarding the core concepts were explored and information sources selected according to the AAOCC criteria. Usable information was recorded and analysed regarding the core concepts. The relationship between the core concepts was then discussed. All theory was referred to according to the APA-style referencing.

Within the field research, the objectives and goal of the research was provided after which the methodological framework was determined. The field research was conducted using an online questionnaire, which was based on the theoretical framework. The gathered data was analysed using SPSS, after which relevant conclusions were drawn.

Several alternative solutions to the management problem were discussed within the advisory chapter. These were based on the conducted field research and subjected to the determined criteria, after which

an appropriate solution was formulated. Post-purchase dissonance indicators identified within the conducted field research were used within the implementation plan and the financial aspects were discussed.

1.5 Reading Guide

This thesis consists of seven chapters.

Chapter one explains the introductory elements of the thesis. Herein the background information of the client is given together with the associated objective of the thesis project as a whole, main research and advisory questions and the global work breakdown structure.

Chapter two consists of the theoretical framework in which the core concepts are explored together with the relations between them.

Chapter three explains the methodological framework that was selected for this thesis project. The research strategy, design and method are discussed as well as the sampling method.

Chapter four outlines the results of the conducted field research.

Chapter five provides the conclusions drawn from the results of the conducted field research. The main research question and associated sub-questions are answered as well as the sub-questions of the advisory question.

Chapter six discusses the validity and reliability of the thesis project.

Chapter seven consists of the advisory part in which the best solution to the management problem is determined. The main advisory question is also answered here.

2. Theoretical Framework

Within this chapter the theoretical framework is outlined. The underlined parts of the central research question detailed in the introduction are determined as the core concepts of this research and are: luxury tourism and its consumers, the consumer decision-making process and post-purchase dissonance. In order to gain an understanding of these core concepts, they are explored in this chapter through a review of the current literature.

Within each core concept, the definitions are explored after which desk research is conducted. All literature used within this thesis is subjected to the AAOCC criteria; authority, accuracy, objectivity, currency and coverage. By subjecting information sources to these criteria, the credibility of the literature used is ensured (Spencer, 2011). As much literature has been used within this thesis project, only the most important sources are provided in the AAOCC overview. This can be found in appendix D. An overview of the search engines used and search terms can be found in appendix E.

2.1

Luxury Tourism

First of all, strikingly, luxury tourism is an underdeveloped research area. Little substantial research is conducted and not many scholarly articles have been written or found (Low, 2012). When reviewing the available sources, it becomes apparent luxury has a different image in individual’s minds, making it a relative and subjective term and making it difficult to define luxury tourism as it depends on the individuals perspective of luxury (Ting, 2010). Although many are engaged in the topic of luxury, only professionals within the industry provide definitions of luxury tourism. An overview of these definitions can be found in table 2.1.

Tiedy (2014) and Lowy (2004) both acknowledge how luxury has shifted from tangible items to more intangible aspects. Neither of the definitions is concrete about what luxury is and all include intangible aspects such as experience. This term is a re-occurring aspect of the different definitions given in table 2.1. Just like luxury, experience is a subjective and relative term. It is very individual and depends on the individual’s interpretation of several components combined (Kachel & Jennings, 2010).

Despite the relativity and subjectivity of defining luxury tourism and the term experience, several trends and developments were acknowledged in luxury tourism during the ULTRA summit in Chicago in March 2014. These entail personal contact, marketing through social media (mainly Facebook and Instagram), transparency (less focus on marketing, more focus on delivering the experience), meeting the need of the individual and time is more valuable than money (Travel Agent, 2014).

Conforming to these trends and developments, Verissimo and Loureira (2012, p. 300) describe the main characteristics of luxury tourism as:

 Privacy: for tourists a calm style without ostentation is preferred.

 Personalisation: The tourist must be treated as the only one and the service must have a differentiation.

 Simplicity and perfection: Services must work without mistakes, its important quality in all the processes.

 Authenticity: Its growing desire for exotic destinations and the search for different culture is also a trend.

 Comfort and safety: Despite the trend of new destinations, tourists do not give up on these elements.

Luxury tourism defined by tourism professionals: relative and subjective.

Author Definition Aspects

Tiedy, Senior Vice President Brand Design & Innovation, Starwood Hotels & Resorts (as cited in Puetz-Willems & Roth, 2014)

“Modern-day travellers see luxury more and more in the storytelling of having an experience rather than in luxury items. Buying an experience is much harder.”

 Story telling

 Experience

 Difficulty purchasing experience

Lowy, President of Renshaw Travel (as cited in Ting, 2010)

“Luxury is no longer about fancy chandeliers, private butler services or a great pool. Now, it's all about being simple but perfectly done, with incredible experiences, service, private access and seamless travel attached to it.”

 Simple & perfect: o Experiences o Services o Private access o Seamless travel Telio, Founder of Entrée

Destinations (as cited in Dive, 2008) (Telio, 2008)

“Something of high quality and value that appeals to the senses and warms the soul.”

 High quality and value

 Appealing

Allen, Managing Director WEXAS Tailor-made Travel (as cited in Johnson, 2013)

“True luxury is a great travel experience, enjoyed in relative comfort.”

 Experience

 Relative comfort Pilkington, Managing

Director at Baily Robinson (as cited in Johnson, 2013) (Johnson, 2013)

“Luxury travel means you can sit back, relax and enjoy the experience safe in the knowledge that every aspect will surpass expectation.”

 Undergoing an experience

 Surpassing expectations Table 2.1. Definitions of Luxury Tourism

Considering the latest trends and developments and main characteristics of luxury tourism, the most complete definition of luxury tourism and used for this research is the one by Lowy (2010). It considers the main characteristics though is still a mostly relative and subjective definition of luxury tourism. In order to understand more concrete aspects of luxury tourism, the luxury travellers are explored in the following chapter.

2.1.1 Luxury Travellers

According to research done by The Affluence Collaborative (as cited by The Four Seasons, 2012), luxury consumers generally want luxury delivered to them in the form of customisation, true distinctiveness and constant exceeding of expectations. Parker agrees by stating luxury consumers seek “exclusive, differentiated itineraries that cater to their desires” (2014, para. 4). Furthermore, star ratings or classes no longer define luxury tourism rather it is defined by the obtained experience (Parker, 2014). Therefore, a precise description of what the luxury travellers seek cannot be given by definition and depends on the viewpoint of the individual traveller (Parker, 2014).

According to Wiedman, Hennings and Siebels (2007, p. 4) luxury products or services represent 4 perceived values to the consumer:

 Financial value: monetary value, based on the perception of high prices suggest high quality and therefore represent luxury (price, resale price, discount, investments, and what is given up or sacrificed to obtain a product)

 Functional value: core benefit and basic utilities which drive the consumer based luxury value (quality, uniqueness, usability, reliability and durability)

 Individual value: individual orientation of luxury, personal matters (materialism, hedonistic and self-identity value)

 Social value: perceived utility individuals gain by consuming products or services, which their own social networks recognize (conspicuousness, prestige value).

The authors derived these values from cognitive and emotional values after extensive theoretical research amongst consumer’s perception of luxury values. Each individual perceives these dimensions differently and places higher value on dimensions important to them. When applied, it provides an understanding of the construct of the customers perceived value of the luxury product or service as luxury is in the eye of the beholder (Wiedmans, Hennings, & Siebels, 2007).

The subjectivity and relativity of luxury tourism furthermore evokes complex buying behaviour amongst its consumers. Kotler, Armstrong, Wong and Sanders (2008), define four types of buying behaviour based on the significance of the differences between brands and the level of involvement of the customer. The complex buying behaviour appears when the customer is highly involved and significant differences between brands exist. This behaviour also appears when purchases are expensive, risky, purchased infrequently and are highly self-expressive (Kotler et al., 2008). Sirakaya & Woodside (2004) explain that most tourism service purchases are considered as complex, risky and highly involved and thus evoke complex buying behaviour.

Although individuals perceive luxury tourism differently, common characteristics of luxury tourism consumer have been researched and identified. The fourth edition of the annual Luxury Travel Trends by Aigo and Pangaea Network (2014) provides a general luxury consumer profile after they interviewed 368 tourism professionals from France, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Spain and the UK. General findings showed that luxury travellers were mostly between 35 and 55 (68%) and 30% was aged 55 and over. They travelled mostly in couples (70%) and were attracted by privacy and exclusivity and the quality of accommodation. From all respondents, 65% found the added value important when booking a luxury holiday and wanted exclusive, tailor-made services. Furthermore, they spent on average between €5,000 and €10,000 per trip and preferred to book a complete package (69%) instead of only accommodation or flights.

Luxury travellers within the Netherlands generally went on a holiday for two weeks or more and booked their holiday three to six months prior to departure. From the Dutch respondents, 39% mainly depended on friends and relatives for gaining information, an equal amount of respondents mainly relied on the Internet for gaining information.

In conclusion, luxury tourism is highly subjective, relative, its consumers perceive the value differently and expect different aspects based on their personal needs. Luxury travellers furthermore are likely to experience complex buying behaviour, as they are highly involved within the purchase in order to gain their unique experience. As consumers who experience complex buying behaviour pass through all the stages of the consumer decision-making process, it is necessary to explore this process in more depth, which is done in the following chapter.

2.2 The Consumer Decision-Making Process

The consumer decision-making process (hereafter: CDMP) of purchasing a product or service varies with the significance of the purchase. Unlike habitual buying behaviour, the customer passes through all the stages of the CDMP when purchases evoke complex buying behaviour (Kotler et al., 2008). According to Kurniawan, Au, Zeng, So and Tseng “the consumer decision-making process refers to the process used by consumers to make selections when faced with different product alternatives” (2002, p. 1261). This definition is used for this research.

The pioneer models of consumer decision-making by Howard and Sheth (1969), Nicosia (1966) and Engel et al. (1968) (as cited by Sirakaya & Woodside, 2004), form the foundation of the ‘grand model’ of the CDMP within more recent literature. This grand model consists of 5 stages: need recognition, information search, evaluation of alternatives, purchase decision and the post-purchase evaluation. An overview of this grand model can be found in appendix F. The intention of this grand model was to explain purchase decisions related to tangible, manufactured products. However, it also provided a starting point for explaining purchase decisions in the service industry (Sirakaya & Woodside, 2004). Within the tourism literature, many varieties of the CDMP exist. Sirakaya & Woodside (2004) researched the most recognized varieties of the CDMP and found 7 general steps: recognition that a decision has to be made, formulation of goals and objectives, generation of an alternative set of options from which to choose, search for information about and consideration of the alternatives, ultimate judgement or choice among the alternatives, acting upon the decision, and providing feedback for the next decision. As this research is interested in the phase between purchase and departure and post-travel, these time frames are explored more in depth in the following chapters.

2.2.1 Between Purchase and Departure

For this research the period between purchase and departure, is of interest. The Hotel Customer Journey by Toedt (2013) is to the best knowledge of the author the only variety of the CDMP within the tourism literature that recognises this time frame and can be found in appendix G. Toedt (2013) illustrates with this model the seven phases a customer goes through within the hospitality industry. The time frame between purchase and departure is defined herein as ‘pre-travel’ and explained as the time where the consumer prepares for their departure. During this time, the consumer is very sensitive for marketing and marketers should focus on up- and cross selling, as the price for the purchase is no longer in focus (Toedt, 2013). O’Fallon and Rutherford (2011) demonstrated this with their research on up-selling spas in major hotels in Los Angeles to customers arriving in the next 3-7 days and found a significant increase of sales in pre-arranged spa packages.

The lack of literature on the period between purchase and departure can be explained by the fact that the CDMP was originally designed for tangible, manufactured products, which do not have a notable time between purchase and departure. However as pointed out by Sirakaya and Woodside (2004) the CDMP has been regularly adapted and applied to the tourism industry but failed to recognise the aforementioned time frame and many other unique circumstances of tourism. This is surprising as advanced purchasing is a common phenomenon within the tourism sector, meaning the purchase can be months in advance of the consumption (Shugan & Xie, 2000).

2.2.2 Post-Travel

The second time frame in which this research is interested in is the time after the travelling has taken place, or the post-consumption phase. This phase has been included since the beginning by the pioneers of the CDMP models (Sirakaya & Woodside, 2004). The inclusion of a post-consumption phase is one of six common characteristics all decision-making models share, including the ‘grand model’ and tourism specific models. It is generally seen as the time in which the decision is evaluated and used as a reference for future purposes (Sirakaya & Woodside, 2004). It is therefore of no surprise this phase is often referred to as ‘post-purchase evaluation’.

The outcome of the post-purchase evaluation depends on whether the expectations of the purchase prior to the consumption are confirmed or disconfirmed (Santos & Boote, 2003). This can result in several post-purchase behaviour such as loyalty, complaining and switching (Meng, Liang, & Yang, 2011). By studying the post-purchase behaviour consumers engage in, companies are able to learn how well they are performing and improve their services (Kotler et al., 2008).

As the time between purchase and consumption can be extensive within the tourism industry, this separation can lead to buyer uncertainty (Shugan & Xie, 2000). Uncertainty is identified as part of the psychologically uncomfortable state known as cognitive dissonance along with anxiety, doubt, regret and remorse (Sweeney et al. 2000). Dissonance is known to occur when a purchase is complex (Awa & Nwuche, 2010). It is most likely to occur between the purchase and consumption moment (Sweeney et al., 2000) and is often related to post-purchase behaviours such as satisfaction/dissatisfaction, complaint behaviour and loyalty (Koller & Salzberger, 2007). Therefore post-purchase dissonance is explored and elaborated in the following chapter.

2.3 Post-Purchase Dissonance

Post-purchase dissonance, also commonly referred to as buyers remorse or buyers regret, is based on the cognitive dissonance theory. It is the dissonance theory applied to purchase decisions (Sweeney et al., 2000). Furthermore, post-purchase dissonance and cognitive dissonance are used interchangeably in the dissonance literature despite whether or not it was applied in a purchase decision setting. Therefore the cognitive dissonance theory is explored in order to understand post-purchase dissonance.

One of the first researchers of the cognitive dissonance theory, and widely cited author is Festinger. Festinger defines cognitive dissonance in decision-making as “the psychologically uncomfortable state following the act of choosing between a set of alternatives, each of which has some desirable attributes” (1957, p. 3). As humans prefer to have a consistency between their behaviour and beliefs, it is possible for cognitive dissonance to occur when an inconsistency exists between what is believed and the actual received information (Festinger, 1957).

Post-purchase dissonance is also defined as “the situation which exists when consumers who have made recent purchases have doubts about the wisdom of their decisions” (Montgomery & Barnes, 1993, p. 204). Koller and Salzberger (2007) define post-purchase dissonance as “the phenomenon that consumers struggle with missed favourable features of rejected alternatives while facing unfavourable properties of the chosen alternative” (p. 220). The latter definition suggests the desirable aspects of the alternatives not chosen causes post-purchase dissonance whereas the first definition only takes the chosen purchase into account. Furthermore, within the first definition it becomes clear a decision has been made whereas the latter definition is unclear about the timing of post-purchase dissonance. A debate within the literature exists on when post-purchase dissonance occurs (McMullan & O'Neill, 2010). Therefore, the latter definition is held to within the research.

High levels of dissonance occur most likely during complex buying decisions, the alternatives are far apart from each other (e.g. buying an airplane or a car instead of choosing between a Volvo or Mercedes-Benz) and the choice is made under pressure (Awa & Nwuche, 2010). Additionally, Tanford and Montgomery (2014) point out the specific characteristics of services: intangibility, heterogeneity, inseparability, and perishability lead to possible high levels of dissonance. As it is established purchasing luxury travel products is a complex buying decision, one can hypothesise that post-purchase dissonance is present amongst luxury travellers. Even though the dissonance theory is a widely researched subject, it has been applied sparsely in the service industry despite its suitableness (Tanford & Montgomery, 2014).

Cognitive dissonance is perceived as unpleasant and according to the dissonance theory, humans adopt one of three approaches known to deal with dissonance (Chou, 2012):

1. The first approach is to change the personal beliefs (Chou, 2012). In the early stages, research on cognitive dissonance was conducted through manipulating dissonance by forcing the individual to comply publicly while their personal opinions were opposite and unchanging. This is known as the forced compliance paradigm (Sweeney et al., 2000). For example, Moscovici and Personnaz (1980) researched the minority influence and conversion behaviour using the forced compliance paradigm and found when forcing people to change their behaviour without much accountability, they will change their mind.

2. The second approach is to search for information to confirm beliefs (Chou, 2012). The free-choice paradigm, developed by Brehm (1956) is typically used to research this approach to dissonance. Studies using the free-choice paradigm have repeatedly shown affirmation towards the chosen product and a decrease in the desire for the non-chosen product (Chen & Risen, 2010). For example, Chen and Risen (2010) used this paradigm to see how choice affects and reflects preferences by researching the spread of dissonance amongst consumers of art prints. They confirmed the devaluation of the non-chosen product, but more importantly, that choice affects and especially reflects choice. The authors concluded this was not taken into account by the field of psychology when using the free-choice paradigm and stress the impact of cultural differences on the free-choice paradigm.

3. The final approach is to ignore dissonance (Chou, 2012). This is researched through dissonance reduction methods. For example, Simon, Greenberg and Brehm (1995) found 3 sets of conditions in which individuals would use trivialization as a form of dissonance reduction rather than change their behaviour.

From a commercial perspective, Koller and Salzberger (2007) suggest that first of all, marketing actions to reduce post-purchase dissonance should be tailored to the specific stage of the CDMP the consumer is currently in. As research done by Salzberger and Koller (2010) shows that post-purchase dissonance does not dissolve over time, these marketing actions should take place over an extended period of time. Secondly, close contact should be maintained with the customer throughout the process and therefore the company should have a strong customer relationship management system. Finally, the sales person should take extreme care, as being too pushy can leave the customer feeling they were forced to the decision (Salzberger & Koller, 2010). This latter suggestion was based on research performed by Sweeney and Soutar (2003). After their research on segments within post-purchase dissonance, they suggest that the sales person plays an important role when it comes to reducing post-purchase dissonance. They are able to compare the alternatives the customer is faced with, and emphasize the desirable aspects of the chosen product. Furthermore, they highlight that the

sales person can increase the amount of post-purchase dissonance experienced by their customer. By pushing too much, the customers can be persuaded against ones will, which creates increasing concern over their purchase, the cognitive dimension.

A debate within the literature exists, when looking at the time frame when cognitive dissonance occurs (McMullan & O'Neill, 2010). By definition, cognitive dissonance is experienced post-decision (Koller & Salzberger, 2007), however many authors point out the importance of pre-decisional dissonance. Although Festinger (1957) acknowledged the occurrence of dissonance after a choice has been made, the author later also recognised the importance of pre-decisional dissonance because the conflict a person experiences when having to make a decision influences the behaviour of that person (Festinger, 1964). McMullan and O’Neil (2010) agree with Koller and Salzberger (2010) and Festinger’s first acknowledgement that a decision has to be made before cognitive dissonance occurs. However they also point out that on a multi-level visitor satisfaction scale, dissonance can occur during various stages of the CDMP. Costanzo (2013) builds on Festinger’s work of 1964 and highlights the importance of recognising pre-decisional dissonance as the identification of the dissonance process can help marketers with motivating customers to purchase a product. Furthermore, Chou (2012) shows through a theoretical framework on dissonance in e-commerce, purchase decisions can be better understood through examining pre-purchase cognitive dissonance. In addition, Koller and Salzberger (2007) show the applicability of cognitive dissonance during the pre-decision, post-decision, during holiday and post-holiday phases through a developed measurement scale. The authors applied the developed measurement scale during various stages of the CDMP and found results in each phase used within the research. Thus, opinions are divided about the moment cognitive dissonance occurs. However, many agree on the importance of recognising pre-decisional dissonance. Recent studies outlined furthermore show the importance of recognising cognitive dissonance throughout the CDMP. Post-purchase dissonance within the literature is often researched in relation to consumer behaviours such as word-of-mouth recommendations, satisfaction/dissatisfaction, loyalty and complaint behaviour (Salzberger & Koller, 2010). Sweeney et al. (2000) point out that satisfaction or dissatisfaction appears only after the expected performance of a purchase is compared to the actual performance of the purchase. Montgomery and Barnes (1993) also acknowledged this proposition by proposing “dissonant consumers may experience low levels of expected satisfaction” (p. 206). On the other hand, Salzberg and Koller (2010) found dissonance is more able to predict complaint behaviour within tangible product purchases, than to predict the satisfaction of the product. They investigated satisfaction, loyalty and complaint behaviour 3 months after purchase when the product had been used and post-purchase dissonance directly after the purchase had been made. Their findings showed that customers who want to stay loyal yet were dissatisfied will experience dissonance. This will make them adopt one of the three approaches to reduce this psychological uncomfortable state, most likely of which will be in the form of a complaint. This indicates that complaining clients are in fact very valuable clients because they care about the company enough to complain.

2.3.1 Measuring Post-Purchase Dissonance

Dissonance is related to unknown outcomes (Sweeney et al., 2000), is by definition a post-decision construct and this psychological state can occur during various stages of the CDMP (Koller & Salzberger, 2007). It is therefore suggested cognitive dissonance is best measured between the purchase and departure moment however should be considered throughout the CDMP.

Few attempts have been made to develop tools to measure post-purchase dissonance. Montgomery and Barnes (1993) developed one of the first known measurement scales of post-purchase dissonance. They developed a scale to measure dissonance amongst consumers of various tangible products in order to broaden the applicability of the scale. After their literature review, they determined nine valid

factors that could predict post-purchase dissonance: alternative brands considered, number of stores visited, frequency of purchase, importance of purchase, consumer’s self-confidence, ability to be persuaded by salespeople and cost of the item. Although they validated the scale using multiple regressions, they suggest further research needed to be conducted to validate the scale (Montgomery & Barnes, 1993).

Sweeney et al. (2000) who conducted further research on the measurement of post-purchase dissonance criticized this first attempt to a rating scale. The main criticism stated there was no solid framework or basis to assume uncertainty and anxiety represent dissonance. Sweeney et al. (2000) furthermore stated the research measured post-purchase dissonance through items the authors thought would measure dissonance, rather than identifying dissonance issues. Sweeney et al. (2000) considered the scale developed by Montgomery and Barnes (1993), the criticism given and continued with the development of a multidimensional scale. This resulted in a 22-item scale for assessing cognitive dissonance immediately after the purchase and before consumption. The authors researched post-purchase dissonance amongst consumers of two different durable goods: car stereos and furniture. They discovered 3 dimensions of dissonance: one emotional and two cognitive dimensions (concern over deal and wisdom of purchase). The main use for the scale was identified to discover whether all consumers experience dissonance or whether different groups of different consumers experience dissonance in a different matter (Sweeney et al. 2000).

Although this scale proves to be reliable and was validated to measure cognitive dissonance amongst durable goods consumers, it is thought not to be a directly reliable source to measure dissonance amongst luxury travellers. In order to explain this, the scale is subjected to the characteristics of luxury tourism products and internal information provided by TravelEssence. First of all, the element of time is criticised. In the research by Sweeney et al. (2000) purchases were made in a store and the sales person on the spot may have influenced the consumers. Within tourism companies, such as TravelEssence, consumers receive their itinerary, the ‘product’ they purchase, via email at home, giving them the opportunity to review it in the comfort of their home without being influenced by a sales person. They are able to think about the purchase for multiple days or weeks, providing them with the opportunity to make a well considered purchase, in contrary to possible impulse purchases made in a store. Additionally, the time between purchase and consumption was determined as one to six weeks within the furniture purchases and one to ten days with the car stereo purchases in the research conducted by Sweeney et al. (2000). This is considerably less time than the time the average customer at TravelEssence experiences between purchase and departure, which is typically two to ten months or more (A. Morten, personal communication, 18 July, 2014). Furthermore it has been established this time frame is in general extensive within the tourism industry (Shugan & Xie, 2000).

Secondly, the monetary value compared to the income of the consumers was not considered. Sweeney et al. (2000) defined $400+ as a significant purchase. However the possibility exists that the consumers had a high income and disagree that this a significant purchase. Therefore the perceived value of the product was not considered. As it has been established luxury is a relative and subjective term, determining what the consumers consider as a significant purchase is important. Finally, the differences between a tangible product and an intangible service are considerable but not considered. Therefore the feelings used by Sweeney et al. (2000) to measure dissonance are believed to not correctly represent feelings experienced when purchasing luxury tourism products.

In response, Salzberger and Koller (2007) researched cognitive dissonance throughout the decision-making process and developed a 2 dimensional 8-item scale to measure cognitive dissonance throughout the decision-making process of a package tour. The authors based the scale on focus

group discussions and previous research done on cognitive dissonance measurement scales developed by Montgomery and Barnes (1993), Sweeney et al. (2000) and Sweeney and Soutar (2003).

Within the development of the 8-item scale, characteristics of the tourism industry were considered. These were the complexity of the decision, familiarity of the decision and the clear separation of purchase and consumption. Although the scale was based on previous scales used in retail settings, it was proven to be reliable with tourism purchases as the person-separation index was larger than .85 throughout all analyses (Koller & Salzberger, 2007). Thus, the cognitive dissonance elements were adapted in such a way that the 8-item scale can be used to measure post-purchase dissonance with tourism purchases.

The applicability of the scale, although originally used to measure cognitive dissonance throughout the decision-making process, can be applied to the individual stages to measure cognitive dissonance during one particular phase (Koller & Salzberger, 2007). Furthermore, during personal contact with the authors, it has became apparent a knowledge gap exists on the measurement of cognitive dissonance. No other measurement scales of cognitive dissonance, post-purchase dissonance or any other term used for this psychologically uncomfortable state can be found. Furthermore, Koller and Salzberg (2007) point out that the collection of information regarding cognitive dissonance consist of information either leading to or an aftereffect of cognitive dissonance, not an indicator of. Therefore this research will use the two dimensional 8-item measurement scale developed by Koller and Salzberger (2007), which can be found in table 2.2, to measure post-purchase dissonance amongst luxury travel product consumers.

Post-purchase dissonance divided in 8 items over two dimensions.

Dimension Items

Emotional When thinking of the decision, I feel uncomfortable. Now, before/after the booking, I feel uneasy.

I am annoyed that I have to do without other things now.

Cognitive Perhaps I should spend/have spent the money on something else. I am not quite sure about my decision

I do not know whether the booking was right I do not know whether this is/was the right choice I would like to undo my decision.

Table 2.2. Two Dimensional 8-item scale, adapted from Koller and Salzberger (2007)

2.3.1.1 Measuring Post-Purchase Dissonance Amongst Luxury Travellers

In order to measure post-purchase dissonance amongst luxury travellers, the 8 items of the measurement scale created by Koller and Salzberger (2007) is used and can be found in table 2.2. After critically reviewing the 8 items, the similarity between some items becomes apparent. Personal contact has been made with the authors after whom they agreed on the similarity, however they are unable to explain the differences between some items. Nevertheless, during the conducted psychometric analysis the redundancy of the items did not imply any problems (T. Salzberger, personal communication, November 13, 2014).

As the 8-item scale is an English working translation, the original German scale was requested and translated by several people with reliable German, English and Dutch speaking skills as the research will be conducted amongst Dutch respondents. An overview of these translations can be found in appendix H. A final translation has been made by the author based on the provided translations, the context of the research, with consideration of the client and can be found in appendix I.

2.4 Relationship Between Core Concepts

Consumers purchasing luxury travel products are likely to experience complex buying behaviour. When this behaviour is evoked, consumers will go through all the stages of the CDMP. This research is interested in the time between purchase and departure within this process. However, within the literature on the CDMP and the tourism literature, this timeframe is widely ignored and only one process has been found that acknowledges this time frame as the ‘pre-travel’ phase. This is surprising as advanced purchasing is common in the tourism industry.

Advanced purchasing furthermore leads to buyer uncertainty, also known as post-purchase dissonance. This psychological state is known to occur in relation to complex buying behaviour and is best measured between the purchase and departure phase of the CDMP. However, it has been established it appears throughout the CDMP, including the post-travel phase.

All core concepts are operationalized individually. The operationalization of luxury travellers can be found in appendix J. The Hotel Customer Journey by Toedt (2012) is used as the operationalization of the core concept CDMP and can be found in appendix G. The operationalization of post-purchase dissonance can be found in appendix K. An operationalization of the core concepts together is provided to clearly illustrate the relationship between the core concepts and can be found in appendix L.

3. Methodological Framework

The following chapter outlines the methodological framework in terms of chosen research- strategy, design, method and sampling. The objective of the research is to gain insight into indicators that are associated with post-purchase dissonance amongst luxury travellers in the pre- and post-travel phase in order to determine different elements of post-purchase dissonance.

3.1 Research Strategy

Before conducting a field research, a research strategy needs to be set. Brotherton (2008) defines three types of research strategies: exploratory, descriptive and explanatory. As the goal of this research was to explore post-purchase dissonance in the pre- and post- travel phase, this research had a exploratory nature. Furthermore, little literature could be found on any of the core concepts within this research or on the relationship between the core concepts. Although an attempt had been made to measure post-purchase dissonance in a tourism setting, this measurement scale was mainly based on scales that measured this amongst consumers of durable goods. To the best knowledge of the author of this research, no attempts until this research had been made to measure post-purchase dissonance amongst luxury travellers. Therefore, we wanted to generate initial insights, or rather determine the actual occurrence of post-purchase dissonance amongst luxury travellers in the pre- and post-travel phase and become familiar with the basics of the subject. Furthermore, additional research needs to be conducted after this research. These are characteristics of exploratory research.

In order to determine interventions that can reduce post-purchase dissonance, valid indicators that are likely to predict high levels of this psychologically uncomfortable state needed to be identified. Therefore the amount of respondents needed to be high. Large-scale studies, isolating and analysing variables and focus on specific factors are characteristics of quantitative research (Denscombe, 2007). Therefore this research was an exploratory quantitative research.

3.2 Research Design

Several research designs are available after selecting a research strategy. This research had an exploratory nature as mentioned previously and therefore the case study design was selected. Although this design is mainly used in a qualitative research, it can be used when little prior knowledge exists on the subject (David & Sutton, 2004). The case within this research is defined as the customers of TravelEssence.

Furthermore, a research can be conducted in two ways, on a cross-sectional or longitudinal basis (Brotherton, 2008). Due to the relative short time frame in which this research was conducted, the research had a cross-sectional basis. Data was collected at one particular point of time instead of over a period of time. However, the data of the two groups was compared to each other. In agreement with the client, the effect of time is considered by this comparison within the advice. No hard conclusions can be drawn from this comparison.

3.3 Research Method

As explained previously, this research had a mostly quantitative nature. Several methods can be selected to conduct quantitative research. For this research the survey method had been determined. When developing the 8-item scale, which was used within this research, Koller and Salzberger (2007) used a survey to collect the original data. As this research used their measurement scale, this method was also replicated to determine post-purchase dissonance in a valid and reliable way.