1
The future of student travel in the
Netherlands
2 Date: 19-3-2021
Author: M.Neet S4265505
Master Thesis for the Spatial Planning specialisation Urban and Regional Mobility Radboud University, Nijmegen School of Management.
4
Foreword
This thesis took quite a bit longer than projected, but it is finally done. Unfortunately, there were quite a few obstacles that popped up that had to be dealt with before I could continue. I am happy I persevered and finished this project, albeit later than expected.
I want to extend my gratitude towards both Sander Lenferink and Peraphan Jittrapirom, both of whom have shown considerable patience and understanding in helping me with my thesis. Their advice was invaluable when I got stuck. Peraphan helping and guiding me with the start and Sander Lenferink helping me out towards the end.
A special thanks go out to my family and friends and especially the cub scouts and staff at my scouting organisation, for their encouragement and help throughout my work on the thesis. They have kept my spirits up during the long time this thesis took.
5
Summary
The Netherlands students who follow tertiary education in the Netherlands receive something called a Studentenreisrecht, loosely translated as Studenttravelright. This Studentenreisrecht enables free travel on public transport, mainly busses, trains, metro, trams and several waterbuses. At the time of writing, students can travel either in the weekend, starting Friday evening to Sunday, or during the week, Monday to Friday. This free travel has been available to Students for 1991 and has become a staple of Dutch student life.
Since then time has progressed and the continuous transition of society to one more focussed individual than on the collective has progressed. In 2009 the Studentenreisrecht was changed from a laminated piece of paper to an electronic card, as the first user group in the Netherlands. This was part of countrywide changes from paper cards to electronic cars. This was accompanied by many teething problems. Now, new mobility options have appeared. Shared bicycles, carsharing services, demand responsive transit all have made an appearance. On most of these paying with the OV-chipkaart is not possible, let alone with the Studentenreisrecht.
Mobility as a Service is a new concept that seems to be the next step in public transport. It aims to unify planning and payment for all mobility services in one interface. This means that next to public transport the other options become more accessible to the public. With MaaS, it is possible to enable easier access to the various mobility options available. For the mobility planners, MaaS also allows for improved transport planning, since with data gathered a better picture for demand and supply can be created.
With the rise of extra mobility options, the question has been raised: what about the
Studentenreisrecht. Is it possible for Students to gain access to these services if Studentenreisrecht is transformed to a MaaS based service? This results in the research question: What are the
institutional perspectives on Mobility as a Service as a concept and as a potential future of the Studentenreisrecht?
The Multi-Level Perspective provides the tools to analyse technological transitions. From its inception to its adoption by society. Within this transition, there is the role of the regime, the level in-between niche, the place of inception of technology, and the landscape, where the technology has been adopted and has changed society. Within the regime, the multi-level perspective identifies six factors that influence the adoption process. Four of these, policy, culture, market preference and industry are used to identify and place the institutions relevant to Mobility as a Service and the
Studentenreisrecht. These actors than are analysed themselves, showing perceptions, the networks, values and resources of each. This is done to get an idea of what kind of role they have in the landscape as well as their position on Mobility as a Service.
Within the policy factor, with the Ministry of Education, Culture and Science and the Ministry of Infrastructure and Environment, both are not interested in actively pursuing the creation of a MaaS-based application with the Studentenreisrecht. The Ministry of Infrastructure and Environment is of the opinion that Mobility as a Service is going to happen and is creating a legal framework for it, but is not developing such a concept itself. The Ministry of Education Culture and Science is not pursuing an active development agenda of the Studentenreisrecht, preferring to follow market developments.
6 The industry side of Mobility as a Service sees MaaS as the next step, as public transport companies are actively developing a MaaS-based concept. They also see no problem in integrating MaaS in such a system. However, any extension of the free travel should come with additional funding.
Independent MaaS creator GoAbout is also of the opinion that MaaS is going to happen, but that the added value for the customer is not yet there. Right now Mobility as a Service does not provide any benefit to the customer, as everything that MaaS currently does, already exists in some form. The added value is going to come from subscriptions or benefits tailored to the customer, something that does not happen when it comes to free travel.
The culture and market preference factor, primarily the student population, are ambivalent about Mobility as a Service. The interviewed students are wary of any change to the Studentenreisrecht since there might be cutbacks involved. The Studentenreisrecht is considered a vital part of student life, especially since the student grants got replaced with student loans and the Studentenreisrecht also almost got cut back.
The institutional perspectives on Mobility as a Service itself are that its creation and adoption is inevitable. The governmental party is of the opinion that MaaS-based solutions should come from the market, while some market parties are of the opinion that the government should have a strong role in it. When it comes to the Studentenreisrecht, the institutional perspective is that it is very much possible, just that there is no incentive to do so at the moment. This incentive should come from the Ministry of Education, Culture and Science and they are not inclined to take a leading role in the development of such a product, choosing to follow the market.
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Index
Foreword--- 4
Summary --- 5
1 Introduction --- 8
1.1 Brief introduction of Mobility as a Service and the Studentenreisrecht --- 8
1.2 Problem statement --- 9 1.3 Research Aim --- 10 1.4 Research Question --- 10 1.5 Relevance --- 10 1.6 Outline--- 11 2 Theoretical framework--- 12
2.1 Multi-Level Perspective & Strategic Niche Management --- 12
2.2 Student mobility --- 17 2.3 Mobility as a Service --- 18 2.4 Conceptual model --- 21 3 Methodology --- 23 3.1 Strategy --- 23 3.2 Literature research --- 23 3.3 Expert interviews --- 24 3.4 Data Analysis --- 26
3.5 Validity of research results --- 26
4 Analysis --- 28
4.1 Industry --- 28
4.2 Culture & Market preference --- 30
4.3 Policy --- 31
4.4 The Multi-Level perspective on Studentenreisrecht as Mobility as a Service --- 34
4.5 Mobility as a Service as a Niche --- 38
5 Conclusions & discussion --- 41
5.1 Conclusions--- 41 5.2 Discussion --- 41 5.3 Recommendations --- 43 6 References --- 44 7 Appendix --- 47 7.1 Interviewguide --- 47 7.2 Interview summaries --- 51
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1 Introduction
1.1
Brief introduction of Mobility as a Service and the Studentenreisrecht
Personal transport in the form of the car has transformed society since its inception. Motorways and dual carriageways are strung across the developed world to give these forms of mobility enough space. Along with more personal freedom came the flip side of cars; pollution, traffic, gridlock, lack of parking space, and cities struggling with the tension between cars and pedestrians. Public transport is often seen as one of the solutions to this problem. While comprehensive public transportation systems exist, and in some cases account for a large portion of daily trips, the amount of kilometres travelled by car is 68% of total kilometres travelled, whereas public transport only accounts for 12%, most of which is in urban areas (Kennisinstituut voor Mobiliteitsbeleid, 2020).
Students are a substantial part of the daily commuters in public transport in the Netherlands. In the morning peak hour, they form around 25% of the number of commuters, in the evening peak they consist of slightly below 20% of commuters. Of these commutes 85% is done with free option the Studentenreisrecht provides (CBS, 2016; Kennisinstituut voor Mobiliteitsbeleid, 2017). The
Studentenreisrecht, which translates as Student-travel-right, is a service provided to students who attend Dutch tertiary education. The service allows students to travel for free on trains, busses, trams and metro. This service is limited to either weekdays or weekend, starting on Friday evening. The Studentenreisrecht was created in 1991 and initially allowed for free travel on every weekday. In 1994 the week and weekend split was introduced. With this split, a 40% reduction of ticket costs in the non-free hours was also introduced. In 1999 abolishing the Studentenreisrecht was considered, but after heavy protest the government reconsidered. In 2009 the Studentenreisrecht, which until the was a piece of paper wrapped in plastic, started the switch to the OV-chipkaart, a plastic pass with an electronic chip. This was part of a nationwide switch to this card. This switch, which the students had to do first, encountered many difficulties and engendered resentment to this switch. With the advent of Mobility-as-a-Service new opportunities become available (CBS, 2016;
Kennisinstituut voor Mobiliteitsbeleid, 2020; NOS, 2013; Westendorp, 1997).
Mobility as a Service, also known as MaaS, is a new concept which aims to unify different
transportation and mobility options in one interface, with the option to pay the entire trip at once. As such, Mobility as a Service can provide a personalized mobility solution for people who prefer a mobility option tailored to their needs. Moreover, MaaS is not limited to regular public transport, it can also include other mobility options like demand-based rapid transit, shared cars, shared bicycles or even rental bicycles (Jittrapirom et al., 2017). According to experts, young adults and students have the highest probability of adopting MaaS based mobility. They can also foresee potential roadblocks in the adoption of MaaS-based mobility, namely predictable and often used routes and little to no disposable income. (Jittrapirom et al., 2017)
Mobility as a Service, also abbreviated as MaaS, can be considered as an evolution of the Dutch concept of ketenmobiliteit. Ketenmobiliteit is a Dutch term for chained mobility, which means using different modes of transport in one single trip instead of considering a trip using one mode of transport. Both concepts encompass all variants of mobility; both public and private transport are considered. MaaS takes this concept further and uses modern information systems to enhance access to all kinds of services and makes personalisation possible. The primary use of the term ketenmobiliteit was a term used to encompass policy that aimed to persuade people to use public transport by emphasising the possibility of combining them.
9 An example of this is a “Park & Ride Leasepas” which made it possible for lease car drivers to use P+R facilities and its public transport options. MaaS is an evolution of this concept using modern information technologies. (Jittrapirom et al., 2017; Ministerie van Verkeer en Waterstaat, 1998) The rise of a concept such as Mobility as a Service seems to be right in line with general trends within society. According to Schnabel, there are several trends in Dutch society, one of which is relevant to this thesis; individualisation (Schnabel, 2001). Individualisation is the idea that citizens are
increasingly focused on the individual instead of the collective. In this context, it means that mobility solutions tailored to the individual are increasingly sought after. Mobility as a Service embodies these wishes by providing the ability to choose between multiple travel options which reach further than the public transport systems. It enables the use of for example a carsharing service or rental bicycles. This is a transition from a mass transit form of transport to a more tailored to the individual mobility system, which might contain forms of mass transit but can also include other forms of transportation. The Studentenreisrecht is not part of these transitions within society, despite its user base being the most likely to adapt to new technological developments. The Multi-Level Perspective, a theory on transitions and the adoption of a product within such a transition, helps to shed light on Mobility as a Service and whether the Studentenreisrecht can be combined with it. (Geels, 2005; Jittrapirom, Marchau, van der Heijden, & Meurs, 2018)
1.2
Problem statement
Students in the Netherlands get a subscription for free travel on public transport, either during the week or during the weekend with reductions in the periods they do not have free travel. This subscription is called Studentenreisrecht. The availability of free travel is restricted to public
transport only, in this case, busses, trains, trams, metros and a select few water busses. The OV-fiets, translated as Public Transport Bicycle, is not included, as it is a bike-sharing service, despite having public transport in the name. (Rijksoverheid, 2000)
However, public transport is changing. Public transport companies are moving from a fixed lined fixed schedules system to a more flexible form of public transport. Several public transport companies are doing pilots with forms of transport which are based on a concept called Demand Responsive Transport. Demand Responsive Transport is public transport that operates only when there is an actual request to use it (Vuchic, 1981). For example, Transdev and its subsidiary transport companies have introduced flexible means of transport; an on-demand service from bus stop to bus stop without a fixed schedule or route. This new mode of transport however does not fall under the legal definition of the concept of public transport and thus does not qualify for the
Studentenreisrecht. This is not a problem when it is a supplementary service on regular public transport, yet in Mook, in the Netherlands, a flexible service has replaced the fixed service (Brug Nijmegen, 2018). This can be interpreted as a start of a general trend where little-used lines are replaced with flexible means of public transport. At the time of writing students have to pay for this kind of public transport, whereas travel within the old regular public transport was free.
(Rijksoverheid, 2000)
This raises the issue of compatibility of the student travel-right and the new methods of public transportation. The Studentenreisrecht is a right that is almost fundamental to Dutch student life, it allows students to travel to their places of study without moving, it allows students to have
internships or jobs outside the city they live in. The Studentenreisrecht as it stands is designed in a time when fixed networks and predictable lines were the norm. Mobility as a Service has a different approach; Mobility as a Service can be broadly defined as creating a unifying interface that enables users to book and pay for trips with all kinds of mobility services, which includes all the existing
10 modes of public transport but also recent innovations on transport, for example, the flexible on-call services or the various car-sharing or bike-sharing services.
The potential for cutbacks and their replacement with alternatives, for example, demand responsive transport or shared car or bike services, not included in the Studentenreisrecht can cause significant problems for students. Many of these students do not have the resources to commute to their place of study. At the same time, the current implementation of the Studentenreisrecht does not allow for expansion of transport options, because it’s part of a contract. The contract has to be renegotiated to include other options. Mobility as a Service is an option for providing access to these services. It is unclear whether the institutions involved in either or both Mobility as a Service and
Studentenreisrecht are aligned on these subjects (BNR Webredactie, 2013; Rijksoverheid, 2000).
1.3
Research Aim
This research aims to explore what a possible future of the Studentenreisrecht can be and inversely if the Studentenreisrecht can be used to accelerate the adoption of Mobility as a Service. By analysing the institutional perspectives on both the Studentenreisrecht and MaaS a clearer picture can be created of what areas the Studentenreisrecht are compatible with each other and on the other side what the issues are that need to be resolved before MaaS-based Studentenreisrecht can become a reality.
1.4
Research Question
The Studentenreisrecht gives access to a limited selection of public transport. With the advent of MaaS, the possibility of accessing other forms of transport can become easier. However, the Studentenreisrecht is limited to train, bus, tram and metro. With MaaS the possibility of providing access to other forms of mobility service to students. This can be considered a new iteration of the Studentenreisrecht, after the switch to the OV-chipkaart. Therefore the central question in this thesis is:
What are the institutional perspectives on Mobility as a Service as a concept and as a potential future of the Studentenreisrecht?
With this question the where MaaS and the Studentenreisrecht meet, where they can support each other and where potential roadblocks between them can be identified. With this research, a
potential avenue for a future version of the Studentenreisrecht can be explored. MaaS is a relatively new concept and is not widely known with the public. However, several institutions and companies are actively involved in either developing a MaaS-based application or are developing a legal framework for it. Institutions are responsible for the conditions in which the Studentenreisrecht operated and whether integration with MaaS is possible. Therefore the relevant institutions and their opinions on MaaS and the Studentenreisrecht are analysed.
1.5
Relevance
The scientific context of this thesis is transitions within society. With the theory of the Multi-Level Perspective, transitions can be analysed. As the name suggests the theory consists of three levels, niche, regime and landscape level. However, where one level ends and the other begins is vague. This thesis is an exploration in expanding the regime level, in order to specify the differences between the three levels. (Fuenfschilling & Truffer, 2014)
11 With the advent of MaaS, a new area of mobility planning and mobility services has been created. This thesis aims to explore the possible connections between a service provided by the government, the Studentenreisrecht, and Mobility as a Service, which gives access to commercially or communally provided transport options. This is done in the form of a MaaS-based Studentenreisrecht. Moreover, by applying the Multi-Level Perspective theory on the potential transformation of the
Studentenreisrecht to a MaaS-based concept, a case with a public entity as a major actor, this thesis also aims to provide insights into the government’s role at the regime level. The major role of this public entity also provides insights into strategic niche management and whether a publicly owned company can be used to use the tools strategic niche management describes.
In a societal context, the idea of MaaS fits into the broader trends of individualisation and flexibilization. Individualisation is the idea that services and products should be tailored to the individual, instead of societal groups. MaaS enables users to create their own journeys with the available transport options, the choice is there for the users. It allows easier access to other more private types of mobility next to the traditional methods of public transportation (Burgers, 1989; CBS, 2017).
The Studentenreisrecht plays a major role in student life in the Netherlands, and students do not want to lose the possibility to travel for free. Protests have occurred when the possibility of reducing or eliminating the Studentenreisrecht was discussed. However, certain trends within society,
individualisation, for example, prompt the question of whether the Studentenreisrecht can remain as it is, or whether further development is warranted. This thesis aims to see if the Studentenreisrecht can be adapted into a Mobility as a Service-based service and make additional transport options available for students. This helps the students in having more options when it comes to mobility that is not solely public transport based. This is especially relevant in places where public transport is being cut back and local mobility options are created, on which the Studentenreisrecht is not valid. Mobility as a Service can also help provide optimal travel solutions for every student and spread the demand for transport.
1.6
Outline
The first chapter is the introduction to the thesis, it outlines the central questions, the relevance and the context in which this thesis is written. The second chapter details the Multi-Level Perspective and strategic niche management theories and how these relate to each other and the position of the concepts of Studentenreisrecht and Mobility as a Service in these theories. Chapter three is the methodology chapter, in which the two methods, literature research and expert interviews, are explained. Chapter four is the chapter in which the analysis takes place. It shows the major actors interviewed with regards to viewpoint concerning both Mobility as a Service and the
Studentenreisrecht. Chapter five is the final chapter and includes both the conclusion as well as a discussion on potential further avenues of research and limits to this thesis.
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2 Theoretical framework
Chapter two contains the theoretical framework. Part one details the Multi-Level perspective, with a strategic niche management focus. Part two explains the concept of mobility as a service. Part three shows the conceptual model where Strategic Niche management is used to help Mobility as a Service develop.
2.1
Multi-Level Perspective & Strategic Niche Management
2.1.1 Transitions
Transitions are transformation processes in which societies change. It is a multi-actor process, which involves all kinds of societal groups and different types of user groups. This change is often radical, referring to the scope, and often happens slowly. The transformation happens over generations and it is a gradual, continuous process. It is not a defined process, nor has it a defined end goal.
Transitions are a long-term process and can never be controlled, though the speed, scale and direction can be influenced. During this transformation process, new insights, new learning and differing circumstances alter the transition process. A vital point is that innovation does not exist by itself and that its development and its possible adoption, in the end, are the result of the interplay between various regimes. (Moors, Rip, & Wiskerke, 2004; Schot & Geels, 2017)
In a transition process, four different phases can be distinguished, as shown below.
- The first is the pre-development phase where the status-quo does not visibly change but where different ideas are created and exchanged. These innovations emerge in an existing landscape and regime networks.
- The second is the take-off phase. In this phase, the change is starting by actors getting mobilised by promising prospects. In this phase, the rules have stabilised; the dominant design has been found, a market niche is there and the user preferences have been articulated.
- The third is the acceleration phase. This phase is characterised by structural change; this change is caused by an accumulation of change in various other areas as the technology is adopted. The new technology affects the existing regime.
- The fourth is the stabilisation phase, where a new equilibrium is reached and the change is adopted by the landscape. Here the old regime has been replaced by the new.
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Figure 1, Multi-Level perspective schematic
The primary goal of transition studies is to learn about and search for sustainable solutions. Strategic Niche Management looks at how specific innovations can successfully develop and eventually exit their niche or see what factors were involved in how it failed. Technical Innovation Systems takes a different look and focusses on the technological aspects of innovations, mainly those surrounding innovative technology itself. The Multi-Level perspective concerns itself with interactions between landscapes, regimes and niches and the adoption cycle. (Geels & Schot, 2010; Raven, Van den Bosch, & Weterings, 2010)
Transitions are major societal transformation processes, covering every aspect of life, from food, to transport to industry. There are no fixed starts and no fixed endings or end goals. Transitions cannot be controlled, though they can be guided. These transitions often originate from niches. In these niches, innovations can be protected from regimes and given room to develop (Geels & Schot, 2010; Raven et al., 2010).
Its direction cannot be influenced, though it can be guided and steered. Since there are no fixed beginnings or endings, transitions are often multigenerational processes and are slow. Transitions
14 usually have their origins in innovations. These innovations are key in transforming society and tackling societal problems. Understanding these transformation processes is vitally important since transitions are difficult to steer and can radically alter society. Transition management is therefore primarily concerned with the joint learning process from these transitions and to find sustainable solutions. Technological innovation systems however look at the patchwork of actors and
technologies surrounding innovations. (Rotmans & Loorbach, 2017; Twomey & Gaziulusoy, 2014)
2.1.2 Multi-Level perspective
The Multi-Level perspective provides a theoretical framework that aids in understanding how transitions take place. The Multi-Level perspective framework is often used because it encompasses many different aspects surrounding the development of technologies. This is a double-edged sword; because it can encompass all the factors researchers run the risk of analysing everything and wanting to account for everything, meaning the research gets bogged down in details and the main point gets lost.
The Multi-Level Perspective on technological transitions is a theoretical framework within the area of transition management and innovation. The Multi-Level perspective, like the name suggests,
provides 3 different separate levels in which transition management works. These are the macro, meso and micro levels. These are also known as the Regime, the Landscape and the Niche levels. The Multi-Level perspective describes the transition of technologies from the niche level via the meso level to the macro level. In other words, it describes the trajectory of an innovation to becoming a part of society. (Ewijk, 2013)
Moreover, it also expands on the relationships between the levels, the influence they have on each other. It also explores the differing groups of actors in each level as the new technology gets progressively adopted. However, the delineation between the levels is vague; there is no clear definition of what is the regime level, the landscape level or the niche level, or the transition process or requirements to go from one level to another.
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The Niche level
The micro level, or the niche level, is the level at which technological innovations are incubated. it describes individual actors, for example, individuals, local organisations and governments. The adoption of niche technologies does not go step by step; niche technologies gradually diffuses into the different regimes and changes it slowly. Furthermore, being in a niche, as defined in this thesis, does not guarantee the success of an innovation.
The niche level is also being influenced by regimes and the existing landscape. The landscape in which the technology evolved has rules and expectations in which the niche operates. These rules and expectations are important to take into consideration when developing a technology; if the technology appears to go against the rules and expectations the innovators can experience
resistance against their innovation, up to a point the innovation stalls and fails. On the other hand, if the niche takes the rules and expectations into account the niche might experience a boost (Raven et al., 2010).
Strategic niche management can be employed to nurture and protect a niche against the dominant regime by providing support. This is elaborated on in chapter 2.1.3.
Regime
The second level is the meso level or the regime level. The regime concept refers to the rules, practices and coordination of activities that reproduce the elements of the system. The patchwork of regimes means there are several different regimes, each with its own rules, practices and
coordination. (Genus & Coles, 2008)
On the regime level, Geels identifies 6 different regimes in which actor groups can be sorted. These are the Industry, Science, Markets/User Preferences, Culture, Policy and Technology, see figure 1. Genus & Coles (2008) however, only identify 5, omitting the culture actor group this leads to a slightly different schematic. The omission of culture can be attributed to the fact that culture is embedded in the landscape. The actor groups are for example firms and industries, policymakers and politicians, consumers, engineers and researchers.
Each of these regime groups has their own selection environment and are relatively autonomous because of that. On the other hand, they are dependent on each other.
Furthermore, according to DiMaggio and Powel in Schot & Geels (2007), the transition at the regime level take place at organisational levels, defined as “Powell (1983, p. 148) as: “those organizations
that, in the aggregate, constitute a recognized area of institutional life: key suppliers, resource and product consumers, regulatory agencies, and other organizations that produce similar services or products. The virtue of this unit of analysis is that it directs our attention not simply to competing firms (...), or to networks of organizations that actually interact, (...), but to the totality of relevant actors”.
Regimes are resistant to change because they have developed interdependent networks of actors, buyers, suppliers etcetera. These benefit most of stability and predictability. It also causes engineers and designers to look in a particular direction, without looking outside their focus, because of rules and routines developed within their regime. Because the regimes are subject to this lock-in, innovation occurs incrementally. (Geels, 2005, 2006)
It is at the Regime level where the niche gains its support and where it can gain traction. The range of actors at the regime level is larger and more varied than the niche level. Where the niche level is very
16 much focussed on the development of the technology itself, the regime level is much more about adaptation of the technology and the different regimes to each other.
The regime level can be subdivided into six factors, these are described below. • Culture
In the Multi-Level perspective culture is a broad subject inherent in all actors. Of importance, in this case, is how students will adapt to a change in what is considered a vital resource for students. By interviewing several students and a consumer representative a clear picture can be created.
• Industry
Public transport companies are directly affected by changes in how students travel and how they are paid for these travels. Since in some cases the majority of public transport users are students any change in this will be regarded with some apprehension. By interviewing the public transport companies their willingness and ability to react to this potential change can be charted.
• Market Preference
The market preference, in this case, is similar to culture. The market preferences concern themselves with supply and demand. The actors interviewed are the same and both factors can be interviewed for at the same time. It is important though to take into account the lock-in, as described in the perspectives chapter, since it may account for a certain hesitancy on the supplier as well as the demand side.
• Policy
An important factor is policy. The Studentenreisrecht is provided by the government and all changes have to be considered in light of public policy and public funding. Also, the government’s attitude to MaaS-like concepts is of importance. All these subjects will be covered by interviewing
representatives of the various governmental levels. • Science
Though the thesis aims to add to the existing discourse on MaaS, additional viewpoints and seeing where scientific institutions stand on this subject helps in creating a bigger picture. The science factor is not interviewed directly.
• Technology
The technology factor within the regime level refers to the technologies that surround the innovation that is analysed. Since Mobility as a Service is not a new technology, but a new concept and
implementation based on already existing technologies, it is not taken into consideration.
Landscape
The landscape is the context in which niches and regimes exist and operate. It is beyond the direct influence of actors involved in their niche. The landscape is the technological and material attributes surrounding the system. It includes demographic trends, ideologies, values and economic patterns. The main trend relevant to the subject of this thesis is the individualisation of society, as mentioned in the transition section of this chapter.
17 The landscape is by definition the part where the niche does not have direct influence. The other way around the landscape does influence the niche, mainly via either by having explicit or implicit
demands or by having expectations with regards to the new technology and the context it operates in. Regimes do not influence the landscape level directly but do so indirectly by pursuing their own goals. The consequences of the pursuit of these goals shape the landscape.
2.1.3 Strategic Niche Management
Niches, as described in the previous chapter, is the level at which technological innovations often develop. A niche often emerges on the fringe or outside the existing regimes, and thus have different selection criteria when compared to existing regimes. Niches do not always exist for newly developed products and have to be created. The protection of the niche comes from actors who are willing to invest in these new technologies. These actors often have high expectations of the technological niche they have invested in. Within the niche Geels and Schot (2010) identify three niche-internal processes; the building of social networks, learning processes to improve performance, and develop a coherent vision and manage expectations of the niche in question. The expectations differ per level. Landscape wise these are societal expectations. On the regime level, the expectations concern the function. Finally, on the niche level the expectations are for the project itself (Geels & Schot, 2010; Manders, Wieczorek, & Verbong, 2018).
Strategic Niche Management is a relatively new analytical approach specifically designed to aid and facilitate new and radically new sustainable technologies through societal experiments. It aims to provide a safe and controlled environment for promising technologies. The aim of Strategic Niche Management is to initiate wider societal change to more sustainable development. This approach tries to aid potentially useful and superior technologies, which have difficulty to catch on in the market when compared to already existing technologies. The Strategic Niche management framework has proven useful in the analysis of various success and failure of experiments within various areas, such as public transport systems and electric vehicle transport (Caniëls & Romein, 2007).
A niche is an area or a place where innovations and radical changes take shape, protected from the dominant regime. A niche has a new and relatively unstable set of rules and institutions for
innovative practices, which have the potential the radically alter the regime and landscape. The uncertainty and of these innovations makes innovation high risk. It comprises a series of experimental projects such as demonstration projects and pilot plants, a different constellation of structure, culture and practices that deviates in the way social needs are fulfilled, and finally an environment for radical innovations. (Raven et al., 2010)
2.2
Student mobility
Students and young adults have a very specific set of attributes when it comes to their travel needs. According to the Delphi study, most of these have a predictable pattern to their travel needs and little to no disposable income. (Jittrapirom et al., 2017)
In the Netherlands students of tertiary education have a ‘Studentenreisrecht’. The literal translation of this is student travel right. With the law called Wet Studentenreisproduct 2000 (Rijksoverheid, 2000) the right of students to have the Studentenreisrecht is enshrined in law. This law does not specify how the subscription should be designed; it only determines that it should be free and that it should be valid for a part of the week. Within this landscape, the MaaS concept and the
Studentenreisrecht are to operate. It is also here that MaaS and the Studentenreisrecht can support each other.
18 As explained before one of the two obstacles the experts see is the lack of available funds for
students to travel. If the Studentenreisrecht can be adapted to MaaS and vice versa it can offer an opportunity for MaaS to gain traction within society (Geels & Schot, 2007).
In the Netherlands, due to the Studentenreisrecht, a significant part of the student population use public transport. In rural areas students, of all forms of education, account for almost 50% of the public transport use. Together with the bicycle public transport accounts for the majority of trips the students. Students of the Radboud University in Nijmegen, the Netherlands, mostly use the bicycle for trips, with public transport or a combination of the two coming second. Considering that public transport is such a major factor in student travel, change to the Studentenreisrecht is a controversial subject; recent attempts to change and reduce the subscription have been met with fierce protests. This also shows that the current situation is embedded in society and subject to lock-in. The current system of actors has reached a balance, which means change is resisted (Geels & Schot, 2007; NOS, 2013; Van der AA, 2017; Kennisinstituut voor Mobiliteitsbeleid, 2017).
2.3
Mobility as a Service
2.3.1 Definitions
This chapter aims to define Mobility as a Service. Mobility as a Service is a relatively new concept. It is not defined clearly; it can either be a concept, a phenomenon or a new transport solution. It is either a new idea, a development in society or a business plan. By comparing several available definitions a comprehensive concept of what Mobility as a Service is chosen. (Jittrapirom et al., 2017).
In a publication of the Deloitte Review, this definition is given: “At its core, MaaS relies on a digital
platform that integrates end-to-end trip planning, booking, electronic ticketing, and payment services across all modes of transportation, public or private.” (Goodall, Fishman, Bornstein, & Bonthron,
2017).
The Maas Alliance defines MaaS as “Mobility as a Service is the integration of various forms of
transport services into a single mobility service accessible on demand. To meet a customer’s request, a MaaS operator facilitates a diverse menu of transport options, be they public transport, ride-, car- or bike-sharing, taxi or car rental/lease, or a combination thereof.”
19 Jittrapirom et al. (2017) propose a set of 9 core characteristics of Mobility as a Service, which will be used as the theoretical framework. The 9 characteristics are Integration of transport modes, Tariff options, one platform, multiple actors, use of technologies, personalisation, customisation. These are further explained below.
- Tariff options
With a MaaS based platform, the user pays once for the entire trip. The platform then takes care of paying the services the user has chosen for their trip. The key here is that the MaaS application is a one-stop-shop; the entire trip is paid for.
- One platform
By creating an interface in which all modes of transport are represented planning and paying for a trip is made easier. This allows for more forms of transport than public transport alone; it can include taxi services, parking services, bike rentals or bike-sharing services.
- Multiple actors
For MaaS to work multiple actors and multiple types of actors have to be willing to invest in and share their data with the platform; this enables a user to plan a trip with a sufficient amount of alternatives.
- Use of technologies
MaaS is possible because of the advances in computer technologies and software. It has been possible for a while to combine all the different types of transport and calculate the quickest or cheapest trip. Use of technologies also means that optimisation of transport services is possible, that payment systems are easy to use.
- Demand orientation
Because of the focus on individual trips of travellers demand for certain types of transport can be accurately gauged and adapted too. This way the number of redundant trips transport providers had to operate can be reduced to a minimum.
- Registration requirement
By requiring registration, for persons or households, the service can be personalised. By having a registration requirement, payment options, travel desires etcetera can be saved for further use, enabling easier use of the application.
- Personalisation
By having many transport providers cooperate under a single MaaS umbrella the service can provide different options for the traveller based on their preferences and travel history.
- Customisation
In tandem with the previous point, the personalisation also enables travellers to choose from a wide range of transportation options, from walking to a rental bicycle, a shared car or the train. The primary purpose, therefore, is to enable the traveller to arrange their trip exactly as desired, within the constraints offered by the available options (Jittrapirom et al., 2017).
20 An essential part of the success of MaaS, according to Jacobs (2019) in OV-Pro is the fact that the MaaS-based solution should be open access, available for everyone to use, but also for every transport method to be included. This is primarily to ensure a level playing field on the market and prevent potential misuse and limit innovation. Open access to the relevant data for MaaS from public transport companies also prevents monopolization; it prevents a company from excluding platforms and only promote their own.
Summarized; Mobility as a Service is a concept that aims to provide a single platform for all modes of transport offered, with a single interface and payment options for the entire trip. Mobility as a Service can also provide the necessary data to providers and governments on which they can adapt their policies.
2.3.2 MaaS as a Niche
Mobility as a service is a relatively new concept. It gained popularity after 2014 by a Master’s Thesis called ‘Mobility as a Service – A Proposal for Action for the Public Administration’ by Häikkilä and has since gained traction. Being new also means that MaaS faces difficulty in being established and trialled. By protecting the niche which MaaS has created it can be allowed to develop without the risk of it being outcompeted by established transport options. (Smith, Sochor, & Karlsson, 2017) Maas is in active development. Several MaaS pilots are being run at the time of writing. Much experimenting is being done to see what configurations are workable and which are not. Examples of MaaS-based projects are Whim in Helsinki, which lets you pay and plan your trip in Helsinki. GoAbout is a MaaS-application in the Netherlands. According to GoAbout itself, there is no added value yet, since it doesn’t add anything new. Its added value will come from specialized and tailored
subscriptions to its customers.
There are more projects in the Netherlands, with each putting the accent on different aspects of MaaS. The Limburg pilot is to research cross-border functionality and structural change in participants. A pilot in the Utrecht neighbourhood of Leidsche Rijn aims to find out of there are sufficient attractive alternatives available and what is needed to persuade people to use them and how does MaaS help achieve the societal goals it is claimed to have. The Amsterdam Zuidas pilot aims to gain information on decision processes in various local institutions. The Rotterdam-The Hague airport pilot aims to provide alternatives to the car and the inclusion of the airport in the decision-making process. The Eindhoven pilot aims to integrate MaaS-services into existing mobility policy. The Groningen-Drenthe Public transport aims to find cheaper alternatives to existing public transport and the Twente pilot aims to find ways to reach target audiences and behavioural change (Bakker, 2018).
These pilots are by and large subsidized by the government to see if the concept has any feasibility in the current market. Moreover, it gives firms involved in the project to further refine the technologies supporting MaaS. The subsidies by the regimes indicate that it is being protected from market forces. Furthermore, it indicates an interest by the regime into MaaS and the potential it brings, showing that the regime already is changing. It also shows that MaaS-based mobility solutions can be helped by utilizing the strategies the strategic niche management concept provides. What is not shown as of yet is whether the current users of public transport can be persuaded to use MaaS based public transport. By introducing MaaS to the student population, predicted by experts to be the early adopters of MaaS, in the Netherlands the culture facet of MaaS can be explored. By combining MaaS and the Studentenreisrecht the funding can be used as subsidies for the protection it needs from the market. By combining these the students are encouraged to use the MaaS-based public transport.
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2.4
Conceptual model
The conceptual model has been adapted using the original model provided by Geels. Shown in the figure below is how the Studentenreisrecht can influence the adoption trajectory.
The conceptual model shows that by using the Studentenreisrecht as a strategic management tool the adoption of the MaaS concept can be accelerated. The picture also shows the assumption that the MaaS technology is going to be adapted anyway. This is supported by the articles showing that there is a MaaS based application being developed by a conglomerate of transport companies. It is also supported by the information provided during the interview that the Ministry of Infrastructure and Environment is developing a legal framework that MaaS-based apps are supposed to follow. The blue line shows the adoption path by the MaaS concept without using the Studentenreisrecht as a strategic management tool. The green line is the assumption that Mobility as a Service-concept is going to be adopted quicker. It also shows that the main incentive for quicker adoption must come from the regime level. The figure does not show what specific factor needs to do the strategic management, though the policy factor is the most likely.
The main strategic management tool for this is the Studentenreisrecht. By using the funds available for the Studentenreisrecht, the Studentenreisrecht can be transformed into a Maas-based product. By changing the Studentenreisrecht to a MaaS-based application, the MaaS application gains a large customer base, which will get used to the app, thereby smoothing the way for the eventual use of such an app after the students graduated. When transforming the Studentenreisrecht to a Maas-based service the Maas-concept gains a customer base who, according to research mentioned earlier, is the group who is most likely to start using new technologies such as a MaaS-based travel application. One of the two main obstacles to overcome is the lack of funds in the student and young adult group, which is then solved by using the Studentenreisrecht.
Landscape
Regime
Studentenreisrecht
Figure 3, Conceptual model of accelerated development of MaaS with the Studentenreisrecht Niche
22 This is provided that the conditions which apply now also apply then, such as free travel. This
resembles the introduction of the OV-chipkaart in the Netherlands; the student group was the first group that had to use the new card in order to get the Studentenreisrecht.
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3 Methodology
This chapter outlines the general structure of this thesis, alongside the reasoning for the used
methods to gather data and how to analyse the data acquired. It also deals with the limitations of the data used and in what manners these limitations are addressed. Part one outlines the strategy and outlines the structure of the thesis. Chapters two and three deal with the two methods used, namely literature research and expert interviews. Part 4 deals with the data analysis and the final part, part five, details the research validity.
3.1
Strategy
The purpose of this thesis is to explore the concepts of Mobility as a Service and the
Studentenreisrecht and whether these can be used to support each other. This is done with a positivistic pragmatic approach to the concepts. Mobility as a Service as a modernisation tool and potential expansion of the Studentenreisrecht and conversely the Studentenreisrecht as an instrument to speed up adoption of Mobility as a Service and elevate it out of its niche. The definition of what is Mobility as a Service is step one since there are differing definitions
currently available and it narrows down on what exactly is analysed and gives a framework on which to build the analysis. The theory of the Multi-Level perspective and its role in transition theory, together with Strategic Niche Management, is the second definition to be explained. With the theory of Multi-Level perspective on which actor groups influence the transition process, several institutions within these groups have been chosen to be interviewed. Each actor is also analysed with the help of Actor Analysis. The Actor analysis is used to expand the regime level and to which actor is relevant to what aspect of both Mobility as a Service and the Studentenreisrecht, as well as their position on these concepts. By having the regime level expanded with the actor analysis the positions of the institutions are analysed. This framework guides the analysis in which institution position on the MaaS and the Studentenreisrecht and helps formulate the answer to the research question. The actor analysis helps position the actors at the regime level and provides answers on who is responsible for what. The actor analysis also helps find background the answers given in the interview.
Mobility as a Service is currently being developed and as such has a vulnerable position on the market. The Strategic Niche Management, as part of the Multi-level perspective, provides a
framework on which to base this analysis on. Moreover, Mobility as a Service does not have a clear definition. By exploring the possibilities of the Mobility as a Service concept this thesis can provide additional views on how to implement Mobility as a Service.
3.2
Literature research
The first method of research is literature research for both Mobility as a Service and the
Studentenreisrecht. This data is used to provide a basis for interviews with relevant actors. Both data sets are then used to map the actors surrounding both concepts and the idea of Mobility as a
Service-Studentenreisrecht.
3.2.1 Literature research
With the concept of Mobility as a Service being relatively new, reviewing the available literature is the first step. the literature will have two different sources because Mobility as a Service is both a scientific concept as well as a basis on which businesses can operate. For this reason, both factors have to be incorporated in this thesis.
24 The Studentenreisrecht has a legal basis, on which the Ministry of Education, Culture and Science has to base its actions and policy. There are market parties involved in the execution, these are however subject to the contract the Ministry of Education has made with them. As such, there are no market forces at play with the Studentenreisrecht.
By using the Multi-Level perspective as the main theoretical framework, the adoption path of a niche is given shape. The Multi-Level perspective expands on the adoption cycle of technological
innovations, from the niche level to the a possible adoption of the technology by society. During this adoption process, society undergoes a transition that incorporates this new technology into the fabric of society. This is an unguidable and uninfluenceable process. The theory expounds on the changes which occur during the transition process and which factors are important when considering regime change. The Multi-Level perspective identifies six factors; industry, technology, culture, market preference, policy and science. Five of the six factors will be researched. The sixth, technology, will not be in consideration, since the technology to make a MaaS based transport service already is available; therefore is not a factor in the adoption of the technology.
3.3
Expert interviews
Part two of the data collection are the expert interviews. First, the selection of institutions to interview and who has been interviewed. Secondly
3.3.1 Interview selection
The interview selection process is based on actors involved in either or both concepts. These actors have been selected based on preliminary literature research on both subjects. With regards to the Studentenreisrecht, the most important interviewee is the Ministry of Education, Culture and Science, since they are responsible for the implementation of the Studentenreisrecht. The students' opinion as the users is equally important.
When it comes to Mobility as a Service the field of actors is varied. The Ministry of Infrastructure and Environment is responsible for national transport policy, their view on MaaS and its consequences on the national infrastructure is important. The public transport companies view on Mobility as a Service as well as the Studentenreisrecht is vital to take into account. Differing perspectives on public
transport comes from the regional advocacy group called ROCOV. GoAbout, the creator of a MaaS based travel application, has been interviewed for its insights into what Mobility as a Service means in a commercial context.
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Institution Interviewee Reason
Ministry of Education, Culture and Science
Ellen Mars The Ministry of OCW is the primary institution responsible for the Studentenreisrecht Nederlandse Spoorwegen (NS) Dirk van Vliet The Dutch Railways are the public transport
company that carries the largest share of students.
They are also part of a group of public transport companies developing a MaaS-based.
Ministry of Infrastructure and Environment
Marco Martens As the ministry responsible for transport and mobility their opinion on the implementation of a MaaS-based application must be
included. Even more because a possible integration of the Studentenreisrecht involves public policy
GoAbout Jacco Lammers GoAbout is a MaaS-based application currently based in the Nijmegen region. Students Eve Jongsma The viewpoints of students when it comes to
the Studentenreisrecht are very important. Especially because of the budget cuts in the recent past any change to the
Studentenreisrecht will be scrutinised heavily. Connexxion Daan Stevens A transport company responsible for the
operation of the majority of bus lines and regional rail services in the Arnhem – Nijmegen region
ROCOV Gelderland Johan Kruithof ROCOV Gelderland is a regional consumer organisation concerned with public transport. Their opinion is valuable because their knowledge about Public Transport and by extension MaaS is more extensive than the general public.
3.3.2 Interview design
The interviews with the various actors surrounding Mobility as a Service and the Studentenreisrecht have been done as semi-structured. The interviews themselves were done semi-open so that actors could define their vision on the combination of Mobility as a Service and the Studentenreisrecht. This way the interviewees could give their opinion on what comes to mind first when talking about this combination. The aim then is to continue questioning about this particular subject so the facet that is being discussed is explored thoroughly. The semi-structured applies to the questions being similar across the interviews, so interviews can be compared to each other. The questions, as seen in the interviewguides in part 7.1, everyone was asked were aimed at their positions with regards to
Mobility as a Service, the Studentenreisrecht and the potential combination of the two. Furthermore, the industry section of the interviewees were also asked about the significance of Mobility as a Service within their organisation and their plans with it. The policy factor was asked what their current roles are and what their plans are when it comes to Mobility as a Service and the
Studentenreisrecht. The Culture and Market Preference section was focussed on the significance of the Studentenreisrecht in their lives.
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3.3.3 Actor Analysis
The actor analysis provides a tool for bias reduction and provides additional information for the final analysis itself. Actor analysis with regards to policy is based on four pillars; networks, perceptions, values and resources. (Hermans & Thissen, 2009) these four pillars are central to the many variants of actor and stakeholder analysis. This stakeholder analysis will focus on these four.
The first, networks, are the actor groups, which take shape around policy issues, between
interdependent actors. In this case, these are the networks that surround either Studentenreisrecht and Mobility as a Service or both.
The second, perceptions, is the image the actor has about the world, meaning the actors and other networks, around them. These perceptions centre around neutral theories on how the world operates.
The value pillar describes the direction the actor wants to move. In this case objectives, goals and targets are the most specific terms, whereas norms, interests and purposes are the more abstract ones. These translate into a preference in policy outcomes or specific solutions.
The fourth is resources. Resources are the instruments the actor has control over and an interest in. With resources, the actor can achieve its goals. Resources are used by the actors to manipulate the world around them, including actors, relations and rules in a network.
3.4
Data Analysis
The interviews with the various actors are focused on their views on both Mobility as a Service and the Studentenreisrecht. Since all actors approach the subjects from their organisations or
professions, certain information will be coloured or not revealed at all. All information will be biased in some way. By way of continuous comparison, as written about in Verschuren & Doorewaard (2010), with other interviews and literary sources these biases can be kept to a minimum.
All interviewed parties have shared their insights in Mobility as a Service or Studentenreisrecht or both. All interviewed parties also have been analysed with the help of Actor Analysis, to see what stake they have in the Studentenreisrecht and Mobility as a Service and what kind of actions they can take to influence the course of Mobility as a Service.
These interviews are analysed in the context of their respective actors. This is done in conjunction with literature found on both subjects. The summary contains their positions with regards to either Studentenreisrecht or Mobility as a Service, or both.
In the analysis chapter, the actor groups of the Multi-Level perspective come into play as described in chapter two. These are Culture, Market Preference, Industry and Policy. Together these factors form the basis on which the final analysis is done. These factors help in doing the analysis and choose interview subjects.
3.5
Validity of research results
External validity is the potential of research results to be generalisable. Since this thesis is focused on a technology that is currently in a niche. It is combined with the Studentenreisrecht. There are various forms of subsidized student travel, but none like the Studentenreisrecht. Consequently, this research remains focussed on the Dutch case and Dutch society and will be very difficult to
generalize to other cases. It does provide additional insight into Strategic Niche Management where it shows the usefulness of an actor analysis. The actor analysis can provide additional information on whether Strategic Niche Management is even possible.
27 The check for internal validity is checking whether the research that is done is suitable to answering the research question. The question posed in the first chapter is primarily a policy one. By getting viewpoints from multiple sources, for example, the institutions who do the policy-making as well as the companies who operate public transport, a balanced view can be constructed. There is however the fact that most institutions share limited information. This is unavoidable. By casting a wide enough net for interviews the validity is improved (Swaen, 2014b; Verschuren & Doorewaard, 2010). As mentioned in a previous chapter, data from unstructured interviews risks obtaining biased data, especially because Mobility as a Service can also be identified as a business model. Therefore market parties involved in MaaS might be reluctant to share data. To identify this an actor analysis is
performed so that potential biases may be spotted. Moreover, there is also potential friction
between regulatory bodies and market parties, which means biased information might be gained. By using multiple methods of data gathering these potential pitfalls are identified. By cross-referencing the information gained between the interviews themselves and with the available literary sources as well these biases can be negated. Some information is proprietary and has not been shared (Swaen, 2014a; Verschuren & Doorewaard, 2010).
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4 Analysis
This chapter contains the analysis of the information gained by the interviewed organisations and relevant actors in the field. First, a brief stakeholder analysis to show why the organisations have been interviewed, accompanied by the basis of this analysis. Secondly, the analysis of the information with regards to the five factors involved. The final section combines it.
4.1
Industry
In the industry section are two mobility providers, the Nederlandse Spoorwegen and Connexxion, in the form of its subsidiary Breng. Also included is GoAbout, a company that owns and operates a Mobility as a Service application, to add their opinion to this thesis. All these companies are involved in MaaS development in one form or another, and, except for GoAbout, are involved with the Studentenreisrecht.
4.1.1 Actor Analysis
- Connexxion
Connexxion is a company that provides public transport in several regions in The Netherlands. It provides public transport in several regions in the Netherlands, including several university towns. In the Nijmegen-Arnhem region, Connexxion operates the local public transport services under the Breng branding. these include the bus services and several local train services. A significant portion of Breng’s customers are students, so any change to the Studentenreisrecht will significantly impact Breng. In these university towns, it operates several crowded-with-students bus lines (Van Der Aa & Hodde, 2017).
Networks: As a public transport company Connexxion is contracted by the province of Gelderland to
run the public transport in the region of Arnhem and Nijmegen. It runs the public transport services with input from the municipalities, consumer organisations and other public transport companies like Arriva, with which Connexxion shares some interregional bus lines. Because it runs several regional rail services Connexxion is also linked with the Dutch Railways and railway maintenance company called ProRail. Connexxion is also a subsidiary of Transdev.
Perceptions: Breng, as a subsidiary of Connexxion, provides public transport in the region Arnhem on
contract from the Gelderland province. As such, they are invested in providing a more efficient public transport system. It has piloted a Demand Responsive Transport system called Breng Flex, so they are interested in the advantages MaaS brings (Jacobs, 2019a).
Values: The aim of a commercial public transport company is to earn profits. It has to do that within
the constraint of the tender it has won. Transporting as many people as possible the most efficient way possible. A MaaS-based application is a way to achieve this. Breng already participates in one, called Slim-Nijmegen (Breng Nijmegen, n.d.).
Resources: Connexxion is a company that limits the information available regarding its resources. It
does however operate several bus companies in the Netherlands, participates in pilots like the earlier Slim Nijmegen, and as such shapes transport policy indirectly.
- Nederlandse Spoorwegen
The Dutch National Railways provides most of the railway services in the Netherlands. During rush hour a large part of its users is students. The NS is also part of the public transport companies contracted to by the Ministry of Education, Culture and Science to operate the Studentenreisrecht. (Tweede Kamer der Staten-Generaal, 2010)
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Networks: The Nederlandse Spoorwegen is government-owned, but run as a private organisation. It
works together with various organisations to maintain its trains, to maintain the network it runs the trains on and to maintain the OV-chipkaart network. The Studentenreisrecht is provided by the Dutch railways on contract from the Ministry of Education, Culture and Science. The Studentenreisrecht is provided on the OV-chipkaart, which enables the user to use all public transport in the Netherlands. (Jacobs, 2019b; Nederlandse Spoorwegen, n.d.)
The NS has is also collaborating with regional public transport companies in order to create a MaaS-based application. Public transport companies like the RET in Rotterdam, the GVB in Amsterdam and the THM in The Hague are involved. (Jacobs, 2019b)
Perceptions: The National Railways mission is to transport the travellers as fast, efficiently and
comfortably as possible. Travellers are their top priority. By adopting a MaaS-based system the NS can use the available resources more efficiently and is participating in a project to create one.
Values: The travel demand is continuing to rise and the NS’ mission is to stay on top of this. It wants
to do this by increasing capacity, using existing infrastructure efficiently and reducing peak hour demands.
Resources: The national railways is publicly owned, but is commercially operated. Combined with the
fact that the NS runs most of the trains in the Netherlands means it has significant influence when it comes to both Mobility as a Service and Studentenreisrecht, yet that influence is directed by the fact that it is publicly owned.
- GoAbout
GoAbout is a MaaS based mobility application in the Nijmegen area. GoAbout currently offers limited service in terms of mobility. It is participating in the Slim Nijmegen project, which is primarily aimed at transport solutions for employers since they can stimulate employees to adopt a different transport alternative.
Networks: GoAbout’s mission is about being a central node in a network of suppliers and buyers. As
such it maintains connections to most mobility options. GoAbout is also targeting employers who are looking to find alternative ways to commute for their employees. It also participates in Slim
Nijmegen, a local initiative to improve transport around the Nijmegen Heyendaal Campus area.
Perceptions: The GoAbout company wants to be a MaaS operator in the Netherlands. It is currently
providing services to employers for their employees because employers can use the MaaS-based application to further their goals of being sustainable and getting employees to travel more
sustainably. It is also available for the general public, but the application does not get a large number of customers. The way to add value for travellers is when there are reductions and subscriptions available for customers on a cross-service platform, instead of just for the trains or busses.
Values: GoAbout aims to help consumers find their way in the mobility market. This market is seeing
an increasing number of options to choose from. This makes it increasingly difficult to find the option best suited to the consumers' wishes. GoAbout aims to be the platform on which consumers can plan and buy the entire trip the consumer wants, according to their wishes.
Resources: GoAbout is a private company and as a such does not release data about its finances.
GoAbout is involved in several projects, one of which is Slim Heyendaal, in order to implement a MaaS-like concept.
