Master’s Thesis
Attractiveness of the Instagram Experience and Future
Chances for a Social Media Platform
Handed in by: Aline Spescha Student Number: 11997524
Master Student Entertainment Communication Master’s Programme Communication Science
Graduate School of Communication University of Amsterdam
Supervisor: Dr. Marlies Klijn Amsterdam, 1. February 2019
Abstract
Social media platforms such as Facebook, Instagram or Twitter are under constant focus of the media and society. Instagram in particular, one of the most used social networking sites, is a prevalent companion in many peoples’ daily lives. The goal of this qualitative study is to explore how users experience Instagram and how these experiences relate to Instagram’s attractiveness and social media innovation among emerging adults (aged 18 – 29). Under the focus of uses and gratifications theory, flow, eudaimonic and hedonic needs, and emotional contagion this study extends the limited body of existing literature on the positive sides of social media and aims to gain a deeper scientific
understanding of these experiences. Four focus groups were conducted with a diverse sample of emerging adults (N = 20), who were all registered on Instagram. Results show that
participants do not experience flow while using Instagram but that its use might be an inspiration for further actions that might lead to flow. However, interviewees experience Instagram as attractive due to the high variety of content and features the platform offers, its user-friendly design focusing on visuals, and framework conditions such as following trends or that users do not have to pay for it. Moreover, these aspects lead to experiences that evoke positive feelings such as amusement or social involvement. With regards to social media innovation, interviewees came up with changes for the future of Instagram such as including VR or new travel features. Finally, the results are discussed in light of concepts such as social media innovation and attractiveness and the theoretical background. Moreover, it gives practical and theoretical implications and discusses the limitations. Therefore, this study provides users, researchers, marketers and managers with valuable insights into consumer preferences in a social media-dominated era.
Table of Content ABSTRACT ... II LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ... IV LIST OF FIGURES ... V LIST OF TABLES ... VI INTRODUCTION ...1 SENSITIZING CONCEPTS ...3
Attractiveness of Social Media Experience ...3
Social Media Innovation ...4
THEORETICAL BACKGROUND ...5
INSTAGRAM ...5
USES AND GRATIFICATIONS THEORY ...6
UNDERLYING PSYCHOLOGICAL PROCESSES ...7
Flow ...7
Emotional Contagion ...8
Eudaimonic and Hedonic Needs ...8
METHODS ...9
RESEARCH DESIGN ...9
Grounded Theory ...9
Focus Groups ... 10
PARTICIPANTS AND PROCEDURE ... 11
ANALYSIS OF FOCUS GROUPS TRANSCRIPTS ... 14
RESULTS ... 16
ATTRACTIVENESS OF SOCIAL MEDIA EXPERIENCE ... 16
Features ... 16
Content... 20
Design ... 22
Framework Conditions ... 23
Experiences ... 25
Mind Map Evaluation ... 27
CONCLUSION AND DISCUSSION... 27
REFERENCES... 32
List of Abbreviations
AI – Artificial intelligence
CAQDAS – Computer assisted qualitative data analysis software CIM – Concept indicator model
FOMO – Fear of missing out IG – Instagram
IGTV – Instagram Television SNS – Social networking site UGC – User generated content UGT – Uses and gratifications theory VR – Virtual reality
List of Figures
Figure 1: Flow, Anxiety, and Boredom as Function of Medium Difficulty and Skill
(Sherry, 2004, p. 332)...8
Figure 2: Gender of the Sample ... 11
Figure 3: Age of the Sample ... 11
Figure 4: Nationality of the Sample ... 12
List of Tables
Introduction
Social media use is constantly growing and especially widespread among young adults (Pittman & Reich, 2016). Several studies have considered the effects of social networking sites (SNSs) on their users (e.g., Lup, Trub& Rosenthal, 2015; Ridgway & Clayton, 2016; Pittman & Reich, 2016; Sherman, Greenfield, Hernandez, & Dapretto, 2018) and these people’s underlying motivations to use social media platforms such as Instagram or Facebook (e.g., Lee, Lee, Moon, & Sung, 2015; Seidman, 2013). Especially Instagram, one of the most used SNSs in the world, is under constant focus of media and society (Smith & Anderson, 2018; Sheldon & Bryant, 2016). The majority of studies argue that Instagram use affects people negatively by leading to loneliness, sadness, or depression (e.g., Ridgway & Clayton, 2016; Yang, 2016). Furthermore, public opinion raises concerns that, for example, it has a negative influence on young girls’ self-esteem or body image by providing a platform for showing the unrealistic bodies of “perfect” women. In this context, Tiggemann and Zaccardo (2015) found that exposure to Instagram images of attractive celebrities and of attractive peer images leads to negative mood and body dissatisfaction. However, some studies argue that Instagram use might have positive effects on users, such as satisfaction with life or even happiness (e.g., Blight, Ruppel, & Schoenbauer, 2017; Pittman & Reich, 2016; Chen, Mark, & Ali, 2016). Pittman and Reich’s (2016) findings suggest that by using image-based social media platforms more frequently, loneliness may decrease, while happiness and satisfaction with life may increase. This is because in contrast to text-based social media platforms (e.g., Twitter), image-based SNSs offer enhanced intimacy, which means closely imitating real-life social interactions. Overall, the effects of Instagram have been investigated, mostly
sometimes suggesting positive effects (Pittman & Reich, 2016; Blight, Ruppel, & Schoenbauer, 2017).
What researchers have not yet included is what a social media platform can do to remain attractive and continue to be used in the future, and therefore investigating further the positive sides of social media. This study focuses on the social media platform Instagram, as it is one of the most-used and fastest-growing social media platforms (Duggan, 2015). The most common age group on Instagram is emerging adults: people between the ages of 18 – 29 years, who represent over one-third of all Instagram users (Smith & Anderson, 2018; Coyne, Padilla-Walker, & Howard, 2013). These people use Instagram more than any other social media platform and rate Instagram as more fun and entertaining than, for example, Facebook. These higher ratings are due to users’ ability to quickly communicate their feelings or situations via pictures (Pittman & Reich, 2016). Instagram is constantly evolving, so new research has to be conducted on this topic. Other social media platforms, for example MySpace, have failed, because they used ‘professional management’ to determine the business's future. This strategy is fatal when used in competition with big social media platforms like Facebook, who let its users and the marketplace decide the direction of the business (Hartung, 2011). Therefore, it becomes clear that there is a lack of research on the positive side of social media in general and the attractiveness of Instagram, since studies have mainly investigated the effects of social media use and not the aspects that keep users
engaged and show social media innovation. This study considers the characteristics of social media that make experiences on Instagram so attractive to users. In greater detail, it
investigates how users experience the platform, what makes it attractive and therefore lead to long-term user commitment. Therefore, the following research question is investigated in this study:
RQ:“How do users experience Instagram and how do these experiences relate to Instagram’s attractiveness and social media innovation?”
Since this research centres on people who use Instagram without a commercial purpose, influencers and professional content creators are not studied here. In order to properly answer the question, investigated through a qualitative research approach, firstly sensitizing concepts are introduced. Secondly, the theoretical background is illustrated by focusing on the uses and gratifications theory, and positive psychology processes such as flow, emotional contagion, and eudaimonic and hedonic needs. Thirdly, the methodological approach to investigate the research question is defined. Subsequently, the research process and the derived results are reported. In the concluding section, the results are interpreted and discussed.
Sensitizing Concepts
Within the framework of this study, a qualitative research method is used, more precisely, the method of grounded theory which will be discussed in more detail later on in the methods section. As a component of grounded theory, sensitizing concepts offer a theoretical basis (Bowen, 2006). During the process of data collection and analysis, sensitizing concepts can change and emerge. However, these concepts are important for qualitative data analysis, as they can help to guide the research and approach empirical instances. More precisely, sensitizing concepts function as interpretive terms and as a starting point for qualitative study by focusing on things that might be important for the topic under investigation (Bowen, 2006).
Attractiveness of Social Media Experience. Talking about attractiveness in general, researchers assume a stimulus (in this specific case, Instagram use) which affects people in a positive way, and therefore can be seen as attractive (Perkins, 1968). Norman (2002) has concluded that attractive things work better, especially regarding product design. He pleads that the more aesthetically pleasing something is to users, the more accessible and attractive it
is for them. Regarding the connection between attractiveness and tools, any pleasure that comes from the appearance or functioning of the tool increases positive affect, which
broadens creativity and therefore can also form a linkage with attractiveness (Norman, 2002). Additionally, attractive things need to be easy to use and provide enjoyment and pleasure to an audience. Norman discusses what a product needs to be attractive to a user:
To be truly beautiful, wondrous, and pleasurable, the product has to fulfill a useful function, work well, and be usable and understandable. The product must be
affordable, functional, and pleasurable – and, above all, a pleasure to own, a pleasure to use. (Norman, 2002, p. 42)
Furthermore, the author introduces the term ‘focus’, defined by the ability to
concentrate on a topic without distraction and to engage progressively with a topic until some resolution is reached. The concept of focus can also be related to the theory of flow
(Csikszentmihalyi, Abuhamdeh and Nakamura, 2014), which will be introduced later on. Attractiveness in relation to social media platforms is tightly connected to the content and the features these platforms offer. Sheldon and Bryant (2016) found the following main
motivations for users of Instagram: ‘surveillance / knowledge about others, ’‘documentation,’ ‘coolness,’ and ‘creativity’. These motivations can also be seen as specific aspects that make the experience of Instagram attractive to users, as these stimuli affect users in a positive way.
Social Media Innovation. In general, innovation implies newness. To better define and measure innovation, Johannessen, Olsen, and Lumpkin (2001) have investigated three dimensions of newness: what is new, how new, and new to whom? They offer a scale that addresses six areas of innovative activity: new products, new services, new methods of production, opening new markets, new sources of supply, and new ways of organizing. This
thesis centres on new products or features and services on Instagram and on new ways of organizing the platform. An online article by Bolsinger (2017) discusses social media best practices that refer to social media innovation indirectly. She notes several considerations necessary when working with social media: Trust, engagement, and community (Bolsinger, 2017). This article implies that if a social media platform is to be used on a long-term basis and maintain its attractiveness to users, it must not only develop constantly but also include these three factors. Moreover, nowadays most popular social media platforms such as Instagram, Snapchat and Facebook are continuously modified with regards to technological opportunities and the emerging needs of users (Brandtzaeg & Følstad, 2016). Thus, successful SNSs must persistently innovate.
Theoretical Background
In order to understand to what extent the topic of interest already has been investigated and what central concepts and underlying psychological processes are relevant for this
research, the social media channel Instagram is first discussed. Secondly, the uses and gratifications of social media in general and Instagram in particular are introduced. Thirdly, underlying psychological processes relevant to positive attitudes of users towards this social media platform are presented.
Instagram is a mobile photo and video capturing and sharing service owned by Facebook, which provides users a way to quickly show moments in their lives (Sheldon & Bryant, 2016). In contrast to Facebook profiles, Instagram profiles are often kept public, enabling users to ‘follow’ and therefore view, like, and comment on photos of people they do not know personally. Another feature of Instagram is the use of hashtags or labels used to
caption photos, enabling all photos with that hashtag to be searchable, regardless of the privacy settings of the user (de Vries et al., 2018). Since its launch by Kevin Systrom and Mike Krieger in October 2010, Instagram has attracted more than 800 million active monthly users, with an average of 95 million photos uploaded by users per day and more than 40 billion photos shared so far (Instagram, n.d.). According to the Pew report published by Rainie, Brenner, and Purcell (2012), photos and videos have become the major social
currencies on the Internet, which may explain the success of Instagram. According to Wagner (2017), Instagram added four features in 2016 in order to be more authentic: a 24-hour photo- and video-sharing feature called ‘Instagram Stories’, a feed-ranking algorithm, a live video broadcast, and ephemeral messaging, which means a chat function of which messages
disappear after a certain amount of time. Instagram Stories, in particular, became an important feature for self-expression, casual sharing and connecting more deeply with other users for more than 400 million Instagrammers every day (Instagram, n.d.). In June 2018, Instagram launched Instagram Television (IGTV), a new app for watching long-form videos from all Instagram users (Instagram, n.d.). These features enable more ‘real-world’ recordings instead of showing only superficial, highly modified or curated photographs on the Instagram feed.
Uses and Gratifications Theory
The uses and gratifications theory (UGT) can help to explain why people are attracted to Instagram and use it on a daily basis. The UGT is a framework that explains how and why people actively seek specific types of media (Blumler & Katz, 1974). One of the most cited sources for the uses and gratifications of new media (of which social media are now a part) is McQuail (2010). He distinguished four different categories of gratification: entertainment, integration and social interaction, personal identity, and information. With respect to
gratifications specific to Instagram, Lee, Lee, Moon, and Sung (2015) have found that users have five primary social and psychological motives for using the platform: social interaction,
archiving, self-expression, escapism and peeking (e.g. browsing photos related to ones interests). Instagram’s stated mission is to bring users closer to people and things they love (Instagram, n.d.). Asking why Instagram is unique among other social media platforms from a more practical view, Dooling (2018) identifies five major reasons that Instagram appeals to its users: It is image-based, accessible at anytime from anywhere, fast-paced, simple to use, and fun.
These findings give an appropriate overview of why people use social media and Instagram specifically, and therefore were considered in the focus groups (Lee, Lee, Moon, & Sung, 2015).
Underlying Psychological Processes
The kinds of psychological processes that may occur when an Instagram user evaluates Instagram positively and finds the experience on the platform attractive are discussed in the following sequence. Therefore, two positive psychology theories are
considered, and Oliver and Raney’s (2011) distinction of eudaimonic and hedonic needs when users consume media content is introduced.
Flow. Regarding positive aspects of social media, flow theory by Csikszentmihalyi, Abuhamdeh and Nakamura (2014) will be taken into consideration. This theory posits that people are happiest when in a state of flow: a state of concentration or complete absorption with the activity or situation at hand. Consequently, flow occurs when the difficulty of the task is balanced with the skills of the user (Sherry, 2004). If a task is too easy for the user, this results in boredom; likewise, tasks that require more skill than the user has can make the media consumer anxious and prevent the flow state (Sherry, 2004) (see figure 1). As flow is connected mostly to creative activities (e.g., playing the piano or drawing a painting), it is interesting to investigate if also social media can put people in a state of flow. Flow can be an
indicator for an attractive experience on Instagram, which may contribute to the platform’s longevity. The extent to which Instagram users experience flow while using the platform will be investigated during the focus groups. This state of flow should not be equated with social media addiction, where users experience negative consequences, preoccupation, and
withdrawal (Griffiths, Kuss, & Demetrovics, 2014; Andreassen, Torsheim, Brunborg, & Pallesen, 2012).
Emotional Contagion. This psychological process implies that emotional states can be transferred to others via emotional contagion, leading people to experience the same emotions without being aware of the transference (Kramer, Guillory, & Hancock, 2014). Social information encountered on Instagram may thus impact the viewer’s affective state positively, through emotional contagion (Johnson & Knobloch-Westerwick, 2017; Lin & Utz, 2015). For example, creative posts might inspire users exposed to the pictures therein to be more creative. Sheldon and Bryant (2016) have found that creativity can work as a motivator to use social media by participants of the study, saying that they find people with whom they have common interests, that they can create art, and that they can show off their photography skills when using Instagram.
Eudaimonic and Hedonic Needs. Oliver and Raney (2011) introduce the concepts of eudaimonic and hedonic needs, which characterize the ways in which media content is
Figure 1: Flow, Anxiety, and Boredom as Function of Medium Difficulty and Skill (Sherry, 2004, p. 332).
perceived by the audience. Thereby, they distinguish pleasure-seeking motives (hedonic concerns) as a motivator of media consumption, on the one hand, and they recognize that people may choose media as a means of ‘truth-seeking’ (eudaimonic concerns), on the other hand. The extent to which content on Instagram is experienced as more hedonic or
eudaimonic is investigated in this study.
Overall, flow and emotional contagion suggest positive processes that may occur during media use, and the theory of eudaimonic and hedonic needs regards whether the content is seen as meaningful (i.e., eudaimonic), superficial (i.e., hedonic), or both. These concepts are therefore applied throughout this study to conceive how users find the experience on Instagram attractive.
Methods
Research Design
Concerning the literature and the relevant theories in the first part of this thesis, a qualitative methodology is deployed. This methodology allows deeper understanding of how users navigate on Instagram, what they find attractive about the experience on the channel and what they believe Instagram must do to remain attractive in the next few years (Flick, 2014). A common qualitative method is grounded theory (Bowen, 2006).
Grounded Theory. With the aim of producing new theory as output of the research process, grounded theory is derived via inductive analysis, where the main themes and categories of analysis come from the data itself (Bowen, 2006; Patton, 1980). Therefore, this approach yields results through the systematic collection and analysis of data pertaining to a phenomenon (Strauss & Corbin, 1997). Data collection, analysis, and theory stand in a reciprocal relation to one other (Bowen, 2006). Within qualitative research, questions are
asked such as “What motivates people to use something?” or “What are their experiences?” Therefore, the development of new ideas is to be investigated. Furthermore, on this research method, creativity is crucial, as statements can be interpreted in various ways (Strauss & Corbin, 1997). Grounded theory reveals concepts and their appropriate indicators during the data analysis, allowing a researcher to understand the meaning of an experience from the participants in their various situations and contexts. A concept indicator model (CIM) can then be developed (Morse & Field, 1995).
Focus Groups. In order to gain insight into the experiences that make Instagram attractive to users and what it can do in order to be long-lasting and therefore exist in the future, it was deemed appropriate to interview focus groups. In contrast to one-on-one interviews or a survey, focus groups make possible in-depth insights into the ways that participants think about their Instagram use and the appealing experiences of this use within a group frame, where they can discuss different opinions (Kamberelis & Dimitriadis, 2013). Furthermore, the real strength of this method is not simply in exploring what people have to say, but also in providing more complex insights into the sources of behaviours and
motivations of participants (Morgan, 1996). Weaknesses of focus groups are linked to the role of the moderator in generating the data and the impact of the group itself on the data (Morgan, 1996). More precisely, the behaviour of the moderator has consequences for the nature of the group interviews in that sense that the moderator’s efforts to guide the group discussion can disrupt the interaction that the group is formed to observe (Morgan, 1996). Another weakness comes from the focus group itself in terms that discussions within the group can change participants’ attitudes. Furthermore, because group interaction requires mutual self-disclosure, some topics will be unacceptable for discussion among some research participants (Morgan, 1996). In order to answer the research question, a focus group guide was developed. The guide contained several questions as starting points for talking about
Instagram attractiveness and innovation, such as “What do you like about Instagram? And why do you like it?” and “Are there things that you wish would be on Instagram but are not yet?” The overall goal was to find out what experiences make Instagram attractive to its users and where they see innovation potential. Thereby, questions were asked regarding the participants’ general use of Instagram, their motivations to use it, and their opinions and experiences of the sensitizing concepts (see Appendix 1). Furthermore, the questions varied from focus group to focus group, as each composition of participants was different and as the moderators changed or adjusted questions accordingly. For example, after the first focus group, the question how much content (in percentages) interviewees consume and how much content they create on Instagram was added. This is because in the first focus group almost all participants indicated that they mostly consume content – an indicator of an attractive experience and therefore a topic to investigate in greater detail. Moreover, specific questions regarding the underlying psychological processes (e.g., flow) were integrated by asking, for example, how users feel before, during and after using of Instagram.
Participants and Procedure
Participants of the focus groups were aged between 18 – 29, therefore consisted of emerging adults, and all were registered on Instagram (Arnett, 2007). This sample can be described as a purposive sample, as attendees had to fulfil specific criteria. Participants came
70% 30% GENDER Female Male 5%5% 10% 30% 25% 10% 5%5%5% AGE 20 years 21 years 22 years 23 years 24 years 25 years 26 years 28 years 29 years
from 10 different nationalities but were living and recruited in the Netherlands, which has one of the highest internet penetration rates in the world (95.9%) (Internetworldstats.com, 2018).
This heterogeneous sample covered different opinions due to the high level of internationality, as Instagram is also a platform from people of various countries. Saturation was guaranteed by conducting four to five focus groups with four to six participants in each group. Furthermore, groups consisted of male and female participants to generate gender unbiased results. Four focus groups with a total of 20 people were held between 27 November 2018 and 6 December 2018, whereby this sample was sufficient, as statements started to become redundant and enough data was collected to create the concept indicator model. Participants were recruited through recruitment pamphlets distributed in the university’s buildings (Roeterseiland, Centrum and Science Park), Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, as well as through recruitment of people from the own social circle and network of the researcher, such as work colleagues and language school friends.
The focus groups took place in different locations: in a meeting room at the office of the researcher in Amsterdam, in the apartment of the researcher in Amsterdam and at Roeterseiland Campus of the University of Amsterdam. Participants were provided with plenty of food and drinks and in each group, one participant was chosen by random draw to win a cinema ticket with the value of €13. All participants had to sign an informed consent form whereby they agreed that their statements can be used in the thesis, with their names
5%5% 5% 5% 5% 5% 5% 5% 20% 40% NATIONALITY Armenia Switzerland Norway Lithuania Austria Luxemburg Great Britain Mexico Italy Germany
remaining anonymous. After each focus group, the researcher discussed statements from the participants with two research assistants and adjusted the focus group guide accordingly. The newest version of the focus group guide can be found in Appendix 1.
Certain techniques help to guarantee validity, reliability and transferability in
qualitative research. To ensure validity and credibility, meaning the topic of investigation will be studied with methods that simulate real life, the whole research process is described in detail (Onwuegbuzie & Leech, 2007). For example, the focus group interviews were carried out in real life settings. Thick description is guaranteed by describing the method section thoroughly and listing participants (see Appendix 5) in order to offer the reader an understanding of this study (Flick, 2014). This also helps the reader to assess the
transferability of the results, meaning that he or she can evaluate the extent to which the results also apply to other populations or contexts. Two student colleagues were integrated in the research process as note takers and focus group assistants in order to provide triangulation during the focus groups (Flick, 2014). Moderators changed during the focus groups to avoid a single biased moderator steering the discussion in a certain direction. The technique of peer debriefing was employed by discussing the data analysis and results with fellow researchers, which helped to create new and creative ideas throughout the investigation and leads to reliability (i.e., trustworthiness). For example, fellow researchers came up with the term trends which works as an indicator for the CIM (see results section). To enhance
trustworthiness, credibility and therefore make people understand what has been done during the research process, notes were taken during the analysis of the transcripts, which is called memo writing (see Appendix 7) (Flick, 2014). A preliminary focus group was conducted with the focus group assistants, where they checked the questions and offered advice for
improvement. For example, fellow researchers pointed out that the initial question on how participants came to the idea of using Instagram can be left out because it added unnecessary information. Another form of triangulation was used during the data analysis process by
consulting a social media specialist (who wanted to stay anonymous), to discuss statements from the focus groups, offering her opinion on the outcomes of the focus groups. For example, she indicated that it is important to clarify who the users under investigation are in this thesis, as there are several groups of users on Instagram (professionals and
non-professionals). Lastly, computer-assisted qualitative data analysis software (CAQDAS) was applied with the software Atlas.ti, in order to be able to organise and cluster the data (see Appendix 3) (Wickham & Woods, 2005). Table 1 presents an overview of the quality criteria techniques applied in this research.
Table 1: Quality Criteria Techniques
Reliability
Trustworthiness Validity Credibility Generalizability Transferability
Triangulation Peer debriefing Memo writing Thick description Method section CAQDAS
Analysis of Focus Groups Transcripts
In order to analyse the statements from the focus groups, all discussions were transcribed from audio memos into word-processing documents. After a first read, the transcripts were transferred to Atlas.ti, where concepts and corresponding indicators were found and defined. The coding process for grounded theory can be divided into three steps: open coding, axial coding and selective coding. Strauss and Corbin define the open coding process as follows: “the data are broken down into discrete parts, closely examined, compared for similarities and differences, and questions are asked about the phenomena reflected in the data” (1997, p. 62).Therefore, the transcripts were carefully examined for similarities and
general concepts. The focus group interviews were broken down into 723 citations, and 287 codes were assigned to them (e.g., appealing features according to the participants, how they use Instagram or sample characteristics) (see Appendix 3). Next, axial coding was used, a process in which the coder intensively analyses one category at a time, emphasising conditions, interactions among the participants, their concrete statements, and the
consequences (Strauss, 1987). Here, codes with the same or similar meaning were merged and assigned to two general upper groups (i.e., social media innovation and social media
attractiveness) with 9 subgroups consisting of 48 codes, which helped to develop the dimensions and indicators for the CIM. As a guideline for groups, the sensitizing concepts and the underlying psychological processes were consulted, but whenever a statement did not fit into one of those groups, a new group was created. For example, when participants
indicated that they find the content on Instagram attractive because it shows them exactly what they want to see, or that also the advertisements on the platform are really tailored to their interests, those statements were put into a group (e.g., personalized content). As a result, the concept indicator model was developed. Thereby, an indicator refers to a word, phrase, or sentence from the focus group transcript under analysis (LaRossa, 2005). A concept is then an umbrella term that summarizes related dimensions consisting of various indicators. Thus, content can work as a dimension of the concept attractiveness of social media experience and certain aspects of content, such as diversity or personalization, can work as indicators of content. The final step in the coding process is selective coding. Through this process, the researcher decides what story he or she wants to tell (LaRossa, 2005). The story that the researcher tells according to the data set should be lucid, understandable, accurate, and compelling (LaRossa, 2005). A researcher here adds a personal element to the data set, interpreting the results uniquely.
Results
Ultimately, the analysis of the data produced a concept indicator model, consisting of five dimensions that contribute to attractive experiences on Instagram and give advice for the longevity and innovation on the platform (see figure 5). These dimensions are content, features, design, framework conditions, and experiences. In the following, these dimensions and their underlying indicators are explained through statements from the focus groups.
Attractiveness of Social Media Experience
Features. Existing features. Commercial features. An important dimension for the high appeal of the platform reported by interviewees is the platform’s various features. Commercial features, such as the product-tagging or swipe-up function, allow users to buy products via Instagram or forward them to interesting and helpful websites. For example, one attendee (Lea) explained that she likes the fact that she instantly can buy something via Instagram by just tapping on the product tag and being forwarded to the web shop.
Creation features. Another feature appealing to attendees is that they can create content via pictures, videos or stories, which they rate as a way of being creative, expressing themselves, their interests, and events of their lives. Participants especially pointed out the story feature, which is one of their favourite features because they feel especially entertained by it. Another creative feature that, according to attendees, is entertaining, are the filters, by which users can make their pictures look nicer, funnier, or more interesting. For example, one interviewee (Patricia) mentioned that via creation features she can post photos, edit them, make captions, and tell a story via Instagram Stories and that she likes the creativity of this process.
Connection features. Features that connect users with each other, such as Instagram messenger or the possibility to comment, share or like, were also highly appreciated by respondents. They reported that not only does it give them a feeling of belonging but also that through these features they feel connected to people with same interests.
But I really like the basic features that you can comment and like other peoples’ pictures so that you can interact on it. And I really like stories because it’s so easy to get input but also to make output (laughs). I like the filters, I must say. I don't like that photos are over edited but I do like that you can edit your photos with it. And I also really like the shopping feature, the new one. Yeah, it’s really convenient, for example. Also if you follow Ikea, you can tap on the image and you see how much this lamp costs. (Anna)
This statement shows appealing aspects of several features on Instagram such as connection features (commenting and liking), creation features (filters), or commercial features (shopping).
Information features. Interviewees considered information features such as the discovery page or the hashtag as appealing due to the possibility of easily gathering
information via a post with a relevant caption. If more information on a specific topic is needed, they still can go on a news platform but Instagram gives them a starting point. One respondent (Greta) indicated that she does not follow meme pages, but via the discovery page she gets to those kinds of pages, which she finds nice, because she discovers content that otherwise she would not.
Existing features that could be left out. As many features exist already on Instagram, respondents pointed out that some are not necessary and useful for them, for example
Instagram TV where some not even knew what it is. For example, one participant (Nora) said that she would eliminate that feature, because YouTube is available for streaming longer videos. As Instagram is mostly used on mobile devices, according to participants, longer videos are not suitable for the platform and they cannot do other things on the phone (i.e. multitask) while watching a longer video on Instagram. Furthermore, attendees said they do not want ads on the platform because they find, due to this feature, Instagram has become way more commercial in comparison to its inception. Furthermore, at that time, the content
algorithm did not exist, and the feed was chronological, not dictated by the relevance Instagram assigns to certain accounts or posts which participants also find more appealing.
Keeping platform specifics. Following up on the point about Instagram TV, attendees agreed that there are several platforms such as Facebook, YouTube, Twitter and so on, and that every platform has specific functions. Therefore, they want Instagram to keep its focus on visuals and avoid trying to be something that it is not by integrating, for example, the TV function, which is more appropriate for YouTube. When asking whether they want an app that covers up everything, interviewees mentioned that they do not want one big player to have the control over every service they use. Participants want for various independent platforms with specific services:
I like the specificity of it, that it’s about visuals and, for example, Netflix is about professional movies, professional series. I like that Facebook for me is about connecting to friends in a way and following events, like Facebook is my calendar. Yeah, so WhatsApp is for me keeping close contact. So everything has its specific feature and I guess Instagram is the best in working with images and visuals and short videos. YouTube is the best in working with semi-professional videos. So that is my preference in general. (Sandy)
New features. Constantly introducing and adjusting features. With regards to
innovative features, participants put forward several ideas. One interviewee (Anna) indicated that Instagram could expand the travel features so that the user not only can buy products via Instagram but also book hotels, for instance. Respondents want Instagram to keep introducing new features from other platforms, as they did with the story function (an adaption of
Snapchat). Respondents reported that they want a feature to explore music, similar to Spotify, which would also be a new entertainment feature. In any case, participants agreed on one thing: Instagram has to change continuously in order to remain innovative and continue to be used in the future.
I also think it’s going to exist in the next few years, but I also think it’s not going to be as it is now. I think it’s going to change and it’s got to keep changing, and it had to change, it has to change. Like as long as it changes, it’s going to be here for longer, and I also agree it’s been replacing other things, by adding them into it, but they are doing it good. Because Facebook kept adding stuff and games and news and
advertising and groups. Which in the end was too much. Yes, but Instagram is doing it really good. So I just hope they keep doing it really good. But I do think they are going to be exist for longer. (Jane)
New technologies. According to respondents, another aspect that Instagram should include in the future in their features is virtual reality (VR) or artificial intelligence (AI). One participant (Arno) mentioned that if Instagram would implement VR as a feature, this could generate more immersive content, because users then would have the chance to create content that involves people more.
Making it more user-friendly. Respondents named several aspects that would make Instagram more user-friendly. On the one hand, they want Instagram to eliminate features that already exist (see section above, p.18), and on the other hand, they would like Instagram to come up with new features such as promoting accounts that might not have the most
followers but provide good and creative content. One interviewee (Paolo) mentioned further that he wants Instagram to reduce the focus on numbers and instead concentrate more on the content or the person behind it. Another feature that respondents would like to have on Instagram, related to the algorithm, is that whenever they open the app, they want to begin with the content they last consumed on the app. At the moment, users can only see the most relevant, newest posts when they open the app and not the posts that they viewed last.
Safety agreements. Participants reported that they are annoyed by fake accounts and bots, by which users can buy themselves fake followers. Therefore, they indicated that those accounts should be eliminated. With the introduction of new safety features, they want Instagram to regulate the age of the audience, especially with regards to unrealistic portrayals of body standards, so that teens are not negatively influenced by these pictures (e.g., skinny girls, eating disorders, etc.). One participant (Nora) mentioned that she would like to have certain posts censored or blurred for younger users (under 18 years).
Content. Content-related aspects. Diversity and Personalization. Interviewees reported that one of the main reasons why they find Instagram so attractive is its content. Not only does Instagram show them a very diverse spectrum of content – animal pictures, food
bloggers, nature photography, comedians, meme pages and much more – but also this diversity is tailored to users’ interests. Therefore, personalization is another reason they find content on Instagram appealing:
I think the fact that you can totally curate what you’re seeing is very appealing. I’m usually like looking at stuff from people I follow so I can totally decide what’s there. Like if I think, okay, I want more like scenic pictures, I can just go switch to another profile. It’s not like on Facebook, where you got a lot of crap. Instagram is like you make it exactly what you want. (Kate)
Quality standards and user generated content. That content on Instagram has very high quality is another indicator of the platform’s attractiveness. One interviewee (Patricia) stated that most people who post content on Instagram put much effort into their pictures and videos. Furthermore, the fact that Instagram provides a platform for user-generated content (UGC) and therefore gives every profile an individual touch is also perceived as appealing for interviewees.
Functional aspects. Source of information and entertainment. Attendees indicated that they like that Instagram can be used as a source for entertainment and information.
Entertainment-wise, they laugh about funny memes, look at interesting videos or stories of others or get inspired by the newest food trends on food blogger pages. Information-wise, participants not only get social but also general information about what is happening in the world. One interviewee (Lena) mentioned that via Instagram she can keep up both with friends and with the lives of strangers. Furthermore, participants described Instagram as allowing them not only to capture moments but also to archive them and look back at moments from the past.
Design. Simplicity, easy to use and focus on visuals. Related to design aspects, respondents indicated that Instagram focuses on visuals, but also on a clean and minimalist interface that reflects simplicity.
I think it’s attractive as well. Like if you actually look at like either your profile or someone else’s, or in the feed, it’s all pretty simple and nice. Like the little hearts or the way that the stories are presented in circles. Like it’s just very clean and attractive. It’s not like when you use some apps and you’re just like what is all this stuff? It’s just pretty simple and, it’s low-key kind of. (Kate)
Attendees pointed out that it is very easy and fast to consume and create content on Instagram. For example, one participant (Tomaso) said that he can post a picture within a few seconds, and he can also decide how long he wants to consume content on Instagram, which means that there is no time commitment for the platform. With regards to the access of the platform, interviewees expressed that they like that the platform is easily accessible. Not only they can find various audiences (e.g., peers, celebrities, public figures, friends and family) on the platform, but Instagram is also easy to install and costs nothing. Furthermore, it has a huge amount of members, implying that many different people with many different interests are represented on the app. One participant (Greta) mentioned that she would not use the platform if there were not so many users on it. Furthermore, participants reported that the design is tailored to the users’ needs and that it is also user-friendly, avoiding too many options, as compared to Facebook, for example. Such statements also indicate simplicity.
Device. Participants reported that their mobile phone is the main device with which they use Instagram and that Instagram is not suitable for laptop use. When asked whether they would use it on their laptop in the future, they indicated that they find the app more
convenient to use on a phone, because a unique quality of Instagram is that it can be used anytime, anywhere, which is not possible with the laptop.
Also I only use it on my phone, like I would never do it on the laptop. Like it would be so annoying to have it on your laptop because also your own content is kind of like so connected to the phone. I don’t take a picture with my laptop. (Lea)
Framework Conditions. Usage. Diversity of usage. Respondents indicated several framework conditions that make the experience on the platform attractive to them. Regarding usage time, participants reported that they use Instagram on a daily basis, mostly several times per day, between two minutes and one hour per session. Moreover, framework conditions allow users to use the platform in various situations: they can use it when they are in bed, having breakfast, on a train ride, waiting for public transport, at home, at work, or at university. One participant (Joe) stated that he can use it either for work or in his free time, which shows the diversity of Instagram use to be quite high.
Consuming vs. creating. Respondents mentioned that they can decide whether they want to passively consume or actively create on the platform, which makes it very appealing to them. However, interviewees said that lately they consume way more (about 80%) than they actually create (20%). This development has occurred not only because participants do not have as much time as they used to have to create content, but also because they think that the quality of the content has increased over time, so they post only when they think that they have good content to share.
For me, it’s more than 80% consuming for sure, I use Instagram on a daily basis, but don’t post every day, so because I think I get a bit self-conscious about my posts. But I also don’t think that I have a lot of relevant things to share, like I share when I think something funny happened...So for me it’s more like the consuming and then, from time to time, sharing, but very rarely. (Paul)
Trends. Market trends. According to respondents, the fact that Instagram follows trends that occur in the market creates an attractive experience on the platform and makes it innovative. Respondents reported that Instagram has to do market research by continuously observing and adapting features or elements from other social media platforms, in order to stay innovative. One respondent (Paul) stated that Instagram has already implemented great features from other social media platforms, but in order to be innovative, they have to look to their competitors and try to outmatch them.
Instagram finances. When participants were asked what would make them stop using the platform, they said that as soon as Instagram started to monetize usage, they would leave the platform. Moreover, they indicated that they would not pay a monthly fee, even if
advertising ceased on Instagram. They pay only for services that, in comparison to
competitors, are cheaper, and as long as there is no better or different version of Instagram that costs, they are not willing to pay for it.
I think market-wise, because for instance I pay for Spotify, because it gives me a service that I otherwise would have to get more expensively, like on iTunes, buying it. But like to me, Instagram isn’t really a service. Like if I would have to start paying for Instagram, I would probably just stop using it. (Arno)
Privacy concerns within social media. Interviewees plead for more transparency, especially when it comes to how Instagram uses its users’ data. Coinciding with transparency, participants also stated that they are sceptical about censorship within social media because they want everyone to be able to speak their opinion.
I think maybe I’m more sceptical towards things that I don’t want them to do. Like I know that they’re considering like bullying filters and different filters by which they will not show you every type of content. On the one hand, I find that good. But I also
find it very scary because they’re not open about how they would filter and it feels like kind of a censorship. Yeah, something would be censored, and I always find
censorship to be a very questionable topic. (Diana)
The fact that Instagram now belongs to Facebook is also something that respondents want Instagram to change. They stated that having one big player with all the power is not good. Therefore, participants want Instagram to be independent again.
Future vision of social media. Participants indicated that Instagram will continue to exist over the next few years, not only due to its huge audience but also because they are constantly changing and adjusting their platform according to the users’ needs. Moreover, as already mentioned, if Instagram keeps introducing similar but better features than other platforms, respondents indicated that then Instagram will continue to dominate social media:
I also think it will stay, just because slowly it took more and more features that other apps were having and I also stopped using Snapchat because of Instagram because it added stories and because you could send pictures that disappear and direct messages, and I just think it’s more pretty than Snapchat and I think with every new feature, yeah, it will just be a step closer to dominating the social media landscape. (Anna)
Experiences. Positive feelings. All these attractive experiences and aspects mentioned above lead to positive feelings for users. These feelings are also connected to social
involvement experienced via the use of the platform. Participants indicated, for example, that they feel amused, inspired, entertained, excited, relaxed, or curious because of Instagram. Therefore, the dimension of experiences works as an intermediate step between the dimensions of content, features, design, framework conditions and attractive social media experience.
Yeah, I think I can also feel like I don’t know if this is overdoing it but like you can feel a little bit inspired from it. Like if I see, I follow a lot of like really creative people. So I see what they’re making all the photographs they take or what they’re doing and I’m like, yeah, I should go out and take some pictures, you know, so that really affects me positively. (Lena)
Another participant (Diana) mentioned the ‘Instagram spiral’, where she goes through the discovery page and explores content for a longer period of time and where she also loses sense of time. Moreover, she reports that this happens when she wants to escape from all her duties in real life and just being exposed to positive feelings.
Social involvement. Interviewees mentioned that they get socially involved through Instagram by watching stories or looking at posts from friends and seeing what they are doing, or that Instagram also initiates conversations through responses to stories or posts from others. Here, respondents pointed out especially the chat function via Instagram messenger, where they can have longer conversations with people and that this leads to a positive mood because they feel connected to somebody.
When you publish a story then people can swipe up and respond and that's why often interactions start. And also sometimes with people you wouldn't have expected it, which I find really nice. (Max)
Moreover, the same participant (Max) indicated that he experiences the environment on Instagram as friendly and welcoming, because people are nice to each other, and not much of negativity appears there, unlike on Facebook, for example. Another interviewee (Sandy) mentioned that when she looks at food posts or do-it-yourself tutorials, then she feels inspired and might put this inspiration into action.
Mind Map Evaluation. During the focus groups, as an exercise, participants were asked to write down the first thoughts that came into their mind when they considered innovation and Instagram. In these mind maps (see Appendix 4), the following terms were named the most in relation to Instagram: inspiration, creativity, likes, and entertainment. For innovation, the terms creativity, technology, sustainability and artificial intelligence were most common. These terms might imply that those are the most important aspects for participants on Instagram, in relation to innovation.
Conclusion and Discussion
The present study provides a comprehensive understanding of how users experience Instagram and what experiences are related to its attractiveness and importance for social media innovation. Therefore, it extends the limited existing body of literature on the positive sides of social media and gives valuable empirical insights. Focus group results show that features, content, design, framework conditions and experiences contribute to attractiveness on Instagram.
More specific, commercial, creation, information, and connection features prompt positive experiences with the platform. For example, participants like that they can easily buy things, be creative or text with others via the app. A feature that could be left out according to interviewees is Instagram TV as longer videos already exist on Youtube and the platform has to keep its specifics. Participants do not want to have everything in one app, as this would be a monopoly and they do not want one big player to have the power over everything.
Respondents want Instagram to constantly introduce and adjust new technologies and services: VR to make it more immersive or safety agreements which regulate the age of the audience and blur unrealistic, unhealthy body portrayals for younger users. Content-related, Instagram is very diverse as it, for example, ranges from animal pages, bloggers, interior
design to meme pages. Moreover, participants like the personalized content tailored to the users´ interests. Functionally, interviewees use Instagram as a source of information and entertainment about people and things they know but also about strangers and new topics. Respondents reported experiencing Instagram as attractive because of its simple design. Not only is the platform easy to use, but also it focuses on visuals and is mainly suitable for mobile devices. In order to make the design even more attractive, Instagram should reduce the focus on numbers and concentrate on the content or the person behind a profile. Regarding framework conditions, respondents like that they can consume and create via the app, whereby they mostly use it passively by consuming content. Furthermore, they can use the platform whenever and wherever they want (e.g. while waiting for the train, being in bed, etc.). Opinions from users on market trends include that they want Instagram to observe and adapt features or elements from other social media platforms such as creating a music exploring feature (similar to Spotify). They also want the platform to follow general trends with regards to privacy concerns, where they plead for more transparency on how Instagram uses data of its users. Concerning the trend of monetizing services, participants would not pay for Instagram as long as there is no competitor who charges a user fee. Regarding future visions of social media, interviewees indicate that they think Instagram will exist not only because of its popularity but also because the platform continuously changes. Results further show that experiences with Instagram evoke social involvement, such as connection to others and positive feelings like for example amusement, inspiration or entertainment among users and therefore lead to attractiveness. Nevertheless, there were also negative portrayals of feelings and experiences on Instagram but these were not taken into consideration, as this study concentrates on the positive sides of social media.
Under the focus of uses and gratifications theory, and positive psychological
processes, such as flow, emotional contagion and eudaimonic and hedonic needs, results show some interesting commonalities. Several aspects indicate conditions for flow
(Csikszentmihalyi, Abuhamdeh, & Nakamura, 2014), even though it could not be proven directly that users experience flow while being on the platform. Emotional contagion
(Kramer, Guillory, & Hancock, 2014), could be a pre-condition for flow, as results show that users actually might be positively affected by experiences with Instagram in that they become inspired by posts from others or even that they, due to content seen on Instagram, take action after using the platform. Moreover, respondents indicated that they sometimes lose sense of time while using the platform, which could also indicate a connection to flow. Concerning eudaimonic and hedonic needs (Oliver & Raney, 2011), participants mentioned that they use Instagram mainly for entertainment and superficial reasons (e.g., scrolling through their feed and consuming content quickly), but surprisingly, they also reported that they get meaningful deep connections via Instagram which indicates that not only hedonic but also eudaimonic needs get satisfied. These meaningful needs might be another pre-condition for flow as users are in a state of concentration with the activity at hand (Csikszentmihalyi, Abuhamdeh, & Nakamura, 2014). Regarding design, in line with Norman (2002), results show that the more aesthetic something is, the easier it is to use and the more attractive it is for users. Participants further find the Instagram design attractive because it provides enjoyment and pleasure which is why thid might be a framework condition for flow. Respondents reported that they
experience social involvement, whereby users feel socially connected via Instagram which can be compared to the social interaction motivation from the uses and gratifications of Instagram by Lee, Lee, Moon, and Sung (2015). Content on Instagram works as a source of information and entertainment for users, whereby participants find it appealing that they can archive posts and look back at happy moments on the platform. This view of Instagram can be linked to the archiving motivation developed by Lee, Lee, Moon and Sung (2015). Another commonality is escapism as a motivation, as interviewees reported that they want to escape from all their duties in real life and be exposed only to positive stimulation on Instagram. With respect to social media innovation aspects by Johannessen, Olsen, and Lumpkin (2001),
respondents made various suggestions to improve the experience on Instagram. They want Instagram to continuously introduce and adjust features (new services), and they want it to become more immersive by, for example, including VR and new technologies (new
products). Furthermore, they see great potential for Instagram in being more transparent on how they deal with data from users (new ways of organizing), and they have a clear opinion about not monetizing Instagram use in the future.
These findings lead to several suggestions for future research. As respondents
mentioned that they mostly consume content on Instagram, it may be interesting to investigate flow with professional content creators (e.g. influencers) on Instagram, who use the platform more actively. In this regard, future research could investigate whether short-term (i.e. using the platform for a short time span) and long term-commitment (spending a longer amount of time on the platform) and Instagram usage from professional content creators differ,
satisfying more eudaimonic needs. Furthermore, future research on this topic could
investigate more deeply the innovative features, emphasising new technologies to uncover how these are perceived as attractive to their users. Moreover, researchers could investigate what Instagram has to do to make people pay a monthly fee, as respondents indicated that they would not pay for the platform. With regards to the sample, as expected, the
heterogeneity of participants generated different opinions and allowed vivid discussions, increasing the variety of opinions on the topic registered in the present research. With a homogenous sample, there would have been a higher density of results, because interviewees would have reached more consensus due to their similar cultural backgrounds. As such, future research could investigate how Instagram use is perceived in only one country. Another direction for future research would be to make a clear distinction between attractive social media experience and social media addiction, as this study does not point to clear differences.
As some uses and gratifications for using Instagram by Lee, Lee, Moon and Sung (2015) could be confirmed in this study, a practical implication is that features that allow
social interaction, archiving, and escapism have to be continuously integrated in future social media concepts. Furthermore, Instagram should create new features such as VR and a music explorer and content suitable for mobile phones, as this is the device used for Instagram. Insights from this study therefore not only give researchers indicators for future research, but also enable users, marketers and managers to understand and act upon attractive experiences and innovation on social media.
A limitation of this study is that cultural background and nationality-specific details were not taken into account. It is therefore unclear, how much the different cultures of participants in this study played a part in the reported experiences which make the platform attractive. In order to gain more insight into how the experience with Instagram changes over time and therefore get more diverse results, a longitudinal study would offer insight in social media biographies. Since quantitative studies usually have large sample sizes they are better able to produce representative and generalizable data. Moreover, quantitative studies are necessary to investigate how the weight of the importance of each aspect is allocated or even occurs in a representative sample.
Finally, this focus group study shows how analysis on social media attractiveness sheds light on diverse experiences with a SNS for emerging adults. On the contrary to studies that focus on the negative side of social media, this study contributes to knowledge of positive experiences with SNS and therefore illuminates the topic of interest from a positive angle.
References
Andreassen, C. S., Torsheim, T., Brunborg, G. S., & Pallesen, S. (2012). Development of a Facebook addiction scale. Psychological reports, 110(2), 501-517.
Arnett, J. J. (2007). Emerging adulthood: What is it, and what is it good for?. Child development perspectives, 1(2), 68-73.
Blight, M. G., Ruppel, E. K., & Schoenbauer, K. V. (2017). Sense of community on Twitter and Instagram: Exploring the roles of motives and parasocial relationships. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 20(5), 314-319.
Blumler, J. G., & Katz, E. (1974). The uses of mass communications: Current perspectives on gratifications research (Vol. 1974). Sage Publications, Inc.
Bolsinger, K. (2017). Social Media Best Practices. Retrieved September 29, 2018, from https://moz.com/beginners-guide-to-social-media/best-practices
Bowen, G. A. (2006). Grounded theory and sensitizing concepts. International journal of qualitative methods, 5(3), 12-23.
Brandtzaeg, P. B., & Følstad, A. (2016). Social Media Use and Innovations: Introduction to the Special Issue. The Journal of Media Innovations, 3(1), 1-3.
Chen, Y., Mark, G., & Ali, S. (2016). Promoting positive affect through smartphone photography. Psychology of well-being, 6(1), 8.
Coyne, S. M., Padilla-Walker, L. M., & Howard, E. (2013). Emerging in a digital world: A decade review of media use, effects, and gratifications in emerging adulthood. Emerging Adulthood, 1(2), 125-137.
Csikszentmihalyi, M., Abuhamdeh, S., & Nakamura, J. (2014). Flow. In Flow and the foundations of positive psychology (pp. 227-238). Springer, Dordrecht.
de Vries, D. A., Möller, A. M., Wieringa, M. S., Eigenraam, A. W., & Hamelink, K. (2018). Social comparison as the thief of joy: emotional consequences of viewing strangers’ Instagram posts. Media Psychology, 21(2), 222-245.
Dooling, E. (2018, January 23). 5 Traits That Differentiate Instagram From Other Social Networks. Retrieved November 9, 2018, from
https://churchtechtoday.com/2018/01/23/5-traits-that-differentiate-instagram-from-other-social-networks/
Duggan, M. (2015). Mobile messaging and social media 2015. Pew Research Center.
Retrieved from http://www.pewinternet.org/files/2015/08/Social-Media-Update-2015-FINAL2.pdf
Flick, U. (2018). An introduction to qualitative research. Sage Publications Limited. Griffiths, M. D., Kuss, D. J., & Demetrovics, Z. (2014). Social networking addiction: An
overview of preliminary findings. In Behavioral addictions (pp. 119-141).
Hartung, A. (2011, January 14). How Facebook Beat Myspace. Retrieved October 10, 2018, from https://www.forbes.com/sites/adamhartung/2011/01/14/why-facebook-beat-myspace/#2e672b70147e
Instagram. (n.d.). Retrieved November 4, 2018, from Instagram website: https://instagram-press.com
Internetworldstats.com (2018) World internet usage and population statistics. Available online at http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats4.htm#europe (accessed on 28 January 2019).
Johannessen, J. A., Olsen, B., & Lumpkin, G. T. (2001). Innovation as newness: what is new, how new, and new to whom?. European Journal of innovation management, 4(1), 20-31.
Johnson, B. K., & Knobloch-Westerwick, S. (2017). When misery avoids company: Selective social comparisons to photographic online profiles. Human Communication Research, 43(1), 54-75.
Kamberelis, G., & Dimitriadis, G. (2013). Focus groups: From structured interviews to collective conversations. Routledge.
Kramer, A. D., Guillory, J. E., & Hancock, J. T. (2014). Experimental evidence of massive-scale emotional contagion through social networks. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 201320040.
LaRossa, R. (2005). Grounded theory methods and qualitative family research. Journal of marriage and Family, 67(4), 837-857.
Lee, E., Lee, J. A., Moon, J. H., & Sung, Y. (2015). Pictures speak louder than words:
Motivations for using Instagram. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 18(9), 552-556.
Lin, R., & Utz, S. (2015). The emotional responses of browsing Facebook: Happiness, envy, and the role of tie strength. Computers in human behavior, 52, 29-38.
Lup, K., Trub, L., & Rosenthal, L. (2015). Instagram#instasad?: exploring associations
among Instagram use, depressive symptoms, negative social comparison, and strangers followed. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 18(5), 247-252.
McQuail, D. (2010). McQuail's mass communication theory. Sage publications. Morgan, D. L. (1996). Focus groups. Annual review of sociology, 22(1), 129-152.
Morse, J. M., & Field, P. A. (1995). Qualitative research methods for health professionals. Norman, D. (2002). Emotion & design: attractive things work better. interactions, 9(4),
36-42.
Oliver, M. B., & Raney, A. A. (2011). Entertainment as pleasurable and meaningful: Identifying hedonic and eudaimonic motivations for entertainment consumption. Journal of Communication, 61(5), 984-1004.
Onwuegbuzie, A. J., & Leech, N. L. (2007). Validity and qualitative research: An oxymoron?. Quality & Quantity, 41(2), 233-249.
Patton, M. Q. (1980). Qualitative evaluation methods. Beverly Hills.
Perkins Jr, C. C. (1968). An analysis of the concept of reinforcement. Psychological Review, 75(2), 155.
Pittman, M., & Reich, B. (2016). Social media and loneliness: Why an Instagram picture may be worth more than a thousand Twitter words. Computers in Human Behavior, 62, 155-167.
Rainie, L., Brenner, J., & Purcell, K. (2012). Photos and videos as social currency online. Pew Internet & American Life Project.
Ridgway, J. L., & Clayton, R. B. (2016). Instagram unfiltered: Exploring associations of body image satisfaction, Instagram# selfie posting, and negative romantic relationship outcomes. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 19(1), 2-7. Seidman, G. (2013). Self-presentation and belonging on Facebook: How personality
influences social media use and motivations. Personality and Individual Differences, 54(3), 402-407.
Sheldon, P., & Bryant, K. (2016). Instagram: Motives for its use and relationship to narcissism and contextual age. Computers in human Behavior, 58, 89-97.
Sherman, L. E., Greenfield, P. M., Hernandez, L. M., & Dapretto, M. (2018). Peer influence via Instagram: Effects on brain and behavior in adolescence and young
adulthood. Child development, 89(1), 37-47.
Sherry, J. L. (2004). Flow and media enjoyment. Communication theory, 14(4), 328-347. Smith, A., & Anderson, M. (2018). Social media use in 2018. Washington, DC: Pew Internet
& American Life Project. Retrieved March, 3, 2018.
Strauss, A. L. (1987). Qualitative analysis for social scientists. Cambridge University Press. Strauss, A., & Corbin, J. M. (1997). Grounded theory in practice. Sage.
