Religiosity, physical activity and the role of the need for relatedness

Religiosity, Physical Activity and the Role of the Need for Relatedness Marius Koch

Bachelorproject Sociale Psychologie Student: Marius Koch

Leerlingnummer: I 0564985 Aantal woorden: 5144

Begeleiders: Dr. Noah Millman & Dr. Svenja A. Wolf Universiteit Van Amsterdam

Abstract

According to previous studies it is likely that both physical activity and religion create possibilities for people to interact and develop social bonds with significant others.

Therefore it is proposed that both religion and physical activity play a role in the extent to which someone's need for relatedness is satisfied. We expected that when an individual is committed to his religion, someone's need for relatedness is satisfied and this is why he or she would not seek for relatedness in the domain of physical activity. Students from the Universiteit van Amsterdam, Hoge School van Amsterdam and Christelijke Hoge School Ede were asked to fill out questionnaires, measuring religious commitment, engagement in physical activity and satisfaction of the need for relatedness. Based on this

questionnaires showed that both religious commitment and physical activity did not correlate with satisfaction of the need for relatedness. Further research needs to be done to outline the circumstances under which physical activity and religion are associated with senses of relatedness.

The Desire for friendships and other social attachments can be seen as fundamental to human motivation (Baumeister & Leary, 1995). People tend to have a certain eagerness to be connected to others and therefore experience senses of belonging and relatedness. This need for relatedness can be defined as the universal want to interact, be connected to, and experience caring for others (Baumeister & leary, 1995). Satisfaction of the need for relatedness leads to better mental health and better individual functioning. For example Kasser & Ryan ( 1999) found that the quality of relatedness with friends was associated with well-being and life satisfaction. Besides, perceived availability of belonging and relatedness also works as a stress buffer (Cohen,

Sherrod & Clark, 1986). When the need for relatedness is not satisfied it has the opposite effect. Windle ( 1992) found that reduced levels of perceived support from friends and family are related to depression and delinquency in adolescence. Furthermore, absence of attachments is associated with a range of bad effects on someone's health, adjustment and well-being (Baumeister & leary, 1995). Human beings have a drive to develop and maintain a certain amount of positive and significant interpersonal relationships and if this fails, it can result in feelings of social isolation (Baumeister & leary, 1995). In short, individuals have fewer psychological difficulties, are more stress resistant and function better when they experience relatedness. Therefore it is important to enlarge our understanding of the need for relatedness and increase our knowledge of mechanisms that function as resource to satisfy this need. It is likely that sense of belonging is a helpful concept, important to social and psychological functioning. Psychologists and other social workers can use this knowledge to help individuals who deal with the negative effects of a lack of relatedness. In this study there will be focussed on two domains that may create possibilities for people to interact and form social bonds and therefore play a role in the extend to which people experience senses of belonging and relatedness: religion and physical activity.

The need for relatedness is derived from Deci and Ryan's (2000) Self Determination Theory (SOT). The SOT is a widely used theory that concerns people's motivation to make choices without external motivators. According to the SOT (Deci & Ryan, 2000) there are three basic psychological needs: the need for competence, the need for autonomy and the need for relatedness. These needs are essential to human intrinsic motivation, which is the motivation to engage in a certain behaviour driven by internal enjoyment and satisfaction obtained from doing something for its own sake (Deci 1971 ). If these needs are satisfied they provide enhanced mental health and motivation, if not it will lead to decreased motivation and well-being. Deci & Ryan argue (2008) argue that the SOT is universal because it has been examined in a lot of different

cultures and is applied in different domains. For example, Deci et al. (200 I) tested if data collected in different cultures would reveal relations between the three psychological needs and motivation and well-being. They found that the SOT-model fit both data collected from a American corporation, which represented a more individualistic culture with democratic values, and data collected from different companies in Bulgaria, a country with a totalitarian political system and collectivist values.

SOT is not only examined in different cultures but is also applied in variety of domains like education, work, sport and exercise, religion and health care (Deci & Ryan, 2008). Ryan, Rigby & King ( 1993) examined the SOT in terms of religion. They found that two types of internalization (derived from the SOT) of religious beliefs and activities were related to mental health and well-being. lntrojection represents a form of internalization in which behaviour is regulated but not totally accepted as someone's own, people are motivated through contingent self-esteem and a extern locus of control. In introjection, individuals engage in religion for more external reasons. Identification represents a form of internalization, which is more autonomously driven and has an internal locus of control. In identification religious beliefs and behaviour is more accepted and personally important for an individual. In line with the SOT results showed that identification was related to psychological adjustments, and introjection related negatively to mental health and well-being.

Intrinsic motivation derived from satisfaction of the three psychological needs is also important for engagement in and persistence with sport and physical activity. For instance, self-determined types of motivation could predict persistence at IO months and even 22 months later in a research with competitive swimmers (Pelletier, Fortier, Vallerand, & Briere, 2001). Logically, a lack of self-determined motivation and therefore a lack of intrinsic motivation may lead to intentions of dropping out (Sarrazin, et. al. 2002). So there can be concluded that

satisfaction of the three psychological needs lead to intrinsic motivation to engage in sport and physical activity, and even though it is not assured, sport and physical activity can be seen as potential sources of satisfaction of these needs.

Since the need for relatedness is one of the basic psychological needs of the STD, satisfaction of this need is important for intrinsic motivation. Physical activity may be a source of social interaction, and therefore, might play a role in the extent to which someone's need for relatedness is satisfied. Indeed, the experienced pleasure of a sportsman's depends on the perceived relatedness and belonging with teammates, coach and other people related to the sport (Cox, 2011 ). Physical activity creates possibilities for people to interact and contributes to the development of friendships with significant others (Allen, 2003). These social reasons like affiliation and being part of the team appear to be important predictors of people engaging in physical activity (Passer, 1982).

It is not only related to engagement but also the actual en perceived competence according to Weiss & Duncan ( 1992), who found a strong correlation between perceived (and actual) physical competence and peer acceptance and successful social interactions in youths. In a study to examine the relationships between perceptions of peer relationships, physical activity motivation and affection towards physical activity in adolescence, Smith( 1999) found that higher perceptions of peer acceptance was related to physical self-worth, which was related to more affection towards physical activity. The same study indicates that perceptions of friendships in the physical activity setting are associated with affection towards physical activity. In short, friendships, relatedness with teammates and successful interactions with peers influence people's attraction to physical activity, affection to physical activity and perceived and actual competence.

Religion may be a source of social interaction, and might play a role in the extent to which someone's need for relatedness is satisfied in the same way as physical activity does. The

sociologist Emile Durkheim ( 1912) describes religion mainly as a social phenomenon that takes place in a group. Religions primary function is a social function and it contributes to the social cohesion of a group. According to Durkheim, religious gatherings are something greater then the sum of the parts, during those gatherings people are all part of a greater whole (Van Elk, 2012). He compares them to other mass meetings like soccer matches or the French holiday Quatorze Juillet. Indeed, religious rituals can create a intense sense of "togetherness" and remind someone of his belonging to the religious group (Mcguire, 2008). In other research Hervieu-Leger ( 1990) argued that religious groups are people with a collective memory and describes them as "communities of memory". The religious experiences and ideas which define the common sense of what it means to be religious and what it means to be part of the religious group, are transmitted to the next generation. It appears that religious experience may include the sense of belonging to a group, namely the community of believers (Mcguire, 2008). This social aspect of religion is also related to psychological advantages. For Example Krause, Ellison & Marcum (2002) found that emotional support from church members is related to reported well-being. In other another study, Lim & Putnam (20 I 0) suggest that people who are religious are engaged in social networks and therefore report higher life satisfaction. Religious people are more satisfied because they develop intimate social bonds in their community and attend religious services. Therefore it is likely that being part of a religious community contributes to the satisfaction of the need for relatedness.

As noted above, individuals have a drive to build and maintain a social context where they can develop social bonds and by doing that satisfy their need for relatedness. A lack of relatedness may lead to psychological difficulties (Baumeister & leary, 1995) and misbehaviour (Windle 1992). In contrast, experiences of relatedness may lead to better functioning, more life satisfaction and well being (Kasser & Ryan, 1999; Cohen, Sherrod & Clark, 1986). Since a sense

of belonging and relatedness plays a role in psychological well being it is useful to find out which domains provide a potential source to satisfy the need for relatedness. Religion can be seen as a social phenomenon and create feelings of belonging and togetherness (McGuire, 2008). Furthermore, religious individuals are who are part of the religious community, experience well- being and life satisfaction as a result of their belonging to the religious community (Lim & Putnam, 20 I 0). Therefore religion might be a domain that provides a source for people to satisfy their need for relatedness. Physical activity is a source of social interaction and provides possibilities to interact and develop social bonds (Allen, 2003). Therefore physical activity might play a role in the extent to which someone's need for relatedness is satisfied in the same way as religion does.

In this study, we looked at religious commitment and whether or not this was correlated with engagement in physical activity. To make sure that people would differ in religious commitment, participants from both religious and non-religious schools were recruited and data was collected about religious commitment using the RC-IO (Worthington, Everett, Wade & Hight, 2003). Physical activity was measured using the L TPA(Godin, 2011) and Satisfaction of the need for relatedness, measured with the BPNSFP (Campbell et al., 2015), was measured as a mediation variable. Religion satisfies the need for relatedness in the same way as physical activity does and therefore the expectation was that when an individual is committed to his religion, someone's need for relatedness is satisfied and this is why he would not seek for relatedness in the domain of physical activity. Therefore, a negative correlation was expected.

Method Participants

Amsterdam (HVA) and Christelijke Hogeschool Eden (CHE). Their nationality was Dutch and they ranged in age from 18 to 28 (M=2 l,5, SD=2,26). 97 participants were recruited from the CHE and 84 were recruited from the UV A and HY A. The only inclusion criterion was a minimum age of 18.

Measures

Demographic information. Participants were asked to indicate their gender, age, highest completed education, place of birth and religiosity.

Basic Psychological Need Satisfaction and Frustration Scale (BPNSFP). This Questionnaire was developed (Campbell et. al, 2015) to measure both the satisfaction and the frustration of the psychological needs based on the Self Determination Theory (need for autonomy, need for competence and need for relatedness). The Scale is available in Dutch, English, Spanish and Chinese and validated in different cultures across the world (Peru, China, Belgium and the US). After a reliability analysis a strong internal consistency was found (a = .87). The questionnaire consists of 24 items but only the 4 items related to the satisfaction of the need for relatedness were used. Examples of items are: "I feel that people care about me" and "I experience a warm feeling with the people I spend time with". Participants can choose from I to 5 to indicate the degree to which statement is true for them, I represents "not true at all" and 5 represents "completely true".

The Godin-Shephard Leisure-Time Phisical Activity Questionnaire(LTPA). Godin (2011) developed this questionnaire to measure physical activity. It consists of one question: "During a typical 7 day period (a week), how many times on average do you do the following kinds of exercise for more than 15 minutes during your free time?" Participants are asked to write an appropriate number that reflects how many times per week they engage in physical activity at

three levels: strenuous exercise like squash, moderate exercise like easy bicycling and mild exercise like fishing. The extend to which someone is engaged in physical activity is calculated by the following formula: weekly leisure-time activity score(in units)

=

(9xStrenous)

+

(5xModerate) + (3xMild). The outcome is categorized in three categories: 24 units or more (Active), 14 to 23 units (moderately active) and less then 14 units (insufficiently active). The test- retest coefficient is .65. For this study the LTPA was translated in Dutch.

The Religious Commitment Inventory. This questionnaire was used to measure religious

commitment. For this study it was translated into Dutch. A strong internal consistency was found for the full scale, a= 0.93, and the subscales, a= 0.92 for lntrapersonal Religious Commitment and a= 0.87 for Interpersonal Religious Commitment. The test-retest reliability coefficients for the full-scale RCl-10, Intrapersonal Religious Commitment and Interpersonal Religious Commitment were .87, .86 and .83, respectively (Worthington et. al, 2003). For the translated RC-I 0, a reliability analysis was done to recalculate the internal consistency. A strong internal consistency was found (a

=

.97) Examples of questions are: "It is important to me to spend periods of time in private religious thought and reflection" and "Religion is especially important to me because it answers many questions about the meaning of life". Participants can answer these questions on a 5-point-scale where I represents not true at all and 5 represents completely true.

Procedure

Participants from the CHE were recruited during lunchtime. They were asked to fill out a survey. If they were willing to participate, the survey was handed out. Initially the extent to which someone is engaging in physical activity was measured with

LTPA

participants filled out the

BP

NSF

P

.

Demographic information was asked at the end of the survey to prevent activation of

certain religious consciousness and biases. The same procedure was followed at the UVA and HVA. Participants did not receive any credit.

Analysis Description

A mediation analysis with religious commitment as According to Baron & Kenny ( 1986) mediation analysis requires four steps. Firstly, mediation requires a significant linear equation between the predictor and the criterion, in the present study this was done by conducting a simple linear regression between religious commitment as predictor and physical activity as a criterion. The second step of mediation is a significant linear equation between the mediator and the predictor, which is done in the current study by calculating a simple linear regression between religious commitment and satisfaction of the need for relatedness. Next, a significant linear equation between the mediator and the criterion is required which was calculated by doing a simple linear regression between the satisfaction of the need for relatedness and physical activity. Finally, a multiple regression analysis between predictor criterion and mediator has to be done and show that the relation between predictor and criterion is not significant anymore, when the mediator is included.

Results

181 students from the CHE, UVA and HVA participated in this study. 91 of them were females and 90 of them were males. The minimum age and maximum age were 18, and 28 respectively, and the average age was 21,5 (SD

=

2,26). 97 participants came from the CHE and 84 participants were recruited from the UVA and HVA. The sample contained 81(44.8%) participants who reported to be none-religious and 85 (46.9%) who had a religious affiliation derived from Christianity. In table I the numbers and percentages of religious affiliation are

displayed. Table I

Number of subjects and percentages for religious Affiliation Religious affiliation Subjects Total %

(N=l81) Evangelisch 15 8,3% Gereformeerd 32 17.7% Katholiek 3 1.7% Nederlands Hervormd 7 3.9% Protestants 17 9.4% Anders (christelijk) 11 6.1% Niet gelovig 81 44.8% Anders 15 8.3% Totaal 181 100% Note. N=181

A boxplot showed to outliers who had an exceptionally (*) high score on the LTPA (participants 150 and 167). Participants 150 and 167 reported a total LTPA-score above 200 which implies that there is a high chance that an external factor like interpreting the questions wrong influenced the score on the LTPA, therefore they were excluded from the data and the analysis was done without them. After checking a boxplot for outliers on the BPNSFP, three extreme(*) outliers were identified (participants 11, 12, and 135), they had an exceptional low score on the BPNSFP (total score below 6). These outliers could possibly distort the data so they were excluded.

To check if the assumption of normality was violated, a Shapiro-Wilk test was done. The distribution of religious commitment (RC-I 0) was not normally distributed, D( 176) = .841, p = .000 (Shapiro-Wilk). Therefore, the assumption of normality was violated. The assumption of normality was also violated for physical activity, D ( 176) = .90,

p

=.000) and satisfaction of the

need for relatedness, D ( 176) = .84, p = .00. According to the central limit theorem(field, 2009) the sampling distribution has a normal distribution as samples get large (N>30). Since the current study has a large sample (N= 176) the violation of the assumption of normality is not a problem.

Further assumptions for this analysis are: additivity and linearity, no multicollinearity and independence of errors. To check if the assumption of additivity and linearity is met, a scatterplot has to be interpreted, if the points are divided randomly the assumption is not violated (field, 2009) The assumption of no multicollinearity is met when the VIF value < IO (field, 2009). According to field (2009) the Durbin Watson value must be between I and 3 to meet the assumption of independent errors, when this assumption is violated it means that the errors in the analysis are related (field, 2009). After checking for these assumptions, all the regressions required for a mediation analysis were calculated. In table 2 the means and standard deviations of the RCl-10, the L TPA and the BPNSFP are displayed.

Table 2

Mean and standard deviations for religious commitment, physical activity and satisfaction of the need for relatedness.

Subjects Total

Variable (N=l 76)

RC-10 22.7 (12.9)

LTPA 59.7 (33.9)

BPNSFP 16.9 (2.4)

Note. N= 176, after excluding outliers

A simple linear regression was done to predict physical activity based on religious commitment. The assumption of independence of errors was met (Durbin Watson, d = 1.89) and after interpreting a scatterplot the assumption of additivity and linearity was met (the points looked randomly diffused). A non-significant regression equation was found (F( I, 174) = 1.169,

p

= .281 ), R"'2 =.O I). As expected, the results showed a negative relation between religious

commitment and physical activity, when people had higher RC-IO scores, they tended to have lower LTPA scores

(

P

= .08, t = -1.08, p = .28, 95% Cl [-.61, .18]).

Also, a simple linear regression was calculated to check if religious commitment would predict the satisfaction of the need for belonging. A Durbin Watson tested the assumption of independence of errors, which was not violated, d= 1.88 and the assumption of linearity was met by interpreting a scatterplot. Again the regression equation was non-significant (F( I, 174) = .0 I, p = . 910). Further results showed a negative relation between religious commitment and the satisfaction of the need for belonging. Those with higher RC- I 0- scores, scored lower on the BPNSFP

(

P

= -.01, t = -.11, p =.910, 95% CI [-.03,.03]).

Further, a simple linear regression was done to check if satisfaction of the need for relatedness was correlated with physical activity. A Durbin Watson test showed that the errors were not related, d = 1.88, and the scatterplot was interpreted and there was concluded that the points were evenly divided so the assumptions of linearity was met. A non-significant equation was found (F( I, 174) = .05, p = .829). Results showed a positive relation between satisfaction of the need for belonging and physical activity, as the BPNSFP score increases, the LTPA score increases as well.

(

P

= .02, t = .28, p =.829, 95% CI [-.1.9, 2.3]).

As a final test, a multiple linear regression was calculated to predict physical activity based on satisfaction for the need for relatedness and religious commitment. The assumption of independence of errors was met (Durbin Watson, d = 1.89). There was no multicollinearity (VIF- values < 10) and after interpreting a scatterplot the assumption of linearity was met. A non- significant regression equation was found (F (2,173) = .60, p = .549). Results showed a negative relation between religious commitment and physical activity, the more religious committed people are, the less they engaged in physical activity

(P

= -.08, t = -1.08 p =.283, 95% CI [-.61, .18]). Further results showed a positive relation between the satisfaction of the need for belonging

psychological advantages including well-being, life satisfaction (Kasser et al., 1999) and resistance against stress (Cohen et al., 1986). More importantly, when the need for relatedness is not satisfied, it may result in a number of bad effects like feelings of isolation, depression (Windle, 1992) and a decreased sense of well-being (Baumeister & Leary). The results found in this study are not an implication for this theoretical framework. Sense of relatedness may still be a helpful concept, important for social and psychological well-being. On the other hand, the present study has some implications for the assumption that was stated about the satisfaction of the need for relatedness in terms of religion and physical activity.

We expected that both religion and physical activity provide possibilities to interact and feel connected to others and therefore play a role in the extent to which someone's need for relatedness is satisfied. Indeed, previous research shows that religious rituals and experience may lead to intense senses of togetherness and belonging to the religious group (Mcguire, 2008). This social aspect of religion is associated with psychological advantages like life satisfaction (Lim & Putnam, 20 I 0) and well-being (Krause et al., 2002). This seems incompatible with the results found in the present study. Results shows that as religious commitment increases, satisfaction of the need for relatedness decreases and above all this relation was not significant. An alternative reason for the results we found in our study could be that engaging in religion and the corresponding social context may not always lead to healthy social bonds and feelings of relatedness. For example, Krause, Morgan, Chatters & Meltzer (2002) found that religion related social gatherings could lead to negative social interactions which may lead to concern and distress and other findings indicate that conflict in church is associated with decreased psychological well-being (Krause, Ellison & Wuff, 1988). So, healthy social bonds are not assured in religious contexts, some people may find satisfying interactions and some people may not.

Another explanation could be that the traditional religions appear to adjust to the social trend of individualization in the past decades. Since 1980, there is a fast trend of individualization in West European society (Lindenberg, 2008). The way of thinking was changing and became more focused on the individual and personal development. Traditional religions responded to this by underlining the personal experiences of religion, in which the Bible and the church were less important (Roeland, 2005). The social trend of individualization was accompanied by a fast trend of secularization, which means decreased church-membership and church attendance in the past decades (Becker & De Hart, 2006). In 1970 compared to 1998, respectively 41% and 14% of the Dutch population attended the weekly church gatherings. Particularly youth was receptive for this trend of secularization. In 2006, 72% of the Dutch youth wasn't a member of a church or attended religious gatherings regularly (Becker & De Hart, 2006). Apparently, this was not a result of less interest in religion but a consequence of a different perspective towards religion. Remarkably, youths score high on religiosity, when it is operationalized as an unique characteristic instead of related to church membership (Prins, 2008). For example, elderly are more likely to be church members, but youths are more likely to believe in an afterlife ("heaven") then elderly (Becker & De Hart, 2006). Besides, a majority of the Dutch youths report to pray regularly and at the same time a minority is a church member (Banziger, Jansen & Scheepers, 2008). Taking this into account religious commitment and church attendance, which includes an important part of the social aspect of religion, may be two partly separate concepts, particularly in youths.

To summarize, taking social trends as individualization and secularization into consideration, we may conclude that religious commitment and church membership, which includes an important part of the social aspect of religion, are not that related as we previously assumed. They may be two partly separate concepts, particularly in youths. Since our participants

were young Dutch students and our questionnaire related religious commitment to church membership and attendance, this could be an interesting explanation for the results that were found. Further studies need to be done to outline the circumstances under which people are able to experience belonging in a religious context and under which circumstances they are not. It may be interesting to study the relationship between church membership and relatedness, because it is likely that church members are more involved in the social aspects of religion then people who are not.

Besides religion, physical activity was not associated with increased feelings of relatedness either. We argued in the introduction that self-determined motivation predict persistence in swimming (Pelletier et al.,, 200 I) and a lack of self-determined motivation may lead to intentions of dropping out (Sarrazin et al., 2002). Self-determined forms of motivation can be achieved when the need for relatedness is satisfied (Deci, 1971) and physical activity is a possible source for people to interact develop social bonds with significant others (Allen 2003). The social aspects of physical activity like affiliation and being part of the team are important reasons for people to engage in physical activity(Passer, 1982) especially in youth (Cox, 20011 ). Therefore it was argued that when people engage in physical activity, they experiences senses of belonging.

A possible explanation for this finding could be that the concept physical activity is too broad. There may be some circumstances under which physical activity creates possibilities to interact, and some under which it does not. In the literature there is a distinction between a task- involving (mastery) climate and an ego-involving (performance) climate (Standage, Duda & Ntoumanis, 2003;) Task involving climates refer to surroundings that reinforce hard work, cooperation and learning focussed on self-improvement. In contrast, ego involving climates support comparison with others and interpersonal competition. (Standage, Duda & Ntoumanis,

2003). These surroundings may play a role in the extent to which the engagement in physical activity leads to more senses of relatedness. Senses of autonomy competence and relatedness are enabled by a task-involving climate. However, an ego-involving climate led to decreased sense of autonomy and therefore decreased self-determined motivation (Sarrazin et al., 2002; Cox, 2011 ). Besides, the role of the coach is essential; approaches may be controlling or more democratic. Where the controlling coach risks reduced internal motivation, the more democratic coach respects the desires of the athlete and creates a training programme with interference of the athlete (Cox, 2011 ).

Furthermore, different kinds of physical activity require differing levels of interaction and interdependence. In terms of interaction and interdependence, there is a distinction between coactive sports and interactive sports (Murray, 2006; Cox, 2011 ). Interactive sports require interactions among team members and coactive require little interaction. For example, engagement in soccer is a highly interactive sport and requires more cooperation than archery, which is more coactive in nature (Murray, 2006; Cox, 2011 ). It is likely that physical activity in the interactive domain provides more possibilities to interact and develop social bonds and therefore creates more senses of belonging and relatedness. So, there can be concluded that there may be some circumstances under which someone's need for relatedness is more likely to be satisfied and self-determined motivation is acquired, like a task-involving climate, democratic coach and interactive forms of physical activity.

In conclusion, it is likely that in some situations both religion and physical activity lead to more satisfaction of the need for relatedness. The need of relatedness is probably more likely to be satisfied in more specific domains like interactive sports and church communities than in the rather broad domains like physical activity and religious commitment. Further research need to

be done to specify these circumstances. A possible set-up for such a study could be whether

religious commitment in church members predicts lower engagement in interactive sports. For

the present, there will be concluded that the hypothesis was not confirmed, this study provides no

evidence for a significant effect of religious commitment on physical activity through the

satisfaction of the need for relatedness. Nevertheless, it is worth mentioning that a strong internal

consistency was found for the Dutch version of the RCl-10. This provides an internal consistent

questionnaire to investigate religious commitment among Dutch samples in the future.

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