Community perceptions on the conservation of the Pichavaram mangrove forest, Tamil Nadu A case study perspective on the conservation of an ecosystem

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Community perceptions on the

conservation of the Pichavaram

mangrove forest, Tamil Nadu

A case study perspective on the conservation of an ecosystem

Bachelor Thesis Human Geography Karen de Geus, student number 10204806 ksdegeus@gmail.com

Supervisor: Jaap Rothuizen Second reader: Leo de Klerk 31 – 07 – 2015

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Abstract

This thesis aims to shed a light on the results of the conservation of the mangrove ecosystem Pichavaram according to the fishermen of Pillumedu, who have had a symbiotic relation with the mangrove forest for decades. The conservation of Pichavaram is carried out by the

Government-run Forest Department. The conservation strategies have turned out to be rather successful in terms of nature preservation, but have restrained success in terms of

development for the area. This thesis shows that the fishermen of Pillumedu believe that if they would be involved in conservation-issues, the results of the conservation of Pichavaram can be more successful, in terms of both nature preservation and development. This thesis also shows that the results of tsunami-related development programs in Pichavaram turned out to be more of a disadvantage than an advantage for the fishermen in Pillumedu. This thesis concludes with several recommendations for (local) governments and NGOs towards a more adaptive governance structure of Pichavaram.

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From the beginning of this thesis project, I have known that I wanted to focus on a subject based on the dynamics between stakeholders of an ecosystem and common people. The mangrove ecosystem Pichavaram, which is situated in Killai, on the east-coast of Tamil Nadu, India, connected well to my theoretical interest, so I decided to move there for the research. It turned out to be very difficult to have in-depth interviews with government-related institutions, so due to this reason and the limited research time, I decided to base this thesis on the personal stories of fishermen, who have had a symbiotic relationship with the mangrove ecosystem for many generations.

Acknowledgements

The thesis project in Tamil Nadu has been a great chance for me to finish my bachelor Future Planet Studies & Human Geography. This project gave me the opportunity to combine my knowledge of both studies, which has resulted in this thesis. This thesis would not have been possible without the help of many people, so hereby I would like to thank everyone who has supported and helped me during the process of writing this thesis.

I would like to express my gratitude towards my translator during the field work, Mr.

Chandrmohan, who has become a dear friend. This thesis would not have come into existence without his help and kind words during the field work. Also I would like to thank Maarten Bavinck, for his support during our stay in Chennai. Many thanks as well for the supervisor of this thesis, Jaap Rothuizen, who was always ready to help and support me with my many questions. I also would like to thank Leo de Klerk for his valuable suggestions.

I would also like to express my gratitude to the local villagers of Killai. Although some people were afraid of me in the first instance, their fear quickly turned to curiosity, which resulted in many interesting conversation. In particular I want to thank Mr. Rajendran, who has opened up his home for us and welcomed us like we were family. We have enjoyed your hospitality with great pleasure!

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1 Introduction

1.1 Relevance

The topic of climate change has caused debates among scientists for several centuries. The human population is growing exponentially and so is the demand for ecosystem goods and services, which leads to depletion of natural resources (e.g. overfishing in oceans; depletion of fresh water; deforestation) (Dietz, 2003a). The so-called human ecological footprint is ever-growing, and so are the impacts, as the following quote describes:

“Over the past 50 years, humans have changed ecosystems more rapidly and extensively

than in any comparable period of time in human history, largely to meet rapidly growing demands for food, fresh water, timber and fuel. This has resulted in a substantial and largely irreversible loss in the diversity of life on Earth” (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005)

In order to stop the implications of this growing ecological footprint and the associated climate change, an end to current unsustainable uses of ecosystem goods and services is required. Several researches have pointed out that ecosystem can function as a barrier against natural disasters (e.g. MEA (2005); Granek (2008) and MSSRF (2002), and should thus be protected.

Mangrove ecosystems are an example of an ecosystem that can protect its surrounding areas against natural disasters. As described in Selvam (2004), mangroves are defined as

assemblages of trees and shrubs that grow in the intertidal region of tropical and subtropical coastlines, in areas where river water mixes with sea water. Mangroves exist of two

components: the forest itself (trees) and the water bodies: channels and canals that divide the mangrove trees and ensure the supply of fresh and salt water. As Selvam (2004) describes, the extensive aboveground root system of the mangrove vegetation acts as a sieve, thereby reducing the velocity of currents and waves. Mangrove forests are also able to absorb and reduce the impact of strong winds, which means the forest also functions as a protecting factor for tropical storms and cyclones. Villages that surround mangrove forests are thus naturally protected against severe damage during natural disasters.

1.2 Setting the scene

In this sub-chapter, the scene of the research will be set. First, a broad introduction to the global area of study will be provided. This is followed by a description of the Pichavaram mangrove forest, the main research area.

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1.2.1 Global area of study

The research for this bachelor’s thesis has been

conducted in Tamil Nadu, India. Although India has the second-largest population in the world, it is also known for the large rural areas where people live together in small villages. This research has been conducted in a small town in the state of Tamil Nadu, which is located in the south-east of India. The culture of Tamil Nadu can be considered as a ‘culture within a culture’, because many aspects of the Indian culture are slightly different in Tamil Nadu than in the rest of India. For instance, the language that is spoken throughout the state is Tamil, which is a complete other language than the official language Hindi.

The research has taken place in the mangrove forest Pichavaram, which is situated nearby the village Killai on the east coast of Tamil Nadu. The town of Killai exists of 13 hamlets: small villages where 50-600 villagers live together. The nearest city is Chidambaram at an 18 kilometre- distance. Killai is governed by a city council which is called the Town Panchayat. Traditionally, elder members of the local community take place in the Panchayat, although currently the central government of India also interferes in the government of local

communities (Singh, 2003). The Panchayat has many (administrative) functions, which have been split up in several divisions of the Panchayat, such

as the Revenue Department and the Forest Department. The occupations of villagers in a hamlet are (mostly) homogenous, so hamlets can be classified according to their occupation. Hamlets that are close to the sea and the mangrove forest inhabit mostly fishermen, while hamlets that are located more land-inwards generally inhabit villagers with agricultural occupations. Killai consists of 8 fishing hamlets and 5 farming hamlets (MSSRF, 2003a). Within this classification of occupations, another distinction that relates to the

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background of the people living in the hamlets can be made. The habitants of traditional hamlets have lived there for many generations, and their knowledge has been passed on by ancestral knowledge. Irrular hamlets are the opposite of traditional hamlets. These Irrular hamlets are inhabited by people who have moved to Killai only several decades ago. This thesis focuses on a hamlet under the name of Pillumedu: a traditional hamlet that is focused on fishing-related occupations. Pillumedu is located next to the Pichavaram mangrove forest, on a distance of only 150 meter. Two types of boats are used by the fishermen: rowing boats or fiber boats (with a motor). Almost every villager in Pillumedu owns a boat. Fiber boats are usually shared between 4-5 families living in Pillumedu.

1.2.2 The Pichavaram mangrove forest

In 2010, the Pichavaram mangrove forest covered an area of 1470ha (Gnanappazham, 2011). From 1900, the mangrove trees were cut in large numbers by contractors, an activity that was allowed by the government. These activities lasted until 1970, when the protecting functions of mangrove forests came to the attention of the Indian government and several NGOs. It still took several years until the forest got the protected status that was needed. Gnanappazham (2011) shows that from 1970 until 1991, there was still a loss of 471 ha mangroves. Several projects regarding reinstating the original size of the mangroves started in 1991. Between 1991 and 2011, the forest regained an area of 531 ha.

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Currently only fishermen from Killai are allowed to undertake activities in the forest. Any other activities than fishing are not permitted. People from Killai are not allowed to enter the forest without a proper permit from the Forest Department, a government-run nature

conservation organisation that is responsible for the current conservation of Pichavaram. If villagers want to visit the forest for recreation, they have to book a guided tour with the tourism department.

Pichavaram has been hit severely during the tsunami in 2004. As described above, mangrove forests offer a natural protection against waves through the above-ground root system. During the attack of the tsunami, this natural protection led to a sharp reduction in the velocity of the waves and to the distribution of water throughout all the canals and creeks in the mangroves, which led to a lower volume of water that hit the hamlets of Killai. As figure 4 shows, the impact of the tsunami is still visible on the beach of Pichavaram.

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1.3 Thesis contents

This thesis aims to answer the question “To what extent is the conservation of Pichavaram,

Tamil Nadu, aligned with the practices and knowledge of fishermen of Pillumedu?”. As

Adams (2007) describes, traditional conservation programs used to focus only on the preservation of natural areas, whereas contemporary scientific conservation planners also focus on the social and political side of conservation practice, including development of the area. According to Adams, the definition of ‘conservation’ in this thesis is as follows: “The

process of the preservation, management and development of a natural area”. The term

‘preservation’ focuses on the maintaining and protecting of a natural area, whereas the term ‘development’ also focuses on the development of the villages surrounding Pichavaram, and the wellbeing of the habitants of these villages. This means that in this thesis, conservation will not only be viewed in terms of preservation of the ecosystem of Pichavaram, but also encompasses the development of the entire area surrounding the ecosystem, including the development of villagers living in this area.

In order to answer the research question, 3 questions have been created. The first sub-question, “What are the current activities regarding conservation inPichavaram?”, aims to map the current conservation projects in and around Pichavaram. The second sub-question, “What are the practices and knowledge of fishermen of Pillumedu regarding Pichavaram?”, helps analysing the current activities and knowledge of fishermen of Pillumedu in

Pichavaram. In answering the third sub-question, “What is the view of fishermen of Pillumedu

on the conservation projects of Pichavaram?”, the opinion of fishermen of Pillumedu

regarding conservation projects in Pichavaram is discussed.

This thesis starts with the theoretical framework that was the basis for the interest in this topic. The theoretical framework describes the theory behind the important concepts for this thesis (i.e. ecosystem services; common pool resource management; community-based conservation). Following the theoretical framework, chapter 3 describes the way in which the data for this thesis has been derived and processed. This chapter also pays attention to the methodology of the research. The fourth chapter contains the results of the research. These results are analysed and linked to the theoretical framework in chapter 5. Chapter 6 covers the conclusion of this thesis and presents recommendations for (local) governments and NGOs. Subsequently, an overview of the used literature is presented. The household-survey and the

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semi-structured survey that have functioned as the basis for the interviews are enclosed in the appendices.

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2. Theoretical framework

In this chapter, the theoretical framework of this thesis is discussed. The keywords are

ecosystem services, common pool resource management and community-based development.

2.1 Ecosystem services

Ecosystems are dynamic complexes of plants, animals and microorganism communities that interact as a functional unit (Alcamo, 2003). Humans are an integral part of ecosystems and make use of ecosystem goods and services. Ecosystem services are the benefits that are provided to people by ecosystems, or, as defined in Daily (1997): “Ecosystem services are

the conditions and processes through which natural ecosystems, and the species that make them up, sustain and fulfil human life. They maintain biodiversity and the production of ecosystem goods”.

Ecosystem services can be divided in 4 different types. Provisioning ecosystem services include products that are provided by ecosystems, such as food, fuel and fresh water.

Regulating ecosystem services include the benefits that are obtained from the regulation of

ecosystem processes, including climate regulation and erosion control. The reduction of damage caused by natural disasters is also a regulating ecosystem service. Cultural ecosystem services are non-material benefits that are obtained from ecosystems through recreation or spiritual enrichment. Ecosystems can influence cultural diversity and also influence social aspects such as knowledge systems and social relations are influenced by ecosystems. Supporting ecosystem services are services that are necessary for other ecosystem services, such as soil formation or nutrient cycling.

According to Alcamo (2003), ecosystems can function as a bridge between the environment and human well-being. People are often dependent on one or more ecosystem services (e.g. provisioning of food or protection against damage). As shown in figure 2, all types of ecosystem services are linked to several constituents of wellbeing. This suggests that the depletion and degradation of ecosystems can influence human wellbeing.

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As ecosystems are dependent on various factors (e.g. ecological capital, biodiversity, climate), variation in these factors can influence the supply of ecosystem services, and thus influence human wellbeing. According to the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005), the impacts of change in ecological capital on human populations are not evenly spread. Usually, poorly resourced populations suffer most, since they are disproportionally dependent on the functions of the ecosystem and are likely to lack the means to import these functions. This implies that, especially in rural and poor areas, proper conservation of ecosystem is needed in order to protect ecosystems, their services and human wellbeing.

2.2 Common pool resource management

As described in chapter 2.1, ecosystems don’t only function as a habitat for animals and plants, but also help maintaining other systems and cycles and generate essential services for people, which makes the conservation of ecosystems a priority on the agenda of worldwide organisations such as the United Nations. Ecosystems can be considered as a common pool

resource, which can be defined as “ Natural or human-made resources where one person’s use subtracts from another’s use and where it is often necessary, but difficult and costly, to exclude other users outside the group from using the resource” (Digital Library of the

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Commons, 2009). In ecosystems, these resources can consist out of several types of goods (e.g. fish, water and wood) or services (e.g. fresh air, barrier against natural disasters).

Common pool resources may be owned by local or national governments as public goods ,by communal groups as common property resources, by private individuals or corporations as

private goods or they can be considered as open access resources if they are owned by no one

(Ostrom 1990).

Hardin (1968) wrote about the ‘Tragedy of the Commons’, in which the tragedy is the depletion of a common by people who are dependent on resources from that common. According to Hardin, the danger of a common is that since a common is no property of anyone, no one has to take responsibility for using this common. Hardin states that each man wants to take the maximum achievable good, which results in people using the common to maximize their own profit, without thinking of the consequences in the long run. This results in a positive implication for the individual that gains profits, and in a negative implication for all people, including those who don’t use the common, since the common might be

overexploited and depleted in the long run. Hardin’s theory has led to the prediction of several scientists who claim that CPR’s should be privatized in order to avert the destruction of the CPR.

The decades that have passed since Hardin’s article have shown that the tragedies of the common are real, but not inevitable. Elinor Ostrom (1990) noticed several CPR’s throughout the world that are successfully governed by common property regimes and are based on self-management by local communities. This contradicts claims that CPR’s should be privatized in order to prevent destruction of the CPR. Ostrom states that it is not possible to manage a common pool resource if every stakeholder has an equal interest in the CPR. If each stakeholder has the same interest, conflicts can arise when users who act independently threaten the benefits from CPR’s. She states that two elements can lead to solving common pool resource problems, in which the first element is restricting access to the common pool. The second element is creating incentives by stimulating individuals to invest in or manage the resource.

It is evident that ecosystem management is challenging because of the social factors. Besides aspects local policies and conflicts of interest, the knowledge of natural processes within an ecosystem is also essential. To address all these aspects, adaptive governance approaches have much to offer. According to Folke (2005), adaptive governance is collaborative, flexible

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and learning-based across different scales. Dietz (2003b) has set several requirements for adaptive governance. The first key point for adaptive government, is to provide information about stocks, flows and processes within the resource systems being governed. This includes the human-environment interactions. The second key point is dealing with conflicts. Conflict resolution should focus on bringing together people with varying perspectives, instead of letting it escalate to the point of dysfunction. The third key point for adaptive government is stimulating rule compliance. According to Dietz (2003b), effective governance requires that the rules of resource use are generally followed, with reasonable standards for tolerating modest violations. Other key points for adaptive governance include providing infrastructure and encouraging adaption and change.

2.3 Community based conservation

The conservation of natural areas in India is often operated by governments that hold the property rights to these areas. The establishing of protected areas is a central element in conservation policy. However, in creating a protected area, original residents are often excluded from the area (Colcester, 2004). The emergence of indigenous people in social movements has been a cause for conservation institutes to rethink their approach to

conservation. Community-based conservation is based on the idea that if conservation and development could be simultaneously achieved, then the interests of both can be served (Berkes, 2004). The results of community-based conservation experiments have been alternately positive and negative. Berkes (2004) and Dietz (2003b) recommend to apply several key points in order to make CBC’s more successful. These key points include the importance of adaptive co-management and the use of traditional ecological knowledge. A strategy of community-based conservation is joint-management of a protected area. It combines the traditional knowledge of the environment with modern scientific knowledge of scientists in order to monitor ecosystems. In these joint-management projects, the

government is still the main stakeholder in the process, but there is a close relationship between the government and local people. As Moller (2004) explains, science can offer precise outcomes of research that can help in the conservation of ecosystems. However, science is expensive and may not always be trusted by indigenous people. The combination of traditional and scientific knowledge in joint-management projects can lead to a more encompassing conservation of natural areas.

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Another strategy for a community based conservation are Indigenous and Community

Conserved Areas (ICCAs). Berkes (2008) states that ICCAs create both opportunities and

challenging factors. According to Berkes, three features are important for community based conservation. First, the ICCA involves a community closely connected to the ecosystem. Second, management decisions of the community effectively lead to conservation. Third, the community is the major decision maker, and community institutions have the capability to enforce regulations. There is a wide range of motivations for establishing an ICCA, for example the security of land and resources, access to livelihood resources and rehabilitation of degraded resources.

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3 Methodology

In this chapter, the methodology of the research area is outlined. This starts with a description of the research design and the methods that were used during the research. Thereafter the research population will be introduced. Subsequently, the limitations that were encountered during the research will be outlined.

3.1 Research design

The research design provides a framework for the collection and analysis of data. The research design of this thesis is a case study. As described by Bryman (2008), a case study entails the detailed and intensive analysis of a single case. In this research, the case of fishermen who live next to a protected mangrove ecosystem is studied. For this research, mixed methods have been used: both qualitative and quantitative research has been

conducted, although this thesis relies primarily on qualitative research. The analysis of the data has been both descriptive and interpretative.

The research question of this thesis is “To what extent is the conservation of Pichavaram,

Tamil Nadu, aligned with the practices and knowledge of fishermen of Pillumedu?” In order

to be able to provide an answer to this question, threesub-questions will be answered in this thesis:

1. What are the current activities regarding conservation in Pichavaram?

2. What are the practices and knowledge of fishermen of Pillumedu regarding Pichavaram? 3. What is the view of fishermen of Pillumedu on the conservation of Pichavaram? ?

Several methods have been used to answer these questions. Prior to the fieldwork, a literature study has been carried out in order to identify the current conservation of Pichavaram. Upon arrival in Killai, initial observations have been made in Pillumedu. Several conservations have been made with villagers of Pillumedu in order to introduce the researcher and the translator to the villagers. Following on these observations and conservations, a household survey has been conducted in order to identify the habitants of Pillumedu. This household survey consists of questions regarding basic information of respondents and some more specific questions regarding the use of the mangrove ecosystem. The household survey is included in Appendix I.

After the household-survey had been concluded, the semi-structured survey has been adjusted to fit the circumstances of Pillumedu. The semi-structured survey (which is enclosed in

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Appendix II) fully exists out of open questions. During the data-analysis, some answers have been classified to be able to compare respondents and their answers. The sampling method for the respondents for both the household survey and the semi-structured survey is based on convenience sampling: people who were out on the street and who fit the research population were approached. The convenience sampling was based on spatial differences: since the village of the research was divided in 5 streets, 3 respondents per street were picked. A total of 15 respondents have been interviewed. An overview of the research population is

provided in chapter 2.2.

Since this thesis concerns a study of a social setting, it is difficult to replicate this study. The respondents have been asked to give their opinion on the current situation, but this situation is subject to many influence (e.g. time of the year; political context). In order to make the study replicable, the methods and procedures of the research are explained as accurate as possible in this chapter. Because the same interview has been held with all respondents, the internal validity of this research shows a good match between the observations and the conclusions that have been developed. Unfortunately the research population was too small to detect any relations between aspects of the respondents (e.g. age; education) and the opinions they gave during the interviews. Because this research has initially also been carried out in another village that was based on agriculture-related occupations, it is certain that this research can’t be generalized for other hamlets in Killai. Not only the social settings are different in each hamlet, also the geographical context and political factors are different.

Bryman (2008) has suggested 4 principles in regards to ethics in social research. To protect the privacy of respondents, these principles have been taken into account during this research as much as possible in order to avoid harm to participants. Initial observations and

conservations showed that that many villagers of Pillumedu believed that the research was commissioned by the Indian government and that the aim of the research was to improve the wellbeing of the villagers. In order to make the aim of the research as clear as possible and to avoid any misunderstandings and deceptions, all interviews have been preceded by an

explanation of the research and its aims, so there wouldn’t be a lack of informed consent. During several interviews, respondents indicated that they were sharing sensitive information. To protect the respondents for an invasion of privacy, the names of respondents have been omitted from this thesis. An overview of the respondents can be found in chapter 3.2.

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3.2 Research population

The research has been conducted in Pillumedu, one of the 13 hamlets of Killai. The habitants of Pillumedu depend on fishing activities for their income. Before the research was initiated, several choices regarding the research population have been made. The research population has been limited to male respondents with a minimum age of 18 years. The specification for gender has been made because of the topic of this research, which is based on the specific occupation of fishing. The initial observations during the first day of the research showed that there is a strict division of occupations between men and women in Pillumedu: the men focus on fishing while the women focus on the household. Men seem to be more aware and

concerned with fishing-related topics, which is why the research population has been limited to men. The observations also showed that young children were not taken to fishing activities, which is why the research population was limited to men with a minimum age of 18.

A total of 15 semi-structured interviews have been conducted among the fishermen of Pillumedu. An overview of the respondents can be found in table 1. The names of the respondents have been removed from this version of the thesis due to privacy reasons. The selection of the participants was made while taking spatial differences in account. Since Pillumedu exists of five streets, three respondents for each streets were interviewed. The selection of respondents was based on people who were out on the streets and willing to participate in the research.

Respondent number

Age Education Occupation Date of

interview

5 45 7th standard Fisherman 27/4/2015

6 38 5th standard Fisherman 27/4/2015

7 25 Technical course Fisherman 28/4/2015

8 65 5th standard Fisherman 28/4/2015 9 32 8th standard Fisherman 28/4/2015 14 45 5th standard Fisherman (retired) 30/4/2015 19 37 3rd standard Fisherman 1/5/2015 20 34 3rd standard Fisherman 1/5/2015 21 28 12th standard Fisherman 1/5/2015 22 40 12th standard Fisherman 1/5/2015

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20 23 No data No data Fisherman 1/5/2015 24 78 None Fisherman 5/5/2015 25 37 None Fisherman/ goods carrier 5/5/2015 26 55 5th standard Fisherman 5/5/2015 27 38 5th standard Fisherman 5/5/2015 3.3 Limitations

Several limitations have been encountered during the research. The gender and age-based limitation in the research population causes that this thesis is not representative for the entire village of Pillumedu. Since this research is focused on men with a minimum age of 18 years old, the results of this research can’t be generalised to other habitants of Pillumedu. Since this case is about a social setting, the outcomes of this results apply only to Pillumedu, and can’t be generalised to other hamlets in Killai.

The limited access to government employees (e.g. the forest officers) unfortunately led to a gap of information in this research. This has forced the research to narrow down on the subject and to only be able to tell the story of the fishermen of Pillumedu. The information on governmental decisions and policies that are provided in this thesis is based on scientific literature and information that was accessible on the internet.

The research has been conducted in India, a country with a culture that has many differences with the researcher’s Dutch culture, which resulted in several culture-based difficulties. The first limitation that has been encountered was the difference in language. The hamlet where the research has been conducted is situated in Tamil Nadu, which means the mother language of the respondents is Tamil. The aid of a translator has been used during interviews to be able to communicate with the respondent. Although the use of a translator was inevitable, this results in an extra translation of the words of respondents, in which valuable information can be lost. This research is of a qualitative nature, which means that the answers provided by respondents needs to be translated as accurate as possible. Despite many attempts to explain this to the translator, it seemed that he kept on giving a summary of the words of the

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Another remarkable aspect of the difference in culture, was that all local people had another skin colour than the researcher. Because of this difference in appearance, the daily arrival of the researcher in the village attracted a lot of attention. This led to many encounters with people on the streets, since everyone was curious about the researcher. This led to many people who wanted to participate in the research, but since the research population was limited by age and gender, plus the sample took spatial differences in account, this unfortunately led to people who felt neglected because they were not visited for research purposes.

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4. Results

In this chapter, the results of the research in Pichavaram will be discussed. The chapter is divided in 3 sub-chapters, in which the relevant results for each sub-question will be presented and analysed. Chapter 4.1 identifies the current conservation programs of Pichavaram. Chapter 4.2 analyses the practices and knowledge of fishermen of Pillumedu regarding Pichavaram. The third chapter discusses the view of fishermen of Pillumedu on the conservation of Pichavaram.

4.1 Current conservation of Pichavaram

This chapter focuses on answering the first sub-question of this thesis: “What are the current

activities regarding conservation of Pichavaram?”. The preservation of the ecosystem

Pichavaram is identified first. Secondly, the development of the area surrounding Pichavaram is discussed.

4.1.1 Preservation of Pichavaram

According to the Planning Commission of the Government of India (2008), the shooting of a movie of a local movie hero in 1970 has led to a large increase of tourists to Pichavaram. Up until 1987, tourists were guided into the forest by local fishermen, who were able to comply their meagre salary by taking tourists to Pichavaram in their own boats. However, since Pichavaram has been declared as a reserve forest in 1987 (Government of India Department of Ocean Development, 2000) this has been restricted by the Forest Department. Only the Tamil Nadu Tourism Department, which has a boathouse located in Pichavaram, is allowed to take tourists.

The preservation projects in Pichavaram entail improving the quality and quantity of the mangrove forest. Enlarging the forest is achieved by planting samples of mangrove trees in and near the forest. The MS Swaminathan Research Foundation (MSSRF) has started a project regarding the preservation of Pichavaram in 1993. According to the MSSRF (2002), the Forest Department claimed that the degradation was caused by cattle grazing and tree felling by villagers. However, researches from the MSSRF indicated that degradation was most severe in portions of the mangroves that were inaccessible to villagers and their cattle. The result of this research was that not the villagers, but the Forest Department was

responsible for the degradation of the forest. The forest was managed by a system called ‘coupe felling’, which is a system whereby trees are felled on a rotation basis every 20 or 30 years for revenue generation. However, this exposed large areas of mangrove wetland to

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sunlight and evaporation of soil water. The MSSRF has developed a new technology to restore the degraded areas. A new canal system was connected to the existing canal system, which enabled tidal water to flow in and out of the degraded area. Subsequently, mangrove samplings were planted in the area, which completed the task of restoration. This technique led to a new 10 ha plot of mangrove trees at Pichavaram between 1993 and 1996

(Government of India, 2000). Although this technique has shown to be very successful, the MSSRF warns that the canals have to be constantly monitored and protected.

In 1987, Pichavaram has been declared as a “Reserve Forest” by the Government of India, which means they are absolute property of the government. This also means they are managed by the Tamil Nadu Forest Department(MSSRF, 2003). The Forest Department is thus responsible for guarding the quality of the mangrove forest. The forest is strongly guarded against any damage done by local villagers, which is accomplished by e.g.

prohibiting cattle to graze inside the forest or by prohibiting local people to take branches and leaves from the forest. The MSSRF and the Forest Department organise several awareness programs regarding the conservation of Pichavaram. Many respondents in Pillumedu are aware of these programs, but several respondents have stated that they feel that they already have all the knowledge regarding the subject, so they don’t consider the programs useful.

4.1.2 Development of Pichavaram

The MSSRF has initiated several projects for the preservation of Pichavaram that also involve the participation of villagers of Killai. By hiring villagers that help sampling trees, jobs are offered to local people in order to increase the employment in Killai. Besides projects regarding the preservation of Pichavaram, several development projects regarding the wellbeing of villagers of Killai are carried out by the Indian government and NGOs. After the tsunami that hit the coast of Tamil Nadu in 2004, several rehabilitation plans

regarding the wellbeing of local people whose villages were hit by the tsunami were initiated. The Indian government and several NGOs have implemented projects in Pichavaram in order to help local people with reconstructing the villages. The “Tsunami Rehabilitation

Programme” is a program which is initiated by the Government of Tamil Nadu. The objective of this project is to provide immediate relief and long-term rehabilitation (Government of Tamil Nadu, no date). In cooperation with NGOs, this government program reconstructed villages, created new livelihood options and paid funds to villagers who lost family or property during the tsunami.

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In Killai, the tsunami rehabilitation program has led to several changes in the structure of the village and its hamlets. Before the tsunami, many fishermen used to live in tents on the seashore. These villagers didn’t belong to a hamlet, but were self-sufficient in catching fish and sustaining themselves. After the tsunami, constructed houses were provided for every habitant of Killai. Since these houses were built in 13 hamlets of Killai, everyone who was entitled to a house had to live in a designated hamlet from then on. New hamlets came into existence and some villages from the seashore have blended in with existing hamlets.

4.2 Practices and knowledge regarding Pichavaram

In this chapter, the practices and knowledge of local people Pillumedu will be analysed in order to answer the second sub-question: “What are the practices and knowledge of

fishermen of Pillumedu regarding Pichavaram?”. First, the practices in Pichavaram are

discussed. Thereafter, the knowledge of fishermen regarding the Pichavaram mangrove forest and its ecosystem services are analysed.

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4.2.1 Practices in Pichavaram

87% of the respondents visit the forest two to four times per day. The fishermen need to enter the forest at least two times per day, because if they want to catch fish in the sea, they have to travel through the forest to reach the sea. As shown in table 2, the main purposes of visits to the forest are fishing and travelling through the forest. Few respondents indicate they visit the forest for recreation, which is explained by respondent 22, who states: “We live too near to

this place, so it is not very much fun for us to go there”, and by respondent 27, who states

“We are too familiar with the forest to go there for recreation”.

Several respondents have indicated that the rules set by the Forest Department have led to reduced possibilities to visit the forest. They are only allowed to visit the forest in the capacity of fishermen, as respondent 5 states: “Now all activities in the forest are stopped,

except for fishing, that is the only thing still allowed”. The fishermen need ‘proper

permission’ to take friends or relatives into the mangrove forest, which has reduced the desire to show around the forest to relatives and friends.

All respondents indicate they regularly consume fish that is caught inside the forest. 73% of the respondents used to take firewood from the forest, but this has been banned by the Forest Department several years ago. People in Killai received gas stews in order to decrease the need for taking firewood from the forest. As respondent 5 states: “When people didn’t have

gas stews for cooking, they used wood from the forest. Also they used the branches for making gates to keep animals out of their houses. Now they have concrete houses so they

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14

Table 2: The purpose of visits to Pichavaram according to fishermen of Pillumedu

Travelling through Recreation Guiding guests

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don’t have the need and place for firewood anymore”. Four respondents indicate they still

secretly retrieve firewood from the forest. However, as respondent 24 states, “If the forest

officers come to know we take firewood, we will get punished”.

4.2.2 Knowledge of Pichavaram

As shown in table 3, almost all respondents consider the protection against natural disasters such as tsunami’s and cyclones as one of the main functions of the Pichavaram mangrove forest. Many villagers of Pillumedu were made aware of the protecting purpose of the forest after the tsunami in 2004 hit the coast of east-India. As respondent 9 states, “After the

tsunami, people who lived in this place survived because of the forest. The forest has saved many lives from the tsunami”.

Another function of the mangrove forest that the fishermen are aware of, is the good breeding conditions in the forest for fish, shrimp and crabs. Many respondents state that the conditions of the forest leads to more shrimp and fish, which benefits the fishermen directly.

50% of the fishermen believe that they benefit from the Pichavaram mangrove forest. Some respondents feel that the forest has saved their lives during the tsunami in 2004 or during cyclones. Other respondents indicate that the forest is necessary for their livelihood.

Respondent 27 states: “We depend upon the forest because we get at least a minimum wage”. The other half of the fishermen believes that they do not benefit directly from the Pichavaram forest. As respondent 24 states: “It protects us from the water, but it gives us no direct

benefit”. More fishermen feel that although the forest has good breeding conditions for fish, 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14

Table 3: Purposes of the forest according to fishermen from Pillumedu

Protection against natural disasters

Good breeding conditions Regulates the climate (shadow & fresh air)

Attracts tourists Looks pretty

Protects from soil erosion Attracts animals

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this brings the fish benefits, and not the people living in Pillumedu: “We get no direct benefit

from the forest, but the fishes do” (respondent 22).

All of the respondents consider the mangrove forest as important. As respondent 20 states: “Yes, it is important. It gives us protection. Each village needs a forest like this. The forest is

not disturbing us so we should not destroy it”. Many fishermen began to value the forest

more after the tsunami hit the coast in 2004. As respondent 21 states: “The fishermen and the

common people feel that the forest should be highly preserved so they can get their living standards. They realized now that the forest is good for them”.

As shown in table 4, 80% of the respondents retrieved his knowledge from his ancestors. Fathers start teaching boys about the fishing business when the boy finishes (or drops out from) school. Many fishermen indicate that they complement this knowledge with their own experiences. However the awareness programs are known by many respondents, only 1 respondent indicates he actually retrieved knowledge from these programs.

4.3 The view of fishers on the conservation of Pichavaram

In this chapter, the relevant results of the research regarding sub-question 3, “What is the

view of fishermen of Pillumedu on the conservation of Pichavaram”, are presented. First, the

view of fishers on the preservation of Pichavaram is analysed. Then the responsibility for the preservation of the forest is discussed. Finally, the effect of development programs on the lives of fishermen is discussed.

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14

Table 4: Source of knowledge regarding the Pichavaram mangrove forest Ancestral knowledge Own experience Other people in my village Education/ awareness programs

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4.3.1 Preservation by the Forest Department

As described in chapter 4.1.1, the mangrove forest of Pichavaram has become a highly protected area since the late 1970’s. The law enforcement in Pichavaram is carried out by forest officers of the Forest Department, who are responsible for guarding the forest against damage. Many rules are applied by the Forest Department to prevent damage to the forest. However, besides preventing damage to the forest, these rules cause limitations for many activities that local people want to undertake in the forest. Many respondents (55%) think that the rules have gotten much stricter in the last decade. These strict rules have many

consequences for the fishermen of Pillumedu.

According to the interviews, many fishermen from Pillumedu are afraid of the forest officers. As respondent 6 states: “When the forest officers come to the forest for a visit, we will keep

away as much as possible from the forest and don’t come near the trees so branches and roots will not break. Otherwise the forest officers will be angry with us. When the forest officers are not there, we touch it and sometimes use it for grip”. Since the forest officers

don’t guard the forest after 17.00 pm, several fishermen prefer to go fishing during night. Fishermen used to take tourists into the mangrove forest to generate extra income, but this has been forbidden by the Forest Department. Currently, only the Tamil Nadu Tourist Department is allowed to take tourists into the forest. This has caused a lot of anger among the fishermen, because taking tourists to visit Pichavaram has been an important way to get more income. As respondent 14 explains: “Earlier we used to earn money by taking tourists

inside the forest. Now only the Tamil Nadu Tourist Department has boats and take tourists, while we are not allowed to take them”.

Many fishermen state that the strict rules and regulations from the Forest Department have led to a decrease in income for the fishermen, also because they can only use specific canals and are no longer allowed to fish for crab and shrimp between the roots of the trees. As respondent 23 states: “The benefits of the conservation are good for us, but the conservation

itself influences us negatively, because they are growing more and more trees inside the forest. The trees grow thick so only small boats can enter, which makes it difficult to enter the place, if we are allowed to enter the place”.

46% of the fishermen of Pillumedu think that Pichavaram is well preserved, however many respondents have ideas on how to improve the preservation of the forest. 26% of the

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that they have knowledge regarding the forest that would be of value to the Forest Department. According to the fishermen, this knowledge (which is mostly obtained by ancestors and own experiences), is not considered as valuable by the Forest department. The other respondents didn’t want to answer to this question, because they felt afraid to express their opinion; they were afraid for implications from the Forest Department and didn’t want their opinion to be written down.

The topic of corruption at the Forest Department is a returning topic in the interviews. As respondent 13 states: “The forest is now only the responsibility of the forest officers. The

government spends lakhs and lakhs of rupees to protect the forest. This money should be used properly right now. The fund is not properly maintained. They are bribing and utilizing the funds for their own way secretly”. Several respondents in Pillumedu also claim that corrupt

activities at the forest department damages the activities and property of the fishermen. As respondent 23 explains: “The tourists stop visiting at 5 officially, but sometimes the forest

officers allow tourists even after that time. So we fishermen go fishing after 5, we lay our nets in the cans, which are then damaged by the motors of the tourist boats. So we get trouble from the tourists. They (the Forest Department) can only bill tourists after 5, so after 5 the money they get will go directly to the forest officers, who then have it for themselves. We get more fish in the night, but not if tourists are allowed in and break our nets. We are put in danger for the benefit of the forest officers”. More respondents have agreed that they suspect

that government funds are used for other purposes than the funds are intended for.

Another aspect of the Forest Department that is questioned, is the lack of available funds. As respondent 5 states: “Unfortunately there is a lack of funds so the fruits are not used properly

or are not used at all. Because the funds are insufficient, the forest officers pluck the fruit at the wrong times. The fruit needs to be yellow to be planted in the soil, but the forest officers get the funds when the fruit is still white, so that fruit often doesn’t work. The fishers

informed the officials about this, but they do not care about it. They only think about their own wages, not about the forest”. This implies that either the Forest Department doesn’t

receive enough funds to conserve the mangrove forest properly, but taking into account the statements regarding corruption at the Forest Department, it is possible that the existing funds are misused by the forest officers.

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4.3.2 Responsibility for the preservation of Pichavaram

The Forest Department is the executor of rules and regulation regarding the preservation of Pichavaram. As chapter 4.3.1 illustrates, many fishermen of Pillumedu think that the

preservation of Pichavaram is not properly maintained. Therefore the respondents have been asked whom they feel should be responsible for the preservation of the forest.

46% of the respondents believe that the forest department should still be responsible for preserving the forest. 20% of the respondents think that a combination of the forest

department and the local people would lead to the best preservation of the forest. Only 13% thinks that local people should be responsible for preserving the forest. Several respondents have no opinion about this question, as respondent 6 explains: “I have no opinion about this.

The full responsibility is for the forest officers. We simply obey these rules”. Several

respondents think that fishers should be responsible because they care more about the forest, as respondent 5 explains: “They respect the forest; they want to save it and protect it. That’s

why sometimes they plant some fruits there while it is not their job. The forest officer’s don’t maintain the forest properly. Also the forest officers transfer too quickly”. However several

respondents feel that common people would be the best option to preserve the forest, they don’t think it is realistic. As respondent 23 explains: “Common people cannot manage the

forest because they have their own business, so the forest department is the best option to protect the forest”.

4.3.3 The effect of development programs

As described in chapter 4.1, several projects for enhancing the quality and quantity of the mangrove forest have been initiated. Although Pillumedu is situated close to the forest, only 20% of the respondents has participated in projects regarding the preservation of Pichavaram (e.g. sampling projects). Several respondents in Pillumedu claim that the reason for this low participation rate is that villagers from other villages are preferred to participate in programs, because they work for lower wages, as respondent 5 states: “We get no direct benefit from the

preservation of the forest. The Irrular people get the jobs because they work for a cheaper rate”.

After the tsunami of 2004 hit the coast of Tamil Nadu, several rehabilitation plans have been initiated in Killai. Before the tsunami, several villagers of Killai used to live in tents on the seashore. After the tsunami, constructed houses were provided for all villagers of Killai. These rehabilitation plans sometimes led to the merging or splitting of hamlets. As

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respondent 9 explains: “We lived happily on the sea bank, but here we have to spend more

money. We didn’t have electricity earlier so we also didn’t have to pay for electricity, but now we have to use it and pay for it”. Respondent 23 confirms this statement: “When we lived in the bank of the sea, we got little income, but we survived. After we shifted our house from the seashore, the expenditures got too much”.

Even though villagers now live in constructed houses instead of tents, they feel that their living standard has decreased because the expenditures got much higher than necessary. Some interviews show that measures for improving the wellbeing of villagers don’t always have the intended outcome. As respondent 24 explains: “The government gave 3 coconut

trees to each new house. These three plants died, because they were not maintained properly. I destroyed it because someone told me that it would fall on my house during a cyclone, so we poured hot water on it”. This shows that some parts of the rehabilitation programs seem to

have failed due to a lack of information to the villagers.

Another consequence of rehabilitation programs is that inequality in the villages seems to have risen after the tsunami. This is because allowances were provided by the government to people who had lost property or family members due to the tsunami. This has led to an increased inequality in the villages, as respondent 14 explains: “Before the tsunami, the

people in my village were not aware that the number lakh existed, but because children died in the tsunami they got 2 lakh per family member, so some people got very rich when many family members had died.” This led to discontent among other members of the village, who

could not claim an allowance, as respondent 23 states: “I was in Singapore at the time, so I

didn't get a free boat after the tsunami from the government. The affected people got a boat from the government. My family has tried to get a boat, but that wasn't possible because I wasn't here. Eventually I got a rowing boat, but from my own money”.

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5. Analysis of results

In this chapter, the results of the research are analysed according to the main subjects of the theoretical framework. The situation as experienced by the fishermen of Pillumedu is explained with reference to the theoretical framework. The community-based conservation plans that were analysed in the theoretic framework will be compared to the current

conservation situation in Pichavaram.

5.1 Ecosystem services and local people

As explained in the theoretical framework, ecosystem services can be divided in four types of services. In the results-chapter of this thesis, the practices and knowledge of fishermen

regarding Pichavaram have been discussed. These results can be divided in the several types of ecosystem services. The main known ecosystem services of mangrove forests are indicated in table 5 . The ecosystems services that have been named by the fishermen of Pillumedu are indicated in blue. Provisioning ecosystem services Regulating ecosystem services Supporting ecosystem services Cultural ecosystem services Mangrove forests provide food through the fish living in the forest

Mangrove forests regulate the local climate and air quality

Mangrove forests function as a breeding place for species

Mangrove forests function as a place for recreation

Mangrove forests provide wood for fuel purposes Mangrove forests moderate natural hazards Mangrove forests maintain genetic diversity Mangrove forests attract tourism Mangrove forests provide fresh water

Mangrove forests prevent soil erosion

and maintain soil fertility Mangrove forests arouse aesthyetic appreciation Mangrove forests provide medicinal resources Mangrove forests arouse spiritual experience

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Table 5 shows that the fishermen of Pillumedu are well informed about the ecosystem services of mangrove forests. They appreciate the ecosystem services from Pichavaram highly, especially the cultural and regulating services. The provisioning ecosystem services are also appreciated, however many respondents consider these services as self-evident: the fishermen feel that in order to retrieve these resources, they can move to other places (e.g. the sea for fish; other forests for wood).

As explained in chapter 2, ecosystem services are connected with the wellbeing of local people. It seems that the conservation policy of the Forest Department has led to a decline in ecosystem goods and services for the fishermen of Pillumedu. The fishermen indicate that this has led to a decrease in access to food and fuel, i.e. the provisioning ecosystem services have declined. Taking into account figure 2, this could have implications for all four

constituents of well-being.

The implications of the current conservation policy in Pichavaram can influence all constituents of wellbeing that are shown in figure 2. The implications on the security constituent of wellbeing are reprehensible, since fishermen can divert to other sources for food and fuel. Still, the implications on the constituent of basic material for good life are relevant for the wellbeing of fishermen of Pillumedu, since it is harder for the fishermen to come by sufficient food and shelter, which can form a danger to the health and strength of people. The fourth constituent of wellbeing, good social relations, doesnt seem to be influenced by the limited access to the provisioning ecosystem services. Still, the limited access to the forest has a large impact on the freedom of choice and action of fishermen of Pillumedu. The fishers are no longer allowed to fish by their own rules, but have to follow the rules of the Forest Department, which might thus lead to a decrease in wellbeing.

5.2 Conservation of Pichavaram

The access in Pichavaram used to be open for all until the late 1970s, when the forest came under supervision of the Forest Department. As described in chapter 1.2.2 , the mangrove forest has suffered from a large land-loss and degradation until it became supervised by the Forest Department. The source of this degradation was an inaccurate form of forest

management, together with careless handling of the forest by its visitors. When we look at Hardin’s Tragedy of the Commons (1968), several links between this theory and the history of Pichavaram can be made: the depletion of a common (the mangrove forest) by who are

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dependent (fishermen, tourists and forest managers) on resources from that common (food,

fuel and aesthetic values).

Eventually, conservation projects for Pichavaram were initiated by the government and NGOs, which has resulted in a significant growth of the forest. However, chapter 5 has shown that there were more implications of these conservation projects. With the stricter rules and regulations, the access to Pichavaram has been changed: instead of a government owned CPR with open access for everyone, the government is exercising its government property rights with – according to Ostrom (1990) – matching restricted access to the forest. The vastly improved quality and quantity of Pichavaram after the government took more control of the forest, is in line with Ostrom’s (1990) theory that restricting access to the common pool can lead towards solving CPR-related problems. However, according to Ostrom, another element was necessary in order to solve these problems: creating incentives by stimulating individuals to invest in or manage the resource. It seems that this element is still missing in Pichavaram. Fishermen have an extended knowledge of the forest because of their own experiences and knowledge of their ancestors. Still, the fishermen are not being consulted in the preservation of Pichavaram. This leads to the feeling of being neglected by the government, and decreases the willingness to cooperate in the conservation of

Pichavaram.

As Berkes (2004) suggests, the interests of both common people and governments can be served if conservation and development can be simultaneously reached by a community-based conservation. Three types of ecosystem management have been introduced in chapter 2.3: Joint-Management Projects; Indigenous and Community Conserved Areas and Adaptive

Governance. The Joint-Management Projects focuse on the combination of traditional and

scientific knowledge in CBC-projects, which can lead to a more encompassing conservation of natural areas. According to the MSSRF (2003), a joint-mangrove-management plan has been implemented in Pichavaram. Unfortunately the fishermen of Pillumedu were no part of this project. The results of this research suggest that a Joint-Management project could pose as a solution for the CPR-related problems of Pichavaram.

The ICCA-type of community-based conservation, as introduced by Berkes (2008), might be relevant for this case since the fishermen are closely connected to the ecosystem. However, in order to reach this type of conservation, the community has to be the major decision maker and have the capability to enforce regulations. The fishermen of Pillumedu repeatedly

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indicate that however they don’t agree with the current conservation of the forest, they don’t want to be fully responsible themselves for the conservation of Pichavaram.

Another type of ecosystem management, adaptive governance, might pose as a solution for the above described problems regarding the conservation of Pichavaram. As Berkes (2004) states, the government and local people should strive for an adaptive co-management of a CPR (here: Pichavaram) and a larger implementation of local traditional knowledge. The outcomes of the research in Pichavaram show that these elements currently seem to lack in the current conservation of Pichavaram, which could result in an inadequate preservation of Pichavaram and an inadequate development surrounding area. Several recommendations for (local) governments and NGOs are provided in chapter 6.3.

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6. Conclusion

In the previous chapters, the outcomes of the research have been presented, interpreted and connected to the theoretical framework. Using this information, the answers to the research questions are presented in this chapter. First, the research questions will be answered and the conclusion following this research will be presented. Subsequently, recommendations for further research are provided. This chapter concludes with recommendations (local) Indian governments and NGOs.

6.1 Conclusion

In order to answer the research question, the sub-questions will be answered first. The first sub-question involves the current activities regarding the conservation of Pichavaram. The literature research showed that the Pichavaram is property of the Indian Government. The preservation of Pichavaram is carried out by the Forest Department by monitoring the forest, setting up rules and regulation and checking the compliance of these rules. Several

conservation projects have been set up in Pichavaram by NGOs, such as the MSSRF. These projects try to stimulate the employment in the area by the involvement of local villagers. Other development-related projects are focused on the rehabilitation after the tsunami in 2004. These project involve the construction of new houses and the reinstatement of property that was damaged during the tsunami.

The second sub-question involves the practices and knowledge of fishermen of Pillumedu regarding Pichavaram. The outcomes of the research show that almost all respondents visit the mangrove forest very frequently (2 – 4 times per day). In earlier years, the fishermen used to comply to their income by guiding tourists in Pichavaram, but currently the strict rules of the Forest Department limit all activities other than fishing in the forest. The knowledge of respondents regarding Pichavaram is mostly based on ancestral knowledge. Fishermen learn how to fish from their father and enlarge this knowledge by own experiences.

The third sub-question concerns the view of fishermen of Pillumedu on the conservation of Pichavaram. All respondents agree that Pichavaram should be preserved, although several respondents feel that the current conservation of Pichavaram fails to achieve a good preservation of the forest. Many respondents feel that they are not properly involved in the conservation of Pichavaram: although they would like to help preserving the forest, they are not allowed to do so because of the strict regulation that has been set by the Forest

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projects that have been initiated by NGOs; the villagers of Irrular-hamlets are preferred for these jobs since they ask for lower wages. Although the Tsunami Rehabilitation Programme has led to the construction of new houses, the reinstatement of property lost during the

tsunami and a connection to the electricity network, the fishermen of Pillumedu feel that their living standard has decreased since these new living conditions. The respondents feel that the costs of living have risen disproportionally, and the disadvantages of their new living

conditions outweigh the advantages. On top of this, the large funds that have been paid to survived relatives of deceased, seem to have caused large inequalities in Pillumedu. The research question, “To what extent is the conservation of Pichavaram, Tamil Nadu,

aligned with the practices and knowledge of local fishermen of Pillumedu?” can be answered

now. There are several conservation programs in Pichavaram, but these programs don’t seem to meet the expectations on both preservation- and development parts. The preservation of Pichavaram has led to an increase of the size of the mangrove forest, but it has also led to a limitation in ways to earn income for the fishermen. According to the fishermen of

Pillumedu, there are still many improvements possible in the preservation of Pichavaram, however they feel that their ancestral knowledge is not valued by the Forest Department. Regarding the development of Pichavaram, the intended objective of the tsunami

rehabilitation programs (to provide immediate relief and long-term rehabilitation) doesn’t seem to be achieved. The first objective, to provide immediate relief, has been accomplished, since many lost properties have been reinstated. However, the large allowances that have been paid to relatives of deceased persons have led to inequalities in Pillumedu. The second objective, to provide long-term rehabilitation, has not been met, since the costs of their new living conditions have risen too sharply.

Concluding, the conservation of Pichavaram does lead to some improvements for the natural area of Pichavaram, but not for the fishermen of Pillumedu. This shows that the conservation of Pichavaram is more focused on the preservation side than on the development side. There is no coordinating organization that focuses on both preservation and development, since the Forest Department only focuses on the preservation of Pichavaram. If the practices and knowledge of fishermen of Pillumedu would be consulted in the conservation of Pichavaram, a broader scale of issued could be addressed, while improving the preservation and

Community perceptions on the conservation of the Pichavaram mangrove forest, Tamil Nadu A case study perspective on the conservation of an ecosystem