Computer-related technostress : an investigative study

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COMPUTER-RELATED TECHNOSTRESS:

AN INVESTIGATIVE STUDY

Etienne Erasmus

L.Th., N.Dip., Dip. Data., B.Sc. Hon.

Mini-dissertation submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree Magister Scientiae (Psychology) in the School of Behavioural Sciences at the Vaal Triangle Campus of the Potchefstroom University for Christian Higher Education.

Supervisor: Mr.

J.

P. du Preez

Vanderbijlpark November 2001

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

To God Almighty, my Creator and Redeemer, I would like to express my gratitude for this opportunity, and for the strength and support that I have received during this study.

I would like to express my appreciation to the following individuals and organisations:

o

My wife, Engela, for her encouragement, support and motivation, and for just being there for me.

o My children, Chris, Etienne, Eldrissa and Eugene, for their empathy and understanding.

o My supervisor, Mr. J. P. du Preez, for his guidance and assistance.

o Dudley Schnetler, for being available as mentor.

o Sasol Polymers, for the financial assistance provided by their internal bursary scheme.

o Employees of the petrochemical industries, for their participation in this research.

o Aldine Oosthuizen, for her assistance with the statistical analysis and interpretation.

o Haidee Kotze, for her assistance with the language editing.

o San Geldenhuys and the personnel of the Ferdinand Postma Library (PU for CHE, Vaal Triangle Campus) for their excellent and friendly service.

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ABSTRACT

Key terms: technostress; computer anxiety; negative computer thoughts; negative attitudes towards computers.

South African businesses have experienced challenging times since the country's re-entry into the global economy in 1994. These challenges include the ever-increasing pace of computerisation within the workplace, the increasing speed and power of computers, the access to large quantities of information from all over the world through networks and the Internet, as well as perpetually changing employee job roles due to the changing ways in which tasks are performed. Considering the increased vulnerability of employees to stressors from their work environment and the consequent physiological and psychological effects of stress should their coping mechanisms be ineffective, one can safely deduce that computer technology is doing a great deal for, but also something to the computer user. This latter effect is known as technostress.

The objective of this research is to determine whether computer-related anxiety, negative computer thoughts and negative computer attitudes are present within the occupational contexts chosen as the domain of this study. The research will verify the levels of technostress experienced by the sample group, as well as those experienced by gender and employment status sub-groups.

As point of departure, this study indicates how the development of the modern computer, together with the development of stress as a construct, has produced the new concept of technostress. An attempt is also made to define technostress by making use of a stress model developed within the South African context.

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research utilised three measuring instruments to determine the presence of the three elements of technostress, namely computer anxiety, negative computer thoughts and negative attitudes towards computers.

The results of this study indicate that technostress is present in the industry at three levels: no technostress, low technostress and moderate/high technostress. In addition, results indicate no significant correlation with results obtained in a similar American study.

Recommendations are made regarding possible ways to identify and measure the levels of technostress in the industry, as well as regarding possible means of behavioural intervention to minimise its impact on the employee and the organisation.

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OPSOMMING

Sleutelterme: technostress; rekenaar-angs; negatiewe gedagtes oor rekenaars; negatiewe houdings teenoor rekenaars.

Suid Afrikaanse besighede moet besondere uitdagings die hoof bied sedert die land se

hertoetrede tot die globale ekonomie in 1994. Sodanige uitdagings sluit byvoorbeeld in die steeds versnellende pas van rekenarisering binne die werksplek, die toenemende spoed en krag van rekenaars, die toegang tot groot hoeveelhede inligting van oral oor die wereld deur middel van netwerke en die Internet, sowel as die voortdurend veranderende werksrolle van

werknemers as gevolg van veranderende werkswyses. In ag genome die feit dat werknemers besonder kwesbaar is vir die uitwerking van stressors in hulle werksomgewing, en die

gevolglike fisiologiese en psigologiese uitwerking van stres indien hulle coping-meganismes

oneffektief is, sou die afleiding gemaak kan word dat rekenaartegnologie baie doen vir, maar ook iets doen

aan

die rekenaargebruiker. Hierdie laasgenoemde effek staan bekend as technostress (tegnostres).

Die doelstelling van hierdie navorsing is om te bepaal of rekenaar-angs, negatiewe gedagtes oor rekenaars, en negatiewe houdings teenoor rekenaars teenwoordig is binne die

beroepsvelde wat gekies is vir die empiriese navorsing van hierdie studie. Die navorsing het ten

doel om die vlakke van technostress binne die navorsingsgroep sowel as binne die subgroepe van geslag en werkstatus te bevestig.

As vertrekpunt vir die studie word aangetoon hoe die ontwikkeling van die moderne rekenaar

tesame met die ontwikkeling van stres as 'n konstruk die nuwe konsep van technostress teweeggebring het. 'n Paging word ook aangewend om technostress te verklaar aan die hand van 'n stresmodel gebaseer op die Suid-Afrikaanse konteks.

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Die empiriese ondersoek is gedoen in samewerking met werknemers binne die volgende werksdissiplines: proses, ingenieurswese, finansieel, inligtingstelsels en administrasie. Die

navorsing het gebruik gemaak van drie meetinstrumente om die teenwoordigheid van al drie die elemente van technostress te bepaal, naamlik rekenaar-angs, negatiewe gedagtes oor rekenaars, en negatiewe houdings teenoor rekenaars.

Die resultate van hierdie studie toon aan dat technostress wel teenwoordig is binne die bedryf, en wel op drie vlakke: geen technostress, lae technostress en matige/hoe technostress. Verder toon resultate ook dat daar geen betekenisvolle korrelasie is met die resultate wat in 'n soortgelyke Amerikaanse studie behaal is nie.

Aanbevelings word gemaak oor moontlike wyses om technostress te identifiseer en vlakke van technostress te meet in die bedryf, sowel as oor moontlike gedragsintervensies om die impak op die individuele werknemer en die organisasie te beperk.

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List of figures

ix

List of tables

x

CHAPTER 1: Problem statement, aims and outline of the research

1.1 Introduction 1

1.2 Problem statement 1

1.3 Aims of the study 6

1.3.1 Theoretical aims 6

1.3.2 Empirical aims 7

1.4 Hypotheses 7

1.4.1 Hypotheses for the theoretical aims 7

1.4.2 Hypotheses for the empirical aims 8

1.5 Terminology 8

1.5.1 Technostress 8

1.6 Summary and preview 9

CHAPTER 2: The history of the computer and stress

2.1 Introduction 10

2.2 The history of computers 10

2.2.1 The historical origins of computers 11

2.2.1.1 The abacus 11

2.2.1.2 The first mechanical calculator 11

2.2.1.3 The slide rule 11

2.2.1.4 The Pascaline 11

2.2.1.5 Punch cards 12

2.2.1.6 The Arithmometer 12

2.2.1.7 The Difference Engine 12

2.2.1.8 The Analytical Engine 12

2.2.1.9 Boolean algebra 13

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2.2.1.11 The electronic tube 14

2.2.1.12 The flip-flop circuit 14

2.2.1.13 The patent for the semiconductor transistor 14

2.2.1.14 The keyboard 14

2.2.1.15 Sixteen-bit adder 15

2.2.1.16 Ten-bit adder with memory 15

2.2.1.17 The Complex Number Calculator 15

2.2.1.18 The Atanasoff-Berry Computer 15

2.2.1.19 Harvard Mark I 16

2.2.1.20 The ENIAC 16

2.2.1.21 Summary 17

2.2.2 The first generation of computers (1946-1959) 17

2.2.2.1 The technological turning-point 17

2.2.2.2 Major events 18

2.2.2.2.1 The transistor invented 18

2.2.2.2.2 ED SAC 18 2.2.2.2.3 EDVAC 18 2.2.2.2.4 UNIVAC-I 18 2.2.2.2.5 Further developments 19 2.2.2.3 Programming 19 2.2.2.4 Target domain 20

2.2.3 The second generation of computers ( 1959-1964) 20

2.2.3.2.1 High cost of computers 20

2.2.3.2.2 Manufacturer innovations 20 2.2.3.2.3 Dominant characteristics 21 2.2.3.3 Programming 21 2.2.3.3.1 Low-level languages 21 2.2.3.3.2 High-level languages 22 2.2.3.4 Target domain 22

2.2.4 The third generation of computers (1964-1971) 22

2.2.4.2.1 Obsolescence of earlier computers 23

2.2.4.2.2 Cross-generation compatibility 23

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2.2.4.2.3 Upward compatibility 23

2.2.4.2.4 Multiprogramming 24

2.2.4.2.5 The minicomputer 24

2.2.4.3 Programming 24

2.2.4.4 Target domain 25

2.2.5 The fourth generation of computers (1971 to the present) 25

2.2.5.2.1 The microcomputer 26

2.2.5.2.2 Increase in speed 26

2.2.5.2.3 Networking 27

2.2.5.2.4 The Windows operating system 28

2.2.5.2.5 The Internet 28

2.2.5.3 Programming 30

2.2.5.4 Target domain 30

2.2.6 Further generations 31

2.2.7 Summary 31

2.2.7.1 The convenience of computer technology 32

2.2.7.2 The computer competence of ordinary people 32

2.2.7.3 Inclusion in the "global village" 32

2.2.7.4 Changing society 33

2.3 Stress 33

2.3.1 The origin of the stress construct 33

2.3.2 A clarification of stress as a construct 35

2.3.2.1 Stress versus tension 35

2.3.2.2 Types of stress 36

2.3.2.3 Stressors 37

2.3.2.4 Factors predisposing an individual to stress 37

2.3.2.4.1 Importance 37 2.3.2.4.2 Duration 37 2.3.2.4.3 Cumulative effect 38 2.3.2.4.4 Multiplicity 38 2.3.2.4.5 Imminence 38 2.3.2.4.6 Perception of threat 38 2.3.2.4.7 Stress tolerance 39

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2.3.2.5

Human reaction to stress

39

2.3.2.5.1

Lowered adaptive efficiency

40

2.3.2.5.2

Depletion of adaptive resources

40

2.3.2.5.3

Wear and tear on the human system

40

2.3.2.6

Coping strategies

40

2.3.2.6.1

Task-oriented response

41

2.3.2.

6.2

Defence-oriented response

42

2.3.3

Stress models

43

2.3.3.1

The stimulus model of Holmes and Rahe

43

2.3.3.2

The response model of Selye

46

2.3.3.2.1

Alarm reaction

49

2.3.3 .2.2

Stage of resistance

50

2.3.3.2.3

Stage of exhaustion

50

2.3.3.3

The stimulus-response model of StrOmpfer

52

2.3.3.3.1

Cultural antecedents

53

2.3.3.3 .2

Organisational stressors

54

2.3.3.3.3

Reactions (stress)

55

2.3.3.3.4

Consequences (strain)

56

2.3.3.3.5

Conditioning variables

57

2.3.3.3.6

Coping

58

2.3.3.4

Summary

58

2.3.3.4.1

Stress is unavoidable

58

2.3.3.4.2

Stress has physiological and psychological effects

59

2.3.3.4.3

Stress can be either positive or negative

60

2.3.3.4.4

The stimulus-response model is more comprehensive

60

2.3.3.4.5

StrOmpfer's S-0-R model is more suitable to explain computer-related

60

technostress

2.4

Evaluation and summary

60 CHAPTER 3: Computer-related technostress

3.1

Introduction

62

3.2

A clarification of the concept of technostress

62

3.2.1

Definition

62

3 .2.2

Synonymous terminology

63

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3.2.4

Measuring technostress

64

3.2.4.1

Measuring instruments

64

3.2.4.1.1

The CARS-C

64

3.2.4.1 .

2

The CTS-C

64

3.2.4.1.3

The GATCS-C

65

3.2.4.2

Instrument interpretation and limits

66

3.2.5

Human reactions to technostress

67

3.2.5.1

Eager Adopters

67

3.2.5.2

Hesitant "Prove Its"

68

3.2.5.3

Resisters

69

3.3

Congruence with stress

69

3.3.1

Computer antecedents

71

3.3.2

Tech nostressors

72

3.3.2.1

Organisational factors

72

3.3.2.2

Information overload

73

3.3.2.3

Role conflicts

74

3.3.2.4

Multitasking

74

3.3.2.5

Constant interim

75

3.3.2.6

Time compression

76

3.3.2.7

Cognitive labour

77

3.3.2.8

Abstraction

77

3.3.2.9

Diffused boundaries

78

3.3.2 .

10

Constant learning and change

79

3 .

2 .

11

Increased time spent in sedentary work

79

3 .

3.2.12

Difficulty separating from work

80

3.3.3

Technostress (reaction)

80

3.3.3.1

Anxiety reaction

81

3.3.3.2

Cognitive discomfort

81

3.3.3.3

Bipolar discomfort

82

3.3.4

Technostrain (consequences)

82

3.3.4.1

Physical consequences

82

3.3.4.2

Mental consequences

82

3.3.4.3

Behavioural consequences

83

3.3.4.3.1

Technocentred behaviour

83

3.3.4.3.2

Technoanxious behaviour

84

3.3.5

Conditioning variables

85

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3 .

3.5.1

Awareness of existing competence

3 .

5 .

2

Curiosity

3.3 .

5.3

Analysis of new technology

3.3 .

5.4

Prioritising and completing tasks

3 .

5 .

5

Continual learning

3.3.5.6

Technological segregation

3.3 .

6

Technocoping

3 .

3.6.1

Relaxation

3 .

3.6.2

Good health

3 .

3.6.3

Positive attitude

3 .

6.4

Time management

3 .

6 .

5

Realistic goals

3 .

6 .

6

Co-operation

3.3 .

6.7

Hands-on practice

3.3.6 .

8

Prioritisation

3.3 .

6 .

9

Self-education and training

3 .

3.7

Summary

3.4

Existing technostress research outcomes

3.4.1

Research overview

3.4.2

Sample demographics

3.4 .

3

Research results

3.4.3 .

1

Business technology used in the office

3.4.3.2

Best predictors of technology use

3.4.3.3

Presence of technostress

3.4 .

3.4

Online activity

3.4.3.5

Reported ways in which technology has made work more stressful

3.4 .

3.6

Understanding of cyberspace

3.4.3 .

7

Research summary and conclusions

3 .

5

Evaluation and summary

CHAPTER 4: Research methodology

4.1

4.

2

4 .

3

4.3.1

Introduction

Aims of the empirical investigation Method of the empirical investigation Research design

85

86

87

88

89

90

91

92

93

94

95

97

98

99

100

101

103

10

3

104

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4.3.2 Participants 104

4.3.3 Measuring instruments 105

4.3.3.1 Biographical questionnaire 105

4.3.3.2 Computer Anxiety Rating Scale (CARS-C) 105

4.3.3.2.1 Contents of the questionnaire 105

4.3.3.2.2 Processing and scoring of the questionnaire 107

4.3.3.2.3 Reliability and validity 107

4.3.3.3 Computer Thoughts Survey (CTS-C) 108

4.3.3.4 General Attitudes Towards Computer Scale (GATCS-C) 111

4.3.4 Procedure 114

4.3.5 Method of statistical analysis 114

4.4 Summary 115

CHAPTER 5: Results and interpretations

5.1 Introduction 116

5.2 Descriptive statistics 116

5.2.1 Descriptive statistics for the total group (n=121) 116 5.2.1.1 Cronbach alpha coefficients of reliability for the CARS-C, CTS-C and 116

GATCS-C

5.2.1.2 Descriptive statistics for the CARS-C, CTS-C and GATCS-C scores for the 118 total group (n=121)

5.2.2 Descriptive statistics for sub-groups 121

5.2.2.1 Gender 121 5.2.2.2 Employment status 123 5.3 Factor analysis 127 5.3.1 The CARS-C 127 5.3.1.1 Factor 1 128 5.3.1.2 Factor 2 129 5.3.2 The CTS-C 129

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5.3.2.1 Factor 1 130 5.3.2.2 Factor 2 130 5.3.2.3 Factor 3 131 5.3.3 The GATCS-C 131 5.3.3.1 Factor 1 132 5.3.3.2 Factor 2 132 5.3.3.3 Factor 3 133 5.3.3.4 Factor 4 133 5.4 Summary 134

CHAPTER 6:

Conclusion and

recommendations

6.1 Introduction 136

6.2 Summary and conclusions 136

6.2.1 Summary and conclusions based on the literature study 136 6.2.2 Summary and conclusions based on the empirical study 138

6.3 Final conclusions 141

6.4 Limitations of the study 141

6.5 Recommendations for future research 142

6.6 Summary 143

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Hans Selye's General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) 48

Figure 2: Hans Selye's General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) stress model

49

Figure 3: Strumpfer's S-0-R model of stressors and their reactions

52

Figure 4: Strumpfer's model for the integration of organisational stress variables

53

Figure 5: S-0-R model for technostress

70

Figure 6: Model for the integration of technostress variables

70

Figure 7: Technological attitudes of clerical/support staff

97

Figure 8: Technological attitudes of managers/executives

98

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Table 2: Table 3: Table 4: Table 5: Table 6: Table 7: Table 8: Table 9: Table 10: Table 11 Table 12 Table 13

Greatest engineering achievements of the twentieth century

Intel microprocessor speed comparison

Holmes & Rahe's Social Readjustment Rating Scale

Interpretation and limits of the CARS-C, CTS-C and GATCS-C

Interpretation and limits of technostress

Increased technology use in the office

Best predictors of technology use

Demographics of experimental subjects (n=121)

Descriptive statistics and Cronbach alpha coefficients of reliability for the CARS-C, CTS-C and the GATCS-C measuring instruments

Descriptive statistics for the CARS-C, CTS-C and GATCS-C for the total group (n=121)

Descriptive statistics for the sub-group gender, reflecting the scores of males (n=84)

Descriptive statistics for the sub-group gender, reflecting the scores of females (n=37)

Gender differences on the dimensions of the CARS-C, CTS-C and GATCS-C

2

27 44 66 67

95

96

104 117 119 121 121 122

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Table 14 Table 15 Table 16 Table 17 Table 18 Table 19 Table 20 Table 21 Table 22

Descriptive statistics for the sub-groups, reflecting the compiled levels of computer-related technostress according to gender

Descriptive statistics for the sub-group employment status, reflecting the scores of managers (n=30)

Descriptive statistics for the sub-group employment status, reflecting the scores of non-managers (n=91)

Descriptive statistics for the sub-groups, reflecting the scores of the dimensions of computer-related technostress according to employment status

Descriptive statistics for the sub-groups, reflecting the compiled levels of computer-related technostress according to employment status

Descriptive statistics for comparing this research study and the American study of Rosen and Weil (Nov 1999, n=901 ), with regards to the levels of technostress of managerial and non-managerial employees

Factor analysis of the CARS-C used during this investigation, for loadings greater than 0. 7000

Factor analysis of the CTS-C used during this investigation, for loadings greater than 0.7000

Factor analysis of the GATCS-C used during this investigation, for loadings greater than 0. 7000

123 124 124 125 126 126 128 130 132

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CHAPTER 1 PROBLEM STATEMENT, AIMS AND OUTLINE OF THE

RESEARCH

1.1 INTRODUCTION

This research is concerned with an investigation of computer-related technostress. In this chapter the reader is orientated regarding the design and layout of this research project. The problem statement and research questions are discussed, and the theoretical and empirical aims and research hypotheses are formulated. Terminology is also clarified and a preview of the study is provided.

1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT

The first digital computer, the ENIAC, was designed and built by John W. Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert at the Ballistic Research Laboratory in the United States of America, midway through the twentieth century (Long & Long, 1986:60). At about the same time, Thomas Watson, chairman of IBM, stated that he foresaw the world market for computers to be no bigger than approximately five computers (White, 2000).

At that time the electronic computer was not expected to have a significant influence on the world, because the early computers were enormous, expensive, sophisticated, difficult to operate and only within the financial reach of governments and research institutions (Long & Long, 1986:61 ). They were thus completely inaccessible to the larger population. Yet, a mere 50 years later, at the turn of the century, the National Academy of Engineering (NAE) of the

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United States of America set out to identify and prioritise the greatest engineering achievements of the twentieth century - those achievements that have shaped and changed the world most significantly (NAE, 2000). The academy voted the computer to be number eight on their list of

the 20 greatest engineering achievements of the twentieth century, and the Internet number 13 (as per Table 1 below):

1. Electrification 2. Automobile 3. Aeroplane

4. Water supply and distribution 5. Electronics

6. Radio and television 7. Agricultural mechanisation 8. Computers

9. Telephone

10. Air-conditioning and refrigeration 11. Highways 12. Spacecraft 13. Internet 14. Imaging 15. Household appliances 16. Health technologies

17. Petroleum and petrochemical technologies 18. Laser and fibre optics

19. Nuclear technologies 20. High-performance materials

TABLE 1: Greatest engineering achievements of the twentieth century (NAE, 2000)

According to the NAE, the computer is a defining symbol of twentieth-century technology and a tool that has transformed businesses and lives around the world. It has increased productivity and has provided easy access to vast amounts of knowledge. Computers have relieved the drudgery of simple tasks, and have provided new capabilities to deal more effectively with complex ones. This computer revolution was fuelled by engineering ingenuity. Engineering developments have continuously made computers faster, more powerful, and more affordable (NAE, 2000) - thus bringing them into the offices and homes of ordinary people.

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The computer has forever changed how individuals live and work. Graphics-driven software makes computers easy to use and has opened new worlds to countless people through the Internet. People now have access to unprecedented amounts of knowledge, and can communicate freely in a world forum. In this respect, the real computer revolution is not one of numbers and bytes, but one in which people, regardless of geography and politics, can share information and learn from one another (NAE, 2000). Modern computers do much more than simply compute: supermarket scanners calculate grocery prices while keeping a store inventory; computerised telephone switchboard centres regulate calls and keep the lines of communication untangled; automatic teller machines allow banking transactions from virtually anywhere in the world, and so forth (Jones Telecommunications & Multimedia Encyclopedia, 1999).

Computer technology has become an integral part of modern life. Some individuals have welcomed and embraced computerisation with open arms, others feel uncomfortable around computers, while yet others find the mere thought of dealing with technology frightening (Rosen & Weil, 1992:4 ). In order fully to understand and appreciate the impact that computers have had on human lives, as well as the promises they hold for the future, it is essential to understand the evolution of the computer (Jones Telecommunications & Multimedia Encyclopedia, 1999).

Craig Brod alleges that the human race has fallen in love with the computer, embracing it as the cure-all for all problems (Brod, 1984:3-4 ). However, he goes on to point out that the possible consequences of this infatuation are largely overlooked. The same mistake is made as was made with the advent of the motorcar. The latter technological invention enabled people to travel faster, further and more conveniently (Brod, 1984:3). However, their devotion to this new invention prevented them from realising the high price exacted by the consequences of this technological advancement, for example road fatalities, decaying railroad and public transport systems, cities divided by freeways and air pollution caused by exhaust fumes.

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When considering the impact of computerised technology, one should take heed of its merits as

well as its perils. The computer undoubtedly helps many people to be more productive, but its

influence is not entirely benign (Brod, 1984:3). Although computers do many useful things for

people, it also does something to them, namely causing technostress (Rosen & Weil, 1997a:5).

Technostress may be regarded as an inability to cope with new computer technologies in a

healthy way. It manifests itself in two distinct but related ways: firstly, in the struggle to accept

computer technology, and secondly, in the more specialised form of over-identification with

computer technology (Brod, 1984: 16).

Based on their research, Rosen and Weil (1992:8-9) have found that technostress is composed

of three separate but overlapping dimensions, namely anxiety, negative cognitions and negative

attitudes. They therefore developed three separate measures to examine these dimensions.

These three measuring instruments are:

o

CARS-C (Computer Anxiety Rating Scale - Form C);

o

CTS-C (Computer Thoughts Survey- Form C);

o

GATCS-C (General Attitudes Towards Computers Scale - Form C) (Rosen & Weil,

1992:9-11 ).

Furthermore, Rosen and Weil's (2000b) research on an American sample has indicated that people react to computer technology in a characteristic fashion, based on the level of technostress they experience. Three groups have been identified:

o Eager Adopters embrace technology as soon as it is released. They enjoy technology,

expect it to have problems and find solving the problems stimulating and fun. They experience no technostress.

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o Hesitant "Prove Its" are not anti-technology, nor are they usually technophobic. Rather, they tend to wait on the sidelines until someone shows them how computer technology can help

them. This group of people experience low levels of technostress.

o Resisters avoid technology. They do not like it, do not want it, and do not find it enjoyable. They know that computer technology has problems, but interpret their technological

incompetence as reflecting a personal shortcoming. Resisters suffer moderate to high levels of technostress.

Using the above-mentioned three measuring instruments, Rosen and Weil (2000a; 2000b)

performed five field-studies between October 1995 and November 1999 to determine the

presence and levels of technostress among workers. These studies were performed with 3 129

full-time employees from a cross-section of companies in the urban southern California area,

over a period of 49 months. The research results indicated that there were significant changes

in levels of technostress over this period. These changes were different for the two groups, clerical/support staff and managers/executives. In the group of clerical/support staff, three

trends were evident. The number of Hesitant "Prove Its" increased while the number of Eager

Adopters and the number of Resisters slightly decreased. The results of the last study,

performed during November 1999, have shown that of the sample population, 8% were Resisters, 30% were Eager Adopters and 62% were Hesitant "Prove Its" (Rosen & Weil, 2000a; 2000b). In the group of managers/executives, the number of Hesitant "Prove Its" increased, while the number of Eager Adopters decreased and the number of Resisters slightly decreased. The results of the November 1999 study confirmed that of the sample population, 5% were Resisters, 35% were Eager Adopters and 60% were Hesitant "Prove Its" (Rosen & Weil, 2000a; 2000b).

What is disturbing about the results of the studies referred to above is that 65% and more of all

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this group approximately 60% are consequently indecisive about committing to new technology that might give their organisations the competitive edge and ensure return on their investments.

Furthermore, although the modern computer has infiltrated the workplace as an integrated tool, with a great deal of information available regarding its ergonomical specifications, no definite information exists about the employee's psychological reactions to the computer.

Based on the above background information and problem statement, the research questions guiding this study may be formulated as follows:

o How did the computer evolve to reach the current point in its development? o Is technostress present in the South African corporate environment?

o How do the technostress levels (if present) of South African managerial and non-managerial employees compare to the technostress levels of the American sample used by Rosen and Weil in their 1999 study?

o Does gender have an influence on the level of technostress experienced?

1.3 AIMS OF THE STUDY

1.3.1 THEORETICAL AIMS

The theoretical aims of this study involve conducting a literature study to:

o clarify the history of the evolution of the computer;

o clarify the origin and conceptualisation of stress as a construct; o investigate the nature of different theoretical stress models; o investigate computer-related technostress as a construct.

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1.3.2 EMPIRICAL AIMS

The empirical aims of this study are to:

o determine the Cronbach alpha coefficient of reliability of each of the three measuring

instruments (CARS-C, CTS-C and GATCS-C);

o determine and report the computer anxiety levels, computer thoughts, computer attitudes

and compiled technostress scores for a South African study population (no hypothesis is formulated for this objective);

o determine whether there are significant differences between the technostress levels of the

two gender groups;

o determine whether there are significant differences between the technostress levels of

different employment status groups;

o determine whether the factor structure of the CARS-C, CTS-C and GATCS-C, based on a

South African sample, corresponds with the factor structure reported by Rosen and Weil

(1992: 16-18).

1.4 HYPOTHESES

Based on the above specific theoretical and empirical research aims the following specific

research hypotheses can be formulated:

1.4.1 HYPOTHESES FOR THE THEORETICAL AIMS

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1.4.2 HYPOTHESES FOR THE EMPIRICAL AIMS

The following specific research hypotheses can be formulated based on the above empirical research aims:

Hypothesis 1

Hypothesis 2

Hypothesis 3

Hypothesis 4

Acceptable Cronbach alpha coefficients of reliability can be indicated for the CARS-C, CTS-C and GATCS-C.

There are significant statistical differences between males and females regarding the levels of technostress experienced.

There are significant statistical differences between managers and non-managers regarding the levels of technostress experienced. The factor structure of the CARS-C, CTS-C and GATCS-C, based on its application to a South African sample, corresponds with the factor structure reported by Rosen and Weil (1992:16-18).

1.5 TERMINOLOGY

1.5.1 TECHNOSTRESS

Authors such as Nykodym, Simonetti and Christen, and Rosen, Sears and Weil (quoted by Fisher, 1999) use terms like "computer anxiety", "compustress", "cyberphobia", "computerphobia", "technophobia" and "technostress" as interchangeable terms. Yet, according to Brod (1984: 16), the father of the concept of technostress, the term "technostress" refers to a modern disease of adaptation caused by an inability to cope with new computer technologies in a healthy manner.

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Thus, for the purposes of this study, the term "technostress" will refer to the human reaction to

the influence of new computer technologies - as intended by Brod ( 1984) and also suggested

by the title of this study.

1.6 SUMMARY AND PREVIEW

In this chapter the problem statement was discussed and research questions were formulated.

Theoretical and empirical aims and hypotheses were articulated, and the terminology used in

this study was clarified. In Chapter 2 a literature study on two topics is presented to provide

background information about technostress as a construct. Firstly, the history of the modern

computer is discussed, starting with its origins from as far back as 500 BC and tracing its

development through four generations of computers. The effect of each of these computer

generations on the incidence of technostress among individuals is also discussed. Secondly,

the origin and conceptualisation of stress as a construct is discussed, together with the three

basic approaches to stress, based on relevant models. Chapter 3 consists of a literature study

on technostress as a construct. Particular attention is paid to the definition of technostress, its

similarities to stress, its measurement, and previous research on this topic. Chapter 4 contains a

description of the research methodology used in this research. The research and statistical

results are discussed and interpreted in Chapter 5. The final chapter of this study consists of

conclusions drawn from the research, a discussion of the limitations of the study, and

recommendations for future research.

Note:

The bibliographical reference style used in this study is the Harvard method, as recommended

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CHAPTER2

THE HISTORY OF THE COMPUTER AND STRESS

2.1 INTRODUCTION

In the previous chapter the problem statement and the objectives of this study were discussed.

In this chapter, the roots of technostress are explored, namely the computer and stress.

Technostress is a multidisciplinary concept sprouting from two roots, namely computer technology and stress. Technostress and its impact on the individual are better understood if

one examines the origins of the concepts of computer technology and stress prior to that of

technostress. This will allow for a more comprehensive understanding of computer-related technostress as a concept.

For this reason the development of the modern computer, from as far back as 500 BC to the

present day, will be discussed, together with the origins of stress. Three models of stress,

representing the three basic definitions of the stress construct, are also presented. The implications of this information for the current research will be indicated throughout the chapter.

2.2 THE HISTORY OF COMPUTERS

Because computer hardware leads computer software (by dictating the type of software that

needs to be run on it), and because hardware is the tangible technological object entering into

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2.2.1 THE HISTORICAL ORIGINS OF COMPUTERS

The following 20 events are regarded as the most important historical events that paved the

way for the invention of the modern computer. These events are presented in chronological order.

2.2.1.1 The abacus (500 BC)

The abacus was the original mechanical counting device (Long & Long, 1986:54; Fernandes, 2000; White, 2000; Rosen & Weil, 1997a:7).

2.2.1.2 The first mechanical calculator (AD 1500)

Leonardo da Vinci invented the first mechanical calculator, at around 1500 AD. It was the first machine to perform simple mathematical calculations (Beard, Beaune & Pradel, 1998).

2.2.1.3 The slide rule (AD 1625)

William Oughtred invented the slide rule, an instrument for easily and quickly doing numerical computations and readings after performing simple mechanical manipulations (The Columbia

Electronic Encyclopedia, 2000; White, 2000; Beard, Beaune & Pradel, 1998).

2.2.1.4 The Pascaline (AD 1642)

At around 1642, the French mathematician Blaise Pascal invented and built a mechanical

adding machine, which he named the "Pascaline" (White, 2000; Musee du Ranquet Museum,

2001 ). This device was able to add two decimal numbers, and by using ten's complement it was also capable of subtraction.

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2.2.1.5 Punch cards (AD 1801)

Joseph-Maire Jacquard, a French silk weaver, invented punch cards to control his weaving looms (White, 2000; Long & Long, 1986:54). He achieved this by recording patterns of holes in a string of cards, which in turn automatically controlled the warp and weft threads on his silk looms (Maxfield & Montrose Interactive, 1998).

Punch cards were used by the first electronic computers in the 1940s, and continued to be used until more reliable data storage methods were developed (Beard, Beaune & Pradel, 1998; Maxfield & Montrose Interactive, 1998).

2.2.1.6 The Arithmometer (AD 1820)

The Frenchman Charles Xavier Thomas de Colmar built the first mass-produced calculator, which he called the "Arithmometer''. It did multiplication and with some assistance from the user

it could also do division. Although the device was large and bulky, it was the most reliable calculator yet and continued to be sold for about 90 years (White, 2000).

2.2.1.7 The Difference Engine (AD 1822)

Charles Babbage designed what he called the "Difference Engine", the first prototype for the mechanical computer (White, 2000). Babbage's Difference Engine was capable of computing mathematical tables (Long & Long, 1986:54).

2.2.1.8 The Analytical Engine (AD 1834)

During 1834, while working on advances for the Difference Engine, Babbage conceived the idea of a general-purpose mathematical device, which he called the "Analytical Engine" (White, 2000). This machine would add, subtract, multiply and divide at a rate of 60 calculations per

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minute (Long & Long, 1986:55). The design consisted of thousands of gears and drives, and would cover the area of a football field and be powered by a locomotive engine (Long & Long, 1986:55). Babbage worked on the Analytical Engine until his death. Although this machine was too complicated to be built, the theory behind its design was sound. It involved many processes

similar to the processes eventually used by early electronic computers, like the use of punched cards for input (White, 2000).

2.2.1.9 Boolean algebra (AD 1848)

The British mathematician George Boole devised binary algebra (Boolean algebra), thus paving

the way for the development of the binary computer almost a century later (White, 2000).

2.2.1.10 The USA census (AD 1890)

The 1880 USA census took seven years to complete, since all the processing was done by hand. Considering the increasing population, all indications were that by the 1890 census the

data processing would take longer than ten years. This meant that the data of the 1890 census

would not have been available before the next census. The US Bureau of the Census held a

competition to find a better method. This competition was won by a Census Department

employee, Herman Hollerith (White, 2000).

Herman Hollerith borrowed Babbage's idea of using punch cards (originally developed by the

textile industry) for data storage. This method was used in the 1890 census, for a population of

62 622 250 people. The final results were released in just six weeks. This storage method allowed much more in-depth analysis of the data. Consequently, despite being more efficient the 1890 census cost about twice as much (actually 198% more) than the 1880 census (White, 2000).

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Hollerith founded the Tabulating Machine Company and marketed his products all over the world (long & Long, 1986:57; White, 2000). The demand for his machines extended as far as Russia - the first Russian census, done in 1897, was recorded with Hollerith's tabulating machine. In 1911, the Tabulating Machine Company merged with several other companies to form the Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company (long & Long, 1986:57). In 1924, after further mergers, it became IBM (White, 2000).

2.2.1.11 The electronic tube (AD 1906)

The electronic tube (or electronic valve) was developed in the USA by Lee De Forest. Without this development it would have been impossible to make digital electronic computers (White, 2000).

2.2.1.12 The flip-flop circuit (AD 1919)

W. H. Eccles and F. W. Jordan published the theory and logic behind the first flip-flop circuit (White, 2000). The flip-flop circuit made electronic switching possible in computers still to come.

2.2.1.13 The patent for the semiconductor transistor (AD 1926)

The first patent for semiconductor transistor technology was registered in 1926. The transistor allowed electrical currents to flow through a computer, thus allowing data to be passed through the machine (Beard, Beaune & Pradel, 1998).

2.2.1.14 The keyboard (AD 1936)

John Dvorak developed a keyboard designed for the ease of the user. This keyboard was designed with the least-used keys on the outside corners, and the keys used most often within easy reach of the user's fingers (Beard, Beaune & Pradel, 1998).

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2.2.1.15 Sixteen-bit adder (AD 1939 - November)

John V. Atanasoff and graduate student Clifford Berry of Iowa State College (now the Iowa

State University) in Ames, Iowa, invented a prototype 16-bit adder. This was the first machine to do calculations using vacuum tubes {White, 2000).

2.2.1.16 Ten-bit adder with memory (AD 1939to1940)

Schreyer invented a prototype ten-bit adder using vacuum tubes, and a prototype memory using neon lamps (White, 2000).

2.2.1.17 The Complex Number Calculator (AD 1940-January)

At Bell Labs, Samuel Williams and Stibitz completed a calculator that could operate on complex

numbers, and called it the "Complex Number Calculator". It was later known as the "Model I

Relay Calculator". It used telephone-switching parts for logic: 450 relays and 10 crossbar switches. Numbers were represented in what is known as "plus

3

BCD". This means that for each decimal digit, O is represented by binary 0011, 1 by 0100, and so on up to 1100 for 9. This

scheme required fewer relays than straight BCD (White, 2000).

2.2.1.18 The Atanasoff-Berry Computer (AD 1941)

Atanasoff and Berry completed a special-purpose calculator for solving systems of simultaneous

linear equations, later called the "ABC" ("Atanasoff-Berry Computer''). The ABC had 60 50-bit

words of memory, in the form of capacitors (with refresh circuits - the first regenerative memory) mounted on two revolving drums. The clock speed was 60 Hz, and an addition took one

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were not actually punched in the cards, but were burned in. The punch-card system's error rate was never reduced beyond 0.001 %, and this was ultimately unsatisfactory (White, 2000).

2.2.1.19 Harvard Mark I (AD 1943)

The Harvard Mark I (originally the ASCC Mark I, Harvard-IBM Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator) was built at Harvard University by Howard H. Aiken and his team. The project was partly financed by IBM. The Harvard Mark I became the first program-controlled calculator. The whole machine was 51 feet long, weighed 5 tons, and incorporated 750 000 parts. It used 3 304 electromechanical relays as on-off switches, and had 72 accumulators (each with its own arithmetic unit) as well as a mechanical register with a capacity of 23 digits plus sign (White, 2000).

2.2.1.20 The ENIAC (AD 1946)

The ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer) was one of the first totally electronic, valve-driven, digital computers. The development of the ENIAC started in 1943 and was completed in 1946. It was developed by John W. Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert at the Ballistic Research Laboratory in the USA. A thousand times faster than its electromechanical predecessors, the ENIAC was a major breakthrough in computer technology. It could do 5 000 additions per minute and 500 multiplications per minute. It weighed 30 tons and occupied 1 500 square feet of floor space. Unlike today's computers, which operate in binary code (0, 1 ), the ENIAC operated in decimal code (0, 1, 2 ... 9) and required ten vacuum tubes to represent one decimal digit (Long & Long, 1986:60).

The ENIAC contained 18 000 electronic valves, consuming around 25 kW of electrical power (White, 2000). Legend has it that the ENIAC, built at the University of Pennsylvania, dimmed the lights of Philadelphia whenever it was activated (Long & Long, 1986:60).

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The ENIAC is widely recognised as the first universal electronic computer. It was used to calculate ballistic trajectories for the US army and to test the theories behind the hydrogen bomb (White, 2000; Long & Long, 1986:60).

2.2.1.21 Summary

The most notable fact about the historical evolution of the computer is that a variety of scientists, over a period of more than 2 000 years, discovered and/or invented some component that eventually played a role in the establishment of the present-day computer. Most of these inventions, like the electronic valve, punch cards and calculator/adder logic, finally converged in the construction of the ENIAC.

Furthermore, the rate at which new calculating and computer-related inventions emerged steadily increased from 500 BC up to AD 1946, with the completion of the ENIAC. According to Long and Long (1986:60), the imposing scale and general applicability of the ENIAC signalled the inception of the first of four generations of computers.

2.2.2 THE FIRST GENERATION OF COMPUTERS (1946-1959)

2.2.2.1 The technological turning-point

First-generation computers like the ENIAC were based on wired circuits containing vacuum tubes, and they used punch cards as the main non-volatile storage medium (White, 2000). The most prominent technological characteristic of this generation of computers was the vacuum tube. It allowed advancements such as binary arithmetic, random access and the concept of

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2.2.2.2 Major events

Several other notable events occurred during the era of first-generation computers, including

the further construction of other computers, each contributing a significant improvement to the

computer industry. Some of these events and developments are discussed below.

2.2.2.2.1 The transistor invented

In 1947, William B. Shockley, John Bardeen and Walter H. Brattain invented the point-contact

transistor at Bell Laboratories in the USA {White, 2000; Beard, Beaune & Pradel, 1998;

Poisson, 2000). This invention was the technological turning-point that marked the beginning of

the second generation of computers.

2.2.2 .

2.2

EDSAC

During 1949 Edsac Wilkes and a team of scientists at Cambridge University designed and built

a stored-program computer that used a paper tape for input and output (1/0). They named this

computer the "EDSAC". This paper-tape method replaced punch cards and subsequently increased the speed of the input and output processes (White, 2000).

2 .

2.2.2.3

EDVAC

Also during 1949, John von Neumann of the Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton, USA developed the EDVAC {Electronic Discrete Variable Computer). This was the first computer to use magnetic tape for input. This was another breakthrough development. All previous computers had to be re-programmed by rewiring, but the EDVAC could have new programs loaded off the tape (White, 2000).

2.2.2.2.4 UNIVAC-I

In 1951, the first commercially successful electronic computer, UNIVAC-I (Universal Automatic

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Rand Corporation (White, 2000; Long & Long, 1986:61 ). The UNIVAC was the first general-purpose computer able to handle both numeric and textual information, using magnetic tape for input (White, 2000). The implementation of this machine at the US Bureau of Census in 1951 marked the real beginning of the computer era (White, 2000).

Nowadays it is taken for granted that computers can be used to predict the outcome of national elections, even before all the votes have been counted. In late 1951, CBS News became a believer in the abilities of computers when the UNIVAC-I correctly predicted Dwight Eisenhower's victory over Adlai Stevenson in the presidential election with only 5% of the votes counted. Today, sophisticated information systems are essential tools for comprehensive television election coverage (Long & Long, 1986:61 ).

2.2.2.2.5 Further developments

During this period, commercial retailers like Control Data Corporation (CDC), General Electric (GE), National Cash Register (NCR) and International Business Machines (IBM)emerged (Long & Long, 1986:61). These manufacturers competed fiercely with one another to improve the new computer technology.

2.2.2.3 Programming

The large leap forward in computer technology, brought about by the ENIAC and other early computers, was equalised by the cumbersome method of programming these machines. Switches had to be set and wires inserted into a series of panels resembling those used by telephone exchange operators of that period. Each time a different program was to be run the switches had to be reset and the wires repositioned. This task usually took several hours (Long & Long, 1986:68). This cumbersome method of programming prompted research that eventually resulted in the concept of stored programs and a hierarchy of programming languages which, like computer hardware, have evolved in generations (Long & Long, 1986:72).

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2.2.2.4 Target domain

Because of the early computers' size, cost and sophisticated nature of operation, the use of the

first-generation computers was restricted to government institutions like the US Bureau of

Census (Long & Long, 1986:61) and large corporations.

2.2.3 THE SECOND GENERATION OF COMPUTERS (1959-1964)

The next major step in the history of computing was the invention of the transistor, which

enabled manufacturers to replace electronic tubes with a much smaller and more reliable component (White, 2000). For the computer industry transistors meant more powerful, more reliable, less expensive computers that would occupy less space and give off less heat than

computers powered by electronic tubes (Long & Long, 1986:64).

2. 2. 3. 2. 1 High cost of computers

The cost aspect should be emphasised, considering that computers were extremely expensive.

The cost of a computer during the first, second, and part of the third generation of computers

represented a significant portion of a company's budget (Long & Long, 1986:64 ).

2.2.3.2.2 Manufacturer innovations

The cost per instruction executed by a computer also needs to considered, since this measure

was used to compare the cost of different computers during this period. This measure spurred

intense competition among manufacturers. The high level of competition produced significant

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substantial reductions in price. This trend, established with the introduction of second-generation computers, still continues today (Long & Long, 1986:64 ).

2. 2. 3. 2. 3 Dominant characteristics

The following are the most prominent characteristics of the second generation of computers:

o Transistors were used in computers (Long & Long, 1986:65). o Printed circuits were used in computers (White, 2000).

o There was limited compatibility within a manufacturer's line of computers. Programs written for one computer usually required modification before they could be run on a different

computer. This meant that if a company upgraded to a larger computer system, they

probably would have been required to reprogram some or all of their existing programs (Long & Long, 1986:65).

o There was no compatibility between manufacturers (Long & Long, 1986:65).

o There was a continued orientation to tape sequential processing. Sequential processing is good for processing transactions and for printing reports, but not for making enquiries (Long & Long, 1986:65).

o Low-level, symbolic programming languages - which were unfriendly to the user - were available (Long & Long, 1986:65).

2.2.3.3.1 Low-level languages

Initially during this generation, programs were written in machine language, which consisted entirely of strings of 1 s and Os (Long & Long, 1986:68), representing operations such as "add", "subtract" and "compare" (Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 2000). Later, because of the difficulty of keeping track of a sequence of program instructions made up entirely of 1 s and Os, assembler language, using mnemonics (symbols) was created. For example, an "A" might

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represent a series of 1s and Os that instructs the computer to add two numbers (Long & Long, 1986:69). The assembler then turns this mnemonic into a machine-language program. An extension of such a language is the macro-instruction, a mnemonic such as "READ" for which the assembler substitutes a series of simpler mnemonics (Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 2000).

2.2.3.3.2 High-level languages

The lack of compatibility between different computers led to the development of high-level languages, so called because they permitted a programmer to ignore many low-level details of the computer's hardware (Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 2000). It was also recognised that the closer the syntax, rules, and mnemonics of the programming language was to "natural language", the less likely it became that the programmer would inadvertently introduce errors -referred to as "bugs" - into the program. These languages, which came into use in the mid-1950s, were also known as algorithmic or procedural languages and were designed to solve a particular type of problem (Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 2000; Scherrer, 2001 ).

Despite using transistors and printed circuits the second-generation computers were still bulky, and therefore their use was still restricted to the domain of universities and governments (White, 2000).

2.2.4 THE THIRD GENERATION OF COMPUTERS (1964-1971)

The explosion in the use of computers began with the third generation of computers. These computers relied on Jack St. Claire Kilby's invention, namely the integrated circuit or microchip.

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The first integrated circuit was produced in September 1958, but computers using integrated circuits did not begin to appear until late 1963 and early 1964 (White, 2000). Computer historians consider IBM's announcement of their System 360 line of computers on 7 April 1964 to be the single most important event in the history of computers. It piloted the third generation of computers by utilising integrated circuits, which produced smaller, more compact computers than the mainframe series (Long & Long, 1986:65).

2.2.4.2.1 Obsolescence of earlier computers

Integrated circuits did for the third generation of computers what transistors did for the second generation. It radically changed computer technology. The System 360 computers and the third-generation computers of Honeywell, NCR, CDC, UNIVAC, Burroughs, GE, and other manufacturers made all previously installed computers obsolete (Long & Long, 1986:65).

2. 2

.

4.

2. 2

Cross-generation compatibility

The compatibility problems of second-generation computers were almost completely eliminated in third-generation computers. However, third-generation computers differed radically from second-generation computers. The change was revolutionary, not evolutionary, and caused conversion nightmares for thousands of computer users. In time, the conversion of information systems from second-generation to third-generation hardware was written off as the price of progress (Long & Long, 1986:65).

2.2.4.2.3 Upward compatibility

By the middle of the 1960s, it became apparent that almost every computer installation could expect rapid growth. An important characteristic of third-generation computers was upward compatibility, which meant that a company could buy a computer from a particular manufacturer

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and then upgrade to a more powerful computer without having to redesign and reprogram

existing information systems (Long & Long, 1986:65).

2 .

2. 4. 2. 4 Multiprogramming

Third-generation computers worked so fast that they provided the capability to run more than

one program concurrently (multiprogramming). For example, at any given time a computer

might be printing payroll cheques, accepting orders and testing programs (Long & Long,

1986:65).

2.2.4.2.5 The minicomputer

The demand for small computers in business and for scientific applications was so big that

several companies manufactured only small computers, known as minicomputers. Digital

Equipment Corporation (DEC) and Data General Corporation took an early lead in the

manufacturing and sale of so-called "minis" (Long & Long, 1986:66).

Procedure-oriented languages remained popular during this generation, with more advanced

languages being developed for the minicomputer platform that increasingly became the

business norm. Some of these more advanced and user-friendly languages are: BASIC

(Beginner's All-Purpose Symbolic Instruction Code), developed as a teaching tool for

undergraduates; C language, created by Dennis Ritchie to develop the UNIX operating system;

and Pascal, developed by Nicholas Wirth as a more structured and improved teaching tool

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While large "mainframes", such as the IBM 360, increased storage and processing capabilities, the integrated circuit allowed the development of minicomputers that began to bring computing into many smaller businesses (White, 2000).

2.2.5 THE FOURTH GENERATION OF COMPUTERS (1971 to the present)

After the integrated circuits of the third-generation computers had been developed, the only further development need was to go faster and smaller. This was achieved by means of large-scale-integration (LSI), which enabled the fitting of hundreds of components onto one chip (Jones Telecommunication & Multimedia Encyclopedia, 2001; Guinee, 1995; Long & Long, 1986:67). On 15 November 1971, Intel released the world's first commercial microprocessor, the model 4004 (White, 2000). This microprocessor was a large-scale integrated circuit, which contained thousands of transistors. The transistors on this one chip were capable of performing all of the functions of a computer's central processing unit (Guinee, 1995).

By the 1980s, very-large-scale-integration (VLSI) squeezed hundreds of thousands of components onto a chip, and later ultra-large-scale-integration (ULSI) increased this number into the millions (Jones Telecommunication & Multimedia Encyclopedia, 2001 ). The ability to fit so much onto an area about half the size of a US dime helped diminish the size and price of computers. It also increased their power, efficiency, reliability, and speed (Jones Telecommunication & Multimedia Encyclopedia, 2001; Guinee, 1995).

The Intel 4004 chip, developed in 1971, took the integrated circuit one step further by locating all the components of a computer (central processing unit, memory, and input and output controls) on a minuscule chip. Whereas previously the integrated circuit had had to be

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manufactured to suit a special purpose, now one microprocessor could be manufactured and

then programmed to meet any number of demands. Soon everyday household items, such as

microwave ovens, television sets and motorcars with electronic fuel injection, incorporated

microprocessors (Jones Telecommunication & Multimedia Encyclopedia, 2001 ).

2. 2. 5. 2. 1 The microcomputer

The microcomputer, also called a personal computer, has made it possible for small businesses

and individuals to own computers (Long & Long, 1986:67). In 1981, IBM introduced its personal

computer (PC) for use in the home, office and school. The 1980s saw an expansion in computer

use in all three of these spheres, as clones of the IBM PC made the personal computer even

more affordable. The number of personal computers in use in the USA more than doubled from

2 million in 1981 to 5.5 million in 1982. Ten years later, 65 million PCs were being used. The

trend towards smaller-sized computers continued, working its way down from desktop

computers to laptop computers {which could fit inside a briefcase), and on to palmtop computers

(able to fit inside a breast pocket).

2.2.5.2.2 Increase in speed

The increase in the speed of computers over time can clearly be seen in the following extract

from the microprocessor data of the Intel Corporation for the period 1971 to 1998 (White, 2000;

Poisson, 2000). The measuring standard to compare the different microprocessors'

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DATE PROCESSOR SPEED (MIPS) 1998 Pentium II 400MHz 832 1998 Pentium II 333MHz 770 1997 Pentium II 233MHz 560 1996 Pentium Pro 200MHz 440 1996 Pentium 233MHz MMX 435 1995 Pentium 133MHz 240 1993 Pentium 66MHz 100 1992 486 DX4/100 100MHz 60 1991 486 DX 2-50 50MHz 35 1989 486 DX25MHz 20 1985 386 DX 33MHz 10 1985 386 SX20MHz 6 1982 8028612MHz 2.7 1978 8086 8MHz 0.8 1974 8080 2MHz 0.5 1971 4004108KHz 0.06

TABLE 2: Intel microprocessor speed comparison

Comparing the MIPS figures in the table above, one can easily make the following deductions:

o Over a period of 27 years the MIPS of Intel microprocessors increased from 0.06 to 832

MIPS.

o

This represents an increase of 13 867 times faster or a 1 386 667% increase in speed from

1971 to 1998.

2.2.5.2.3 Netvvorking

As computers became more widespread in the workplace, new ways to harness their potential developed. As smaller computers became more powerful, they were linked together (or networked) to share memory space, software and information, and to communicate with one another. Unlike a mainframe computer, which was a single powerful computer that shared time with many terminals and many applications, networked computers allowed individual computers to form electronic co-ops. Using either direct wiring, called a Local Area Network (LAN), or telephone lines, these networks could reach enormous proportions. A global web of computer

Computer-related technostress : an investigative study