Female clients

In 2019, 19% of clients of Reclassering Nederland (RN) and 7.5% of clients of the SVG were female.³² Specific attention for female clients is often still neglected. Still, there are clear differences between men and women that can be important in probation supervision. For example, psychological problems such as anxiety, depression and post-traumatic stress disorder are more common among female clients. In addition, they are or have been victims of sexual or physical (domestic) violence (Henderson, Schaeffer, & Brown, 1998, in Chan et al., 2005). The use of drugs is also higher among female clients than among men, which at the same time is often the main driver of criminal behaviour

32 www.reclassering.nl/over-de-reclassering/cijfers-en-feiten; www.svg.nl/over-de-svg/clienten

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(Light et al., 2013 in Grace, 2017). The reason for drug use is often more complex compared to men as well. For example, it is often a way for women to deal with the physical and emotional pain of the aforesaid violence or other trauma (Barlett, 2007 in Grace, 2017). The violent situation in which women sometimes find or found themselves makes finding suitable housing for these women extra important (Wilkinson, 2004, in McIvor et al., 2009).

Childcare or regaining custody also plays an important role (Snel, 1992, in Guydish et al., 2011).

Maternity also involves specific criminogenic needs in the field of work and education. Due to the role of primary caregiver, school dropouts or interruptions in work history are more frequent among women (Durrance & Ablitt, 2001). This makes it more difficult for these women to find suitable jobs.

On the other hand, finding work is not always the first priority for these women, as other issues such as substance abuse, housing and childcare need to be addressed first (Gelsthorphe & Sharpe, 2007, in McIvor et al., 2009). Finally, female clients often lack social support (Chen, 2009, in Holmstrom et al., 2017). This particularly applies in the event of drug and alcohol abuse (Mallik-Kane & Visher, 2008, in Holmstrom et al., 2017).

Within the framework of this systematic literature review, 9 studies were found that (also) specifically focus on female clients, of which one meta-analysis. In addition, 4 studies come from the same longitudinal study. The methodological quality of the studies varies. Furthermore, the conclusions about the efficacy of practices are in most cases only based on a single study for these specific clients. The findings as described should therefore be interpreted with caution. The different studies discuss the following practices: risk principle, planning and continuity in counselling, collaboration between institutions, practical help, working alliance and prosocial modelling.

Practices in probation supervision (as discussed in Chapters 4 and 5) Risk principle

In a meta-analysis of 374 studies, mainly conducted in the US and Canada, Andrews & Dowden (2006) conclude that the risk principle appears to be particularly strong for female and juvenile offenders, and less so for adult male offenders. This is also evident from a study by Brusman Lovins et al. (2007) in which they show that the risk principle also affects female offenders (see also 4.2.1).

Planning and continuity in counselling

A meta-analysis of 89 studies into the effectiveness of interventions for female clients with addiction problems on recovery and prevention of recidivism highlights the importance of long-term after-care.

A plan must be drawn up for this during detention, so that the transition to society is properly arranged. This plan must be drawn up in consultation with the client in order to obtain a complete picture of needs upon release. It is desirable that the probation officer is already involved and contributes to the action plan while the client is still in detention. This at the same time ensures that a relationship can be built at an early stage (Grace, 2017).

Collaboration between institutions

The same meta-analysis also highlights the importance of proper coordination and data sharing between the PI and the municipal authority, to ensure that a reintegration plan is in place combined with quick access to treatment. In addition, better integration of medical, psychiatric and addiction care is needed. If interventions target only one or two needs while ignoring others, they are unlikely to be successful (Grace, 2017).

Practical help

Studies aimed at providing practical help are mainly based on the respondents’ own experiences.

Two different studies among female clients with addiction problems in the US show that probation officers can be an important source of emotional support and practical help by informing them about and referring them to necessary assistance (Holmstrom et al., 2017). An Australian study among women who served time previously indicated that clients were dissatisfied with the support they received from probation officers in getting their lives back on track. Probation officers who did offer practical help were experienced as positive (McIvor et al., 2009). Female clients indicate that it is

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important that the assistance provided meets the client’s specific needs (Roddy et al., 2019) (see also 5.3.4).

A study into the effectiveness of the Women’s Probation Centre, which offers practical help in finding work and education and dealing with (destructive) relationships, shows a significant difference in recidivism between women who completed the programme and women who received an alternative sentence or did not complete the programme. The recidivism rate for women who completed the programme was 3% lower than predicted based on OGRS2 (a risk assessment tool), whereas the recidivism rate for women who were referred but never started was 21 percent higher. An important reservation in this study is that a comparable control group was missing, while it is not clear which of the programme’s methods contributed to this (Durrance & Ablitt, 2001).

Working Alliance

Compared to men, female clients are more open about their needs, attach more value to a relationship with the probation officer and develop a bond of trust more often (Bloom, Owen, Covington & Raeder, 2003, in Holmstrom et al., 2017). A supportive relationship style appears to be most effective for female clients with addiction problems. Probation officers who apply this relationship style induce lower levels of anxiety and reactance and increase crime avoidance. The opposite effect can be seen in a relationship style in which monitoring is more central. A monitoring relationship style has the strongest negative impact on the most law-abiding clients (Morash et al., 2015). The relationship style of the probation officer does not appear to have any direct effect on recidivism among women. There is however an indirect effect, as officers with a punitive relationship style face more resistance. These clients are more likely to reoffend compared to clients under officers who show a supportive relationship style (Morash et al., 2016) (see also 5.1.3).

A study from Australia among 139 women who served time previously shows that they are especially positive about their probation officer when they feel valued and supported by officers showing genuine concern. It is important to start building this relationship while the women are still in detention (McIvor et al., 2009). The importance of support by probation officers is also evident from a study into the Women’s Probation Centre in England and Wales. Women who participated in this programme indicated that they perceive the open, non-judgemental and supportive environment as positive. This environment offers opportunities for learning and opportunities to change (Durrance &

Ablitt, 2001).

Prosocial modelling

Probation officers can play an important role in promoting a prosocial identity. This is shown by a study from the US among 93 female clients with addiction problems. Affirming the prosocial identity increases self-confidence and helps in other important practices related to the success of supervision, such as housing, work and education. This growing self-confidence also helped women deal better with negative emotions such as shame and humiliation. This increases women’s sense of agency, enabling them to envisage a positive future for themselves. This motivated the women to keep doing the right thing. On the other hand, female clients who struggled to have their new identity confirmed experienced greater frustration and a sense of hopelessness, causing them to revert to old social networks and to reoffend (Stone et al., 2018).

Other findings

Attention for structural inequality

A meta-analysis of 89 studies into the effectiveness of interventions among female clients with addiction problems on recovery and prevention of recidivism shows that counselling must be sufficiently intensive, last long enough and be flexible in view of the pressure these women are under upon re-entering society. Practical support is necessary in this regard, aimed at education, work and housing, parenting support and building prosocial networks. According to the researchers, more attention must be paid to the broader social and structural problems that women face. They say that some programmes place too much emphasis on women’s individual responsibility to change

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behaviour and take control of their lives, without paying attention to structural inequalities and other adverse circumstances (Grace, 2017).