This study has made a contribution to the sentence processing literature by investigating the influence of lexical frequency on the subject object asymmetry in Dutch. Using the self-paced reading paradigm, the present study found overall processing difficulties for object RCs as compared to subject RCs which fits well in the current literature on RC processing. However,
unlike Johnson et al. (2011), no facilitating effect was found for lexical frequency. Object RCs with an infrequent NP1 were not read faster than those with a frequent NP1. It has been suggested that this may have been due to the absence of a difference in reading time between frequent and infrequent NPs, the imageability of the NPs, or syntactic differences between Dutch and English. The results are therefore best explained by a syntactic model based on memory limitations since object RCs require higher integration costs in Dutch as compared to subject RCs (Gibson, 1998).
A WM effect was found such that people with higher WM capacity processed object RCs slower than people with lower WM capacity. After controlling for accuracy, no effect of WM was found which supports this suggestion. It has been argued that this is due to a risky processing strategy employed by people with lower WM capacity. The suggestion was further strengthened by the fact that a triple interaction was found such that people with higher WM capacity processed object RCs with an infrequent NP1 more efficiently.
Two directions for future inquiries were noted in the discussion in order to investigate where the facilitating effect of frequency originated in Johnson et al. (2011). First, it was suggested that infrequent NPs are encoded better as they were read slower. Future studies could manipulate the presentation time for each word. If this suggestion is true, then the subject-object asymmetry would be reduced if the NP1 is presented longer. Second, it was suggested that there may have been a difference in imageability between the NPs in the present study and those in Johnson et al. (2011). Future studies could contrast NPs with low versus high imageability scores. Based on this suggestion, it is predicted that NPs with a low imageability result in better encoding and therefore reduce the subject-object asymmetry.
In terms of the usefulness of the sentences for the therapy programme, it was concluded that changes need to be made in order to represent different difficulty levels. It was proposed that the therapy material could exploit the well-tested animacy and pronoun cues in constructing RC exercises. Moreover, if any of the suggested future directions bear any truth, then these may be used as well. In any case, it is imperative that therapy programmes for PWA have a strong foundation in both theoretical and empirical works. The present study and its suggested future directions work to strengthen our understanding of RC processing which, in turn, allows us to develop efficient and well-structured therapy programmes that will benefit PWA as much as possible.
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Appendix A: Lexical items and their log frequencies
Green shading denote high frequency items and red shading low frequency items
Word Letters Syllables Log frequency
student 7 2 1.6902
dokter 6 2 2.1614
kapitein 8 3 1.9956
gevangene 9 4 1.5441
schrijver 9 2 2.0755
directeur 9 3 1.7559
leraar 6 2 1.8633
agent 5 2 1.6628
politicus 9 4 1.5315
leerling 8 2 1.7634
huisarts 8 2 1.6128
minister 8 3 2.0453
arbeider 8 3 1.7853
bewoner 7 3 1.5441
eigenaar 8 3 1.6128
rechter 7 2 1.8633
chauffeur 9 2 1.6628
president 9 3 1.7076
vriendin 8 2 1.8573
Engelsman 9 3 1.5315
professor 9 3 1.716
ambtenaar 9 3 1.7634
werknemer 9 3 1.6812
kennis 6 2 1.5682
zuster 6 2 2.017
burgemeester 12 4 1.6232
luitenant 9 3 1.6435
kunstenaar 10 3 1.6232
medewerker 10 4 1.5798
officier 8 3 1.8451
dichter 7 2 1.9138
client 6 2 1.7404
reisleider 10 3 0.301
raadgever 9 3 0.4771
verloofde 9 3 0.4771
stewardess 10 3 0.4771
decaan 6 2 0.301
telefoniste 11 5 0.4771
juwelier 8 3 0.301
wandelaar 9 3 0.6021
wielrenner 10 3 0.301
molenaar 8 3 0.301
rekruut 7 2 0.301
pianist 7 3 0.6021
makelaar 8 3 0.6021
detective 9 4 0.6021
cursist 7 2 0.301
verpleger 9 3 0.6021
barman 6 2 0.4771
bokser 6 2 0.4771
duiker 6 2 0.4771
wachter 7 2 0.4771
vertaler 8 3 0.4771
metselaar 9 3 0.4771
conrector 9 3 0.4771
smokkelaar 10 3 0.4771
commentator 11 4 0.4771
mentor 6 2 0.301
turner 6 2 0.301
activist 8 3 0.301
aannemer 8 3 0.6021
bouwvakker 10 3 0.301
loodgieter 10 3 0.301
maniak 6 3 0.301
Appendix B: Experimental sentences used per condition
HF - LF Subject
1. De nieuwe studenten, die de knappe barman geroepen hadden, bestelden een lekker biertje.
2. De handige dokter, die de boksers behandeld had, keek vol spanning naar de rest van de wedstrijd.
3. De ervaren kapitein, die de duikers begroet heeft, loopt over het mooie schip.
4. De boze gevangenen, die de wachter genegeerd hebben, protesteren op de binnenplaats.
5. De beroemde schrijver, die de vertalers gebeld heeft, brengt een nieuw boek uit.
6. De klunzige directeur, die de metselaars aangenomen had, stootte de koffie om.
7. De jonge leraren, die de conrector gesproken hebben, waren net afgestudeerd.
8. De dappere agenten, die de beruchte smokkelaar betrapt hadden, kregen een medaille.
LF - HF Subject
1. De leuke reisleiders, die de chauffeur bedankt hadden, organiseerden een mooie trip.
2. De slimme raadgevers, die de president bijgestaan hebben, geven altijd goed advies.
3. De jonge verloofde, die de vriendinnen uitgenodigd had, ging binnenkort trouwen.
4. De aardige stewardess, die de Engelsmannen begeleid heeft, ruimt de koffers op 5. De vriendelijke decaan, die de professoren rondgeleid heeft, loopt naar de receptie 6. De goede telefonistes, die de ambtenaar ondersteund hebben, nemen een
welverdiende pauze
7. De verdrietige juweliers, die de werknemer ontslagen hadden, waren failliet gegaan 8. De sportieve wandelaar, die de kennissen bezocht had, liep ook weer naar huis
HF - LF Object
1. De belangrijke politici, die de commentator geïnterviewd had, verschenen op tv.
2. De brutale leerlingen, die de mentor toegesproken heeft, spijbelen te veel.
3. De oude huisarts, die de turners bezocht hebben, staat erg goed bekend.
4. De corrupte minister, die de activisten beschuldigd hadden, nam uiteindelijk ontslag.
5. De goede arbeiders, die de aannemer ingehuurd had, bouwden het deftige huis.
6. De ongeruste bewoner, die de bouwvakkers geholpen hadden, liet het lekke dak repareren.