Sustainability in the coffee supply chain drives sustained
competitive advantage
Author: Y.N.B. Teffera Student number: S4107896
Email: y.n.b.@rug.student.nl Supervisor: P.J. Marques Morgado
Faculty of Economics and Business University of Groningen
Duisenberg Building, Nettelbosje 2, 9747 AE Groningen, The Netherlands P.O. Box 800, 9700 AV Groningen, The Netherlands
http://www.rug.nl/feb
TABLE OF CONTENT
Abstract ... 2
Introduction ... 3
Literature review ... 5
The Coffee industry ... 5
Supply chain ... 6
Coffee supply chain ... 8
Sustainability ... 9
Sustainable supply chain management ... 10
ABSTRACT
This paper will give an in-depth study on how sustainability matters for firms active in the coffee supply chain and how this could lead to a sustained competitive advantage (hereafter SCA).
Coffee is one of the most consumed beverages in the world. Due to the size of the market, many firms are seeking to get a position or improving their current position in the industry. This paper will research if a SCA can be created when implementing sustainability in the coffee supply chain. The main participants within the coffee supply chain are producers, farmers, traders, roasters and retailers. These aspects lead to the following question: How does sustainability matter to the supply chain for
firms in the coffee industry, to gain a sustained competitive advantage?
Sustainability has three different forms. In this paper, the focus is on the effect of environmental sustainability, on the SCA. Furthermore, two theories, the resource-based view theory (hereafter RBV), and stakeholder-based theory (hereafter SBT) are used to assess the SCA.
The contribution of this paper, to the already existing research, is that it will give a specific overview of how sustainability affect the different parties and how they could work together on implementing sustainability.
The expectation for this research is that once environmental sustainability is implemented, a firm in the coffee supply chain will increase their SCA or create an SCA.
INTRODUCTION
More than 10 billion kilos of coffee is consumed in the year 2019/2020, which makes coffee one of the most consumed beverages in the world (Rica & Salvador, 2019). Hence many crucial steps must be taken before we can enjoy a cup of coffee. An industry with such numbers attracts many people and businesses who would like to enter or improve their position in this industry. Therefore, firms in the coffee industry need to create a SCA, to make sure they do not lose their market position.
The supply chain looks as follows: The upstream activity consists of the production of the coffee bean by the farmers. Once the farmers finish their process, they sell the unroasted coffee beans to traders. These traders export and sell the coffee beans to the larger coffee roasters. In most cases, these roasters are based in coffee consuming countries. These countries are the more developed ones in the world, while the producing countries are more developing countries. The roasting firms roast and possibly combine different types of coffee beans, to achieve the coffee taste for their clients. Once produced, the coffee is shipped to the retailers.
The main topic of this paper is sustainability. Sustainability has three different forms, social, economic and environmental. Social sustainability is about identifying and managing the business impact on both positive and negative on people (Karbassi, n.d.). Economic and environmental sustainability refers to the practices that support long-term economic growth without negatively impacting social, environmental, and cultural aspects of the community (University of Mary Washington, 2020). This paper will assess whether the topic of sustainably could lead to an SCA for the firms in the coffee supply chain.
The SCA is studied from the SBT and the RBV. An SCA consists of two essential elements, creating a competitive advantage (hereafter CA) and making this advantage sustainable. A CA is a firm's leverage which it has on its competitors, based on internal resources, or based on their position within the global supply chain (Barney, 2001). The second element of SCA is sustainable. A CA is sustainable when it continues to exist after efforts of potential and existing competitors to imitate your advantage (Barney, 2001). However, firms can lose their SCA, e.g. by changes in the economy or consumer pattern changes.
Therefore, this paper is more focused on the sustainability between the different parties and how they could work together on implementing sustainability. The implantation of sustainability to achieve an SCA led to the following research question:
How does sustainability matter to the supply chain for firms in the coffee industry, to gain a sustained competitive advantage?
LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter consists of an explanation of the interpretation of the different variables, the dependent, independent, and moderator of this research.
The structure of this research is as follows: the independent variable, the supply chain of the coffee industry affects the dependent variable, the SCA of the different players of the coffee supply chain. The moderator is sustainability in the supply chain. The moderator, sustainability, influence the effect of which the supply chain has on the SCA.
The Coffee industry
Ranked at number two, coffee is the second most traded commodity, after crude oil (Capital, 2019). At the start of the supply chain are the developing countries, where the coffee is produced. The expectation of The United States Department of Agriculture, USDA is that Brazil, Vietnam, and Colombia will be the largest producing countries in the year 2019/2020 (USDA Foreign Agricultural Service, 2019).
For many farmers in these counties, the production of coffee is their main source of income. Each fluctuation in the price of their product has an immediate effect on their income. For these farmers, it is therefore important that the prices are kept as stable as possible or increase whenever possible, to maintain or improve their living conditions.
More down the supply chain are the ones who sell the coffee. These firms are, in most cases, from the coffee consuming countries, such as the EU, the United States and Japan (Kolk, 2012). These firms want to maintain a strong grip on the market to improve their position in the supply chain. The largest firms in the coffee market are Nestlé, Kraft, Sara Lee, and P&G (Kolk, 2012).
However, markets, people and countries are developing and keep changing, which impacts the firms’ position within their market. For these MNEs it is therefore important to make sure their CA is sustainable, an SCA.
Supply chain
In the 20th century firms started to move their operations, or part of it, to other countries, called internationalization (Gereff, Humphrey, Kaplinsky, & Sturgeon, 2001). Internationalization is the precursor of globalization. Globalization is the functional integration of the activities, which were spread around the world, in the process of internationalization (Gereff et al., 2001). Globalization has also had an effect on the value chain. The value chain is the relevant value that firms add to a certain product or process by which technology is combined with material and labour inputs and these are assembled, marketed and distributed (Gereff et al., 2001)(Gereffi, Humphrey, & Sturgeon, 2005). In the process of globalization, international firms entered markets in different countries, which affects the firm and the country as well (Gereffi et al., 2005).
The supply chain is defined as a set of three or more entities, organizations or individuals, which are directly involved in the upstream and downstream flows of products, services, finances and or information from a source to a customer (Mentzer, Keebler, Nix, Smith, & Zacharia, 2001). (Choi & Kim, 2008) argue that it's important to understand the structure of the supply chain for a business. They define structure as the number of suppliers of the firm and their strength of the relationship towards those suppliers (Mentzer et al., 2001).
Whenever a firm wants to manage its supply chain it should start by developing its understanding of the systematic and strategic consequences of the tactical activities of managing the different flows of the supply chain (Mentzer et al., 2001). (Mentzer et al., 2001), address that this orientation should not be either upward or downward, but in both directions. Once a firm has created a strategy for the supply chain and starts implementing this strategy, it becomes supply chain management (Mentzer et al., 2001).
The reason for adopting supply chain management is that it can create or improve a CA of their supply chain. Figure 1 shows the supply chain management antecedents and consequences source based on the theory of (Mentzer et al., 2001)
FIGURE 1
Supply Chain Management Antecedents and Consequences, Source: (Mentzer et al., 2001).
The zero-three-six-nine assessment, assess which aspects are the most important, the higher the score the more important the aspects of the coffee supply chain management. Based on these results, it can be concluded that cooperation is the most important factor for the coffee supply chain.
TABLE 1
Ranking of Supply Chain Management attributes by the 0-3-6-9 ranking, Source: (Writers
Coffee supply chain
The supply chain of the coffee industry is a highly international one. The coffee farmers are located in Africa, Asia, and South-America. In most cases, a large part of the supply chain is controlled by the MNEs (Kolk, 2012).
One important factor of the supply chain is the value that is added during the several steps. (Borrella, Mataix, & Carrasco-Gallego, 2015) argue that most of the value in the supply chain is captured by the downstream firms. In the coffee supply chain these are the roasters and the retailers, most of them MNEs. (Borrella et al., 2015) shows that these firms capture around 75% of the value of the final product, while the farmers and cooperatives in developing countries take only 25%. However, (Borrella et al., 2015) expect that the value captured by the developing firms could increase when they specialize their product.
Sustainability
Sustainability is the protection of natural resources and the environment and the improvement of social and economic welfare, for the next generations (Purvis, Mao, & Robinson, 2019).
Three dimensions are: Environmental - Social – Economic.
These three dimensions can be viewed from different perspectives. Some academics see the three as individual pillars, which together form the sustainability (Nr.1 in Figure 2). The second approach identifies the environmental aspect as the main factor, which is influenced by society and the economy. The third approach illustrates the overlapping effect of each dimension, and together they create sustainability (Purvis et al., 2019).
FIGURE 2
Different views on sustainability, Source: (Purvis et al., 2019).
Sustainability dates back centuries ago, in the 19th and 20th century different scientists, ecologists and economists started questioning what the limits of growth are and to what extent growth is possible without exhausting natural resources (Lumley & Armstrong, 2004)(Purvis et al., 2019).
FIGURE 3
Development goals for sustainable trade, Source:(The sustainable trade initiative, n.d.)
The organisation for sustainable trade incentives has set nine sustainable development goals for its vision 2020 for sustainability for the coffee sector, see figure 3 (The sustainable trade initiative, n.d.). Two of these goals focus on environmental sustainability. These two goals are responsible consumption and production and life on land.
Life on land is the protection, restorage and promotion of sustainable use of terrestrial, sustainability management of forests, combat desertification and halt and reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity loss (United Nations, n.d.). The second goal, responsible consumption and production is the process of ensuring sustainable consumption by creating awareness for consumers and creating sustainable production patterns of the producers (United Nations, n.d.).
Sustainable supply chain management
Before a firm can apply sustainability into their supply chain, certain characteristics should be clear throughout the firm (Beske & Seuring, 2014). First firms should have a clear reason and motive for implementing sustainability in their daily approach of doing business. It's important that this decision is supported and shared across the organization. Only then, the operational managers could implement the decision into the daily operations.
The third aspect of the framework of (Beske & Seuring, 2014) is a collaboration in the supply chain. They argue that when the information sharing could not only improve the long-term relationship, but also the costs and risks. Based on the theory, the cost and risks affect the uncertainty and the advantage which could be created by the firm. (Beske & Seuring, 2014) expect that when the firms’ communication is of a high level, the planning and the forecasting of the firm will improve which will reduce the uncertainty. Furthermore, capabilities for supply chain integration or product development could be an effect of the collaboration of firms, which could lead to a CA since that it is hard to replicate them (Beske & Seuring, 2014).
The last two factors which are important to create a sustainable supply chain management, are risk management and proactivity (Beske & Seuring, 2014). They argue that shortcomings from firms can be reduced by creating clear standards and or certifications for firms and that firms should monitor supplies to check if they meet the environmental and social standards. Furthermore, firms which engage in sustainability can create a first-mover advantage (Beske & Seuring, 2014). Figure 4 illustrates the collaboration throughout the supply chain.
FIGURE 4
Resource-Based view
The RBV is designed by (Barney, 1991), the idea of the theory is that firms can create SCA through the resources of the firm. (Barney, 1991) assumes that the resources are heterogeneously distributed and that these differences are stable, which creates the SCA (Barney, 1991). In the theory firm’s resources include all assets, capabilities, organizational processes, firm attributes, information, knowledge, etc., controlled by a firm. These resources enable the firm to conceive and implement strategies that improve its efficiency and effectiveness (Barney, 1991).
The RBV (Barney, 1991) distinguishes between SCA and CA. According to (Barney, 1991) a CA, is a strategy that is creating value that is not implemented by any competitor at a specific time. While SCA is defined as a strategy that creates value for the firm and is not implemented by any current or potential competitor in the future and that the other firms are unable to duplicate the benefits of the strategy.
However, (Barney, 1991) indicates that if a firm has created an SCA, it does not mean that it will exist forever, it only indicates that the SCA cannot disappear or change through other firms. (Barney, 1991) argues that an SCA can change by other factors that influence the resources that create the SCA, such as changes in the industry structure or economies structure (Barney, 1991).
Because most of the industries have resources that are heterogeneous and immobile, firms can create an SCA if their resources are labelled by four characteristics.
Valuable: According to (Barney, 1991), resources are valuable, when they enable a firm to conceive or implement strategies that improve its efficiency and effectiveness.
Rare: Unique resources, which is not implemented simultaneously by other firms. How rare it should be might be difficult, but it is not difficult to see that it's unique. If the resource is not rare, it would lead to a competitive parity, see figure 5, (Expert programma management, 2019).
Inimitable: Three possible forms of inimitable (Barney, 1991); 1. A resource is difficult to obtain due to historic reasons.
2. The resource is caused by causal ambiguity which is when a resource is not understood perfectly, and therefore it's hard to copy.
3. The resource is socially complex, e.g. the firm's culture of workforce
organisational structure, such as the different policies regarding daily decision making are complementary resources. These resources enhance the level of the CA when it is combined with other resources of the organisation. Only then the valuable, rare, and inimitable resources can become an SCA.
FIGURE 5
VRIO Framework process, Source: (Expert programma management, 2019).
Stakeholder theory
The core idea of the SHT theory is that an SCA is not created by the resources of a firm, but by how a firm manages their relation stakeholders. This theory is partly derived from (Freeman, Phillips, Freeman, & Phillips, 1989). (Freeman et al., 1989) argue that the extent to which an organisation is successful depends on the relationship towards the stakeholders (Freeman et al., 1989). After publishing their work, a discussion came up about what the stakeholders of an organisation are. In most cases, the stakeholders were defined as employees, customers, suppliers, financiers as well as the local community (Freeman et al., 1989). Furthermore, (Freeman et al., 1989) indicated that by properly managing these stakeholders, a CA can be created.
RESEARCH DESIGN
This research methodology is based on the research onion of Saunders. The concept of the onion of Saunders is that the research design is built up layer by layer, analysing from the outside ring towards the middle (UK Dissertation Writers, 2019). In each layer, one of the factors is chosen, which together will form the research design.
Starting with the outside ring, the philosophy. The philosophy is the choice of what kind of knowledge is acceptable for the research of the coffee supply chain and how to find the necessary information on sustainability in the coffee industry. This research project will be based on an interpretivist philosophy. Interpretivism is the approach where the knowledge is derived from academic papers, to test the hypotheses on sustainability in the coffee supply chain (UK Dissertation Writers, 2019). The second layer is the approach. The approach can be deductive or inductive. In this paper, the inductive approach will be used. The choice for this approach has multiple reasons. First, it's the approach that can be best linked to the interpretivist philosophy and because of the high amount of information on sustainability in the coffee supply chain. The inductive approach will start with a broader view of the theory, specifying as it continues.
The next step is to collect the data on the coffee supply chain. The plan is to collect data from existing literature and form a conceptual framework, on how sustainability would create a CA in the coffee supply chain. The collection of data will start by acquiring more knowledge about the coffee industry and the supply chain. This will be expanded by researching more literature on sustainability and the two theories which are used for this paper, the RBV and SHT. Once these themes and subjects are understood, a more detailed approach will start by applying it to the coffee supply chain. The literature used for the literature review is mainly collected form search engines, SmartCat, a platform from the university Groningen and Google Scholar.
In the fourth layer, more attention is given to the type of data, whether quantitative or qualitative research will be performed, or both. The idea is that the data of this paper will consist of qualitative data only, which is a mono method in the onion of Saunders.
ANALYSIS
The goal of this paper is to analyse whether environmental sustainability would create an SCA for firms in the coffee supply chain.
Environmental sustainability
Environmental sustainability is analysed by the RBV and the SHT. The RBV, designed by (Barney, 1991), uses the VRIO framework to assess whether a resource can create an SCA. Based on the RBV, environmental sustainability is a resource, since it is an organizational process, which is controlled by the firm. Now it is established that environmental sustainability can be a resource, the next step is to determine if environmental sustainability is VRIO.
The VRIO framework has 4 stages, the initial stage is V, valuable. A resource is valuable when they enable a firm to conceive or implement strategies that improve its efficiency and effectiveness. When analysing the resources of environmental sustainability, based on those criteria, it will be a valuable resource. Since environmental sustainability consists of the process of implementing measures, such as reducing the chemicals used during the production of coffee beans or plastic used for the final product.
The next step is rare. Environmental sustainability is rare whenever it’s the resources are unique and not simultaneously implemented by other firms in the supply chain. Based on the resources which are necessary for implementing environmental sustainability, such as information, vision and time, environmental sustainability is not rare. Since it might be more difficult to get these resources but not impossible for other firms.
Another factor is inimitable. Inimitable resources can be created by historic events, are hard to understand, or socially complex. Assessing these three possible sources of environmental sustainability can be caused by causal ambiguity since it is hard to understand how to implement environmental sustainability in an organisation. The social complexity can also be a reason for environmental sustainability to be inimitable because environmental sustainability is not just implemented by the top managers, it should be introduced to the entire firm and supply chain to fully implement sustainability.
The other theory of this paper is the SHT. An SCA based on the SHT can only be created by the way the supply chain manages its stakeholders. This means that not only the firms in the coffee supply chain, the farmers, traders, roasters and retailers should manage their relationship with each other but also their clients, employees, shareholders, and financiers.
Implementing environmental sustainability can be a way to manage their desires, e.g. more and more consumers of coffee are looking for fair products, coffee with a smaller footprint (Borrella et al., 2015), while employees, financiers, and shareholders have the long-term goal to see the firm to be successful (Perrini & Tencati, 2006). This can be achieved by the coffee supply chain by implementing environmental sustainability, to act on the demand for a more environmental product. Therefore, environmental sustainability can create a SCA, based on the SHT.
Respect nature
One of the pillars to reach environmental sustainability is respecting nature. Respecting nature, also known as life on land, is one of the nine sustainable development goals of the coffee industry. Firms in the coffee supply chain need to pay more attention towards the decreasing biodiversity and land degradation caused by the production of coffee. The player in the coffee supply chain who has the most influence on this are the coffee farmers. To maintain or restore the quality of the land the farmers should use less heavy chemicals and pesticides. However, the farmers cannot just do this by themselves. They should be provided with the necessary information and funds to implement new, more environmental production ways.
Responsible consumption and production
From the consumption side, its main focus is to increase the level of awareness at the consumers about the production. The firms in the coffee industry should give the consumers the possibility the interpret which products are environmentally less damaging (United Nations, n.d.).
Sustainable partnerships
Sustainable partnerships are vital for the coffee industry. Since the coffee industry consists of many players who are interconnected through their processes, it’s vital to have sustainable partnerships. Within these partnerships, firms can coordinate how to reach sustainability in the supply chain. If firms wouldn’t form partnerships, it would be difficult to implement sustainability in their process e.g. if Nestle sets the corporate goal to become more environmentally sustainable. They could be planning to decrease their footprint, by shipping their products to retailers more efficiently. Through this approach, they reduced their footprint, but if the farmer or traders are not following the same approach it loses value. When the farmers and traders would implement environmental sustainability in their process as well, it will add more value for all players. That’s why a partnership is important, not only in the short run, but for the future as well. Therefore, these partnerships should align their long vision ideas, to get a sustainable partnership.
Hypothesis
As mentioned in the explanation of sustainable partnerships, it is important to see the interconnected relation, which the different players in the supply chain have. To have environmental sustainability as a goal or implementing in your organisation is one thing, but to create a product which is focused on environmental sustainability, is more difficult, since different players have their influence on the product. Furthermore, cooperation is the most important aspect of the coffee supply chain, based on the 0-3-6-9 ranking see Table 1, Ranking of supply Chain Management attributes. Therefore, the players in the supply chain should partner up to implement sustainability throughout the supply chain. This leads to the first hypotheses;
Hypothesis 1. Cooperation of participants in the coffee supply chain, will lead to sustainable partnerships.
When the firms in the supply chain have decided that they want to implement environmental sustainability in their business and they have formed partnerships, they should start sharing information. By sharing information from both sides of the supply chain, the farmers get more knowledge about what the final consumer wants and the MNE’s will know what is needed in the beginning stages of the supply chain to implement environmental sustainability.
Currently there is a lack of information throughout the supply chain, mainly at the start (Ibrahim, 2010). To decrease this information shortage, the participants of the supply chain should create partnerships. Therefore, farmers, traders, roasters and retailers should share information about their needs to achieve environmental sustainability. Within these partnerships, they share information on how to implement this in their organisation. This leads to hypotheses 2:
Hypothesis 2. To become a sustainable partnership, participants in the coffee supply chain need to share information with the entire supply chain.
For these partnerships to be valuable and workable, they should introduce standards based on the shared information to create a universal approach to achieve environmental sustainability. These standards can consist, e.g. among others, the number of chemicals that is used or ISO standards, how the coffee farmers respect nature, a minimum price etc. Through these standards, the firms create cohesion throughout the supply chain. These points lead to the following hypothesis:
Furthermore, it is important that they should create a more equal share of risks and profits. Currently, most of the profits are captured by the retailers, while farmers receive just a small percentage of the value. To change this structure, to have a stronger long-term vision, the partnership should develop a better structure for sharing the risks and profits, to make the partnerships sustainable.
CONCEPTUAL MODEL
Hypothesis 1. Cooperation of participants in the coffee supply chain, will lead to sustainable partnerships.
Hypothesis 2. To become a sustainable partnership, participants in the coffee supply chain need to share information with the entire supply chain.
Hypothesis 3. Sustainability of the partnerships in the coffee supply chain is created by implementing standards.
CONCLUSION
This paper focused on analysing the supply chain of the coffee industry. The reason for performing the analysis of the supply chain was to assess how firms in the coffee supply chain could create an SCA, through environmental sustainability. These factors created the following main question;
How does sustainability matter to the supply chain for firms in the coffee industry, to gain a sustained competitive advantage?
The research to answer this question was performed through a literature review, in which multiple important factors of the supply chain, sustainability and the industry itself were analysed. Based on this literature review, four hypotheses with a conceptual framework were created, which indicates how the SCA could be created in the coffee supply chain.
Based on the analyses, it can be concluded that two hypotheses had the greatest impact; cooperation and information sharing. The cooperation with the partners is important because it is the core of creating sustainable partnerships throughout the coffee supply chain. Secondly, since without sharing information, the gap of knowledge is not decreasing which leads to a lower possibility to reach environmental sustainability.
The last step of the analyses was to check if environmental sustainability in the coffee supply chain would create an SCA. Based on the RBV, environmental sustainability would not lead to an SCA, but rather to competitive parity. Since it's not rare to introduce environmental sustainability, because the resources for implementing sustainability might be difficult but not impossible to acquire for other firms. However, based on the SHT it can be concluded that environmental sustainability can lead to an SCA since firms that implement environmental sustainability manage their stakeholders in such a way by which they create the same long-term vision.
The recommendations to businesses in the coffee supply chain is that even though implementing environmental sustainability might not lead to SCA, based on the RBV. It can still have a positive effect on the coffee industry, through better cooperation between the participants and setting new standards for environmental sustainability in the coffee industry.
Limitations
Further research
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