Experiences of coaches with behavioral mechanisms conducive to feedback eﬀectiveness

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Experiences of coaches with behavioral

mechanisms conducive to feedback

effectiveness

Master Thesis - MSC Business Administration

Specialization Change Management

Faculty of Economics and Business University of Groningen

Sebastiaan de Jong

S1710192 - sebastiaan@sebastiaandejong.nl Oosterhamrikkade 1a, 9713KA, Groningen

Tel: +31 0630446445 June 22, 2014

Research supervisors

A Dr. B Emans University of Groningen

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1. Acknowledgement

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2. Abstract

This paper presents the outcomes of a qualitative study about the influences of feedback on behavioral changes of an executive during executive coaching. The paper’s social relevance can be found in the increase of an employees’ performance by receiving feedback and the scientific relevance in the contribution to knowledge and understanding of behavioral mechanisms resulting from providing feedback. The data used for the research were interviews; therefore a sample of 17 coaches was used. This study provides an overview of behavioral mechanisms and conditions (which promote or endanger its effectiveness). Nine behavioral mechanisms and forty one conditions have been identified. Positive feedback ensures encouragement of functional behavior, reinforcement of functional behavior and the inducement of uncertainty. Furthermore, negative feedback ensures: awareness of dysfunctional behavior, adjustment of dysfunctional behavior and discouragement of changing behavior. Finally, multiple source feedback ensures becoming impressed and providing a comprehensive understanding of the coachee’s behavior. According to the research outcomes feedback is one of the most important interventions of coaching and key to change.

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3. Introduction

"Feedback is the breakfast of champions" (Johnson and Blanchard, 1986). As we all know, breakfast is the most important meal of the day. Similarly, without feedback an organization famishes. As a result of this absence of feedback, an organization cannot improve, adapt or evolve. Scholars agree feedback is an important part of learning and performance improvement within organizations (Kuchinke, 2000). Employees are encouraged to participate in learning and developmental activities to ensure their level of knowledge and skills allow them to contribute to an effective organization (Van der Rijt et al., 2012; Whelan et al., 2010).

A great deal has been written about the concept of feedback, considering the large base of research on feedback (Kluger and Denisi, 1996). Despite the large amount of research on the concept of feedback, the behavioral mechanisms resulting from providing feedback remains ill defined and unexplored (Kluger and Denisi, 1996; Van der Rijt et al., 2012). This research paper elaborates on this lack of research. Firstly, this research paper attempts to discover behavioral mechanisms, resulting from providing feedback. Secondly, this paper attempts to discover the conditions that promote or endanger the effectiveness of the discovered behavioral mechanisms.

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In the state of the art are still numerous questions unanswered. For instance, Feldman (2005) concludes a need for more research into the role of feedback within executive coaching. Feedback is a major component of the coaching relationships, although this is not always well apprehended in the context of the coaching relationship.(Gregory et al., 2008). Feldman (2005) and Joo (2005) describe both the lack of empirical research about coaching as well as the existing gap between the theory of coaching and the practice of coaching. Finally, there are only a few studies that refer to the effectiveness of executive coaching on the behavioral change of leaders (Collins and Holton, 2004; Douglas and Morley, 2000). Combining the arguments therefore ensures the essentialness of examining how feedback within executive coaching affects the executive’s behavioral change. The relevance of this paper can be segmented into the social relevance and the scientific relevance. As mentioned above the social relevance of this paper can be found in the fact that coaching and feedback affect the increase in employees’ performance. Because of the increase in performance, organizations can justify their investment in feedback or executive coaching. The scientific relevance can be found in the contribution of this paper to knowledge and understanding of feedback, resulting in theory building on the role of feedback within executive coaching and the effect of feedback on the executives’ behavior. The ambition of this study is to provide an overall view of the behavioral mechanisms resulting from providing feedback, including the conditions that promote or endanger the effectiveness of these behavioral mechanisms.

The purpose of this paper is to gain new insights and a deeper understanding of the influences of feedback on the behavioral change of the executive, during executive coaching. The purpose can be segmented into three sub-goals. The first goal is to discover and describe the manifestations of feedback. The second sub goal is to discover and describe the behavioral mechanisms resulting from providing feedback. Finally, describing and discovering the conditions, that promote or endanger the effectiveness of the discovered behavioral mechanisms.

This paper tries to answer the following research question: "What is the influence of feedback on the behavioral change of an executive during executive coaching?"

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4. Theory

In this section, the concepts of feedback and executive coaching are defined and discussed. Subsequently the concept of feedback is described on the basis of three manifestations of feedback; positive feedback, negative feedback and multiple source feedback.

4.1 Executive coaching

Several authors have attempted to provide a definition of the concept of executive coaching. For instance Kilburg (1996) provides the following definition of executive coaching: "a helping relationship formed between a client who has managerial authority and responsibility in an organization and a consultant who uses a variety of behavioral techniques and methods to assist the client achieve a mutually identified set of goals to improve his or her professional performance and personal satisfaction and consequently to improve the effectiveness of the client’s organization within a formally defined coaching agreement". Kilburg (1996) describes some aspects of the process of coaching, which are also described in other definitions. For instance, Garman et al. (2000) describes the concept of coaching as a one-by one cooperative relationship. In addition, another similarity with other definitions is the collection of data about the coachees’/executives’ work behaviors, personality or performance (Kampa-kokesch and Anderson, 2001). Finally, providing and using feedback can be considered as part of the executive coaching process (Gregory et al., 2008).

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4.2 Feedback

As mentioned before, providing and using feedback is a part of the executive coaching process (Kilburg, 1996). Scholars agree on the indispensableness of feedback, as a tool within the process of executive coaching, in order to improve the executives’/coachees’ performance (Mccarthy and Garavan, 2006; Kuchinke, 2000).

Feedback is described on the basis of different definitions, due to the fact that feedback is used in different areas. For instance, feedback is used in the areas of communication, engineering, and human resource developments (van de Ridder et al., 2008).

First, Ilgen et al. (1979) defines the concept of feedback as: "feedback is a special case of the general communications process in which some sender conveys a message to a recipient". This definition describes feedback as a message or information, which passes from one person to another. Secondly, Kluger and Denisi (1996) define feedback as "an action conducted by (an) external agent(s) to provide information regarding some aspect(s) of one’s task performance". This definition highlights the effectiveness of the performance-task outcome. Finally, Ashford and Cummings (1983) devote a part of their definition on the behavior of the executive. Ashford and Cummings (1983) state: "In the interpersonal realm, feedback includes information about the perceived and evaluated behaviors of the executives’. In this case, feedback relates to the behavior of the coachee/executive and the impact on individuals in- or outside the organization (O’Neill, 2007).

The previously described definitions serve as input for the definition used in this paper. Feedback is defined as: "An action conducted by an external individual regarding the coachee’s/executive’s perceived and evaluated behavior".

4.2.1 Feedback sign

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The purpose of this study includes discovering and describing the behavioral mechanisms and the conditions that promote or endanger the effectiveness of the discovered behavioral mechanisms. Positive feedback, behavioral mechanisms and conditions of positive feedback are described further on.

4.2.2 Positive feedback

In the contemporary literature, attention is devoted to the concept of positive feedback. A number of scholars studied the concept of positive feedback. Kluger and Denisi (1996) define positive feedback as "a positive evaluation of the one’s performance relative to the standard". Considering the definition of Kluger and Denisi (1996), it is about the factual behavior or performance of the coachee/executive, who obtains feedback. In contrast with the definition of Kluger and Denisi (1996), scholars emphasize on the behavioral consequences resulting from positive feedback. If these consequences are positive, this will be mentioned as positive feedback. Accordingly, this would imply that only positive emotions and reactions will occur from providing positive feedback. Ramaprasad (1983) confirms the reasoning of Kluger and Denisi (1996) by stating that positive feedback results in a positive mood. Consequently, Ramaprasad (1983) defines positive feedback as "the result of the emotional connotation, triggered by the provided positive feedback". We refer to the definition of Kluger and Denisi (1996) and we define positive feedback as: ’The positive evaluation of the coachee’s/executive’s behavior or performance related to

the standard behavior or performance’.

4.2.2.1 Behavioral mechanisms resulting from providing positive feedback

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Henderlong and Lepper (2002) argue that positive feedback provides more than a strict reinforcing function. According to the law of effect from Thorndike (1913), positive feedback encourages the recurrence of expressed behavior. For example, Thorndike (1913) states that positive feedback promotes correct or functional behavior, whereby it has an positive influence on performance. Furthermore, encouragement was also mentioned by Carpentier and Mageau (2013), they describe the aim of positive feedback as "confirming desirable behaviors". Positive feedback provides encouragement, because it develops confidence in the fact that the coachee/executive can exhibit functional behavior. The previous findings combined; encouragement could be best defined as ’encouragement of functional behavior’

In order to create effective positive feedback, several conditions are necessary. These conditions are described in the next section.

4.2.2.2 Necessary conditions for the effectiveness of positive feedback

This paper distinguishes between conditions, which ensure the effectiveness for the behavioral mechanisms. The conditions are categorized in ’environmental conditions’ and ’practices of the coach’. Practices of the coach relate to the actions, undertaken by the coach. Environmental conditions relate to ’an identifiable element’, relating to the coaching process in general.

First (Brophy, 1981) states that several practices of the coach are necessary to effec-tively provide positive feedback. First, when positive feedback is specific, feedback will be perceived as true. Consequently, when positive feedback is provided with general characteristics, feedback could be perceived as untrue. Secondly, when positive feedback is perceived as truthful, positive feedback can function as a sincere praise (Leung et al., 2001). This paper describes the conditions as ’providing truthful feedback’ and ’providing specific feedback’.

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4.2.3 Negative feedback

Negative feedback is the second manifestation of feedback, which is described further on. Various scholars devoted attention to the concept of negative feedback. First, Steelman and Rutkowski (2004) describe negative feedback as: "indicating one’s job performance is not meeting expectations, is clearly of developmental value to an individual and of strategic value to organizations". Furthermore, Carpentier and Mageau (2013) mention negative feedback as change-oriented feedback and they describe the aim of negative feedback as ’indicate the performance as inadequate". Carpentier and Mageau (2013) meant that the behavior of the coachee should be modified, in order to meet the

expectations of the environment.

According to the definition of positive feedback and to create uniformity in this study, negative feedback will be defined as: "the negative evaluation of the coachee’s/executive’s behavior or performance related to the standard behavior or performance’. The coach evaluates the standard behavior or performance in contrast with the factual behavior. The coach uses his wide experience in evaluating the coachees’/executives’ behavior or performance.

4.2.3.1 Behavioral mechanisms resulting from providing negative feedback

Providing negative feedback results in behavioral mechanisms. In order to provide an indication of the familiar mechanisms, these mechanisms will be described below. First, negative feedback is used to penalize incorrect behavior. In other words, the coach tries to discourage incorrect or dysfunctional behavior (Steelman and Rutkowski, 2004). This penalizing of incorrect behavior should result in awareness of dysfunctional behavior or undesirable behavior.

Secondly, scholars argue that negative feedback ensures discouragement, among individu-als of the organization. Kluger and Denisi (1996) stated that in one third of the cases they researched the performance of the individuals decreased. They were not motivated to change; they were discouraged to improve their actual performance. The idea exists that negative emotions arise from negative feedback, whereby the coach refrains from providing negative feedback (Gregory et al., 2008; Smither and Walker, 2004).

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feedback, several conditions are necessary. These conditions are pointed out in the next section.

4.2.3.2 Necessary conditions for the effectiveness of negative feedback

Prior research showed that specific and elaborated negative feedback, were perceived as helpful (Goodstone and Diamante, 1998). Hicks and McCracken (2011) confirmed the negative feedback needs to be specific and a coach should avoid global labels. Goodstone and Diamante (1998) indicated that the level of specificity of the feedback provided by a coach, influences the performance improvement positively. Contrary, feedback that is not specific enough and/or does not explain identified problems, is not perceived as useful and is thereby ignored.

Hicks and McCracken (2011) conducted research on providing difficult feedback. She devoted attention to the environment related conditions and practices of the coach of negative feedback. She stated that negative feedback will be more accepted, if the negative feedback consists a positive regard. Furthermore, she discussed the environment related conditions by stating that a climate of trust and openness for feedback (by the coachee/executive) result in a better adoption of negative feedback.

This previous findings combined, this paper describes the practices of the coach of negative feedback as ’providing specific feedback’, and the environment related conditions as ’consisting positive regard’, ’presence of a climate of trust’ and ’openness for feedback by the coachee/executive’

Although, we discovered a number of behavioral mechanisms and conditions of negative feedback, we abstain from special research expectations. We conduct research with an open mind, resulting in an open research question: "To what extent and how does negative feedback contributes to the change of behavior; what behavioral mechanisms play an role and what conditions are decisive for that role?"

4.2.4 Multiple source feedback

As previously discussed, there are several manifestations of feedback. Multi source feedback is the last manifestation of feedback, which will be described in the following part of this theory section.

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indication of the effectiveness of this method as a developmental tool (Edwards, M. R., & Ewen, 1996). What essentially differentiates multiple source feedback from the conventional top-down feedback is the use of multiple sources. Multiple source feedback is a developmental tool, used for executives. Multiple source feedback is also commonly referred to as 360-degree feedback. Multi source feedback will sometimes be interpreted by a coachee/executive themselves, and sometimes interpreted by a coach, who could act like a feedback facilitator (Seifert et al., 2003).

This paper defines multiple source feedback as "a feedback method whereby executives receive information about how they are perceived by various groups of people with whom they interact regularly" (Seifert et al., 2003). Examples of these ’groups of people’ are bosses, subordinates, peers, clients and family.

4.2.4.1 Behavioral mechanisms resulting from providing multiple source

feedback

Providing multiple source feedback results in behavioral mechanisms. In order to provide an indication of the familiar mechanisms, these mechanisms are described below. Multi source feedback is provided by several sources resulting in a comprehensive view of the perceived behavior of the executive/coachee. This comprehensive view occurs because several relative individuals share their views. This sharing of views creates a common vision about the behavior of the coachee/executive (Yammarino and Atwater, 1993). This view was emphasized by Bernardin et al. (1993), they argue that feedback received, from subordinations and bosses was experienced as more useful, rather then feedback received from subordinates individually.

In order to create effective negative feedback, several conditions are necessary. These conditions are described in the next section.

4.2.4.2 Necessary conditions for multiple source feedback-effectiveness

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The combined facts results in the general conditions of feedback. This paper describes the general conditions of multiple source feedback as ’consistent feedback’ and ’anonymity of the feedback provider’.

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5. Methodology

The following chapter describes the methodology of this paper. This chapter continues on the research questions presented in the theoretical section. Firstly, the data content of this research will be discussed. Secondly the data collection method will be explained. Finally, an analysis of the data will be discussed.

5.1 Data content

The interviews were conducted to collect explanatory information. The information that was collected is about the experiences of the coach regarding to the manifestations of feedback (positive, negative, multiple source), the behavioral mechanisms and the conditions that promote or endanger its effectiveness. In this case the experiences to be elicited involve, eye-witnessed by the coach, observed behavioral mechanisms (by the coachee/executive) through providing feedback (Negative, positive or multiple source). Furthermore the experiences (eye-witnessed by the coach) about the conditions which promote or endanger specific behavioral mechanism resulting from providing feedback.

5.2 Data Collection

5.2.1 Interview strategy

The coaches were invited to talk about the coachee’s/executive’s experiences concerning manifestations of feedback (positive, negative and multiple source), behavioral mechanisms observed by the coachee/executive and the conditions that promote or endanger the effectiveness of that specific behavioral mechanism.

An interview guide was prepared to conduct the interviews. This guide was developed: to cope with the uncertainty due to the open conversation, being loyal to the purpose of this paper and to cope with time pressure to collect sufficient information about the experiences of the coach.

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Table 5.1: Used interview questions, to collect eye-witnessed experiences of the coach

Positive feedback questions

Do you apply positive feedback to your coaching technique? On which grounds do you decide to provide positive feedback? In your opinion, what are the advantages of positive feedback?

Negative feedback questions Multiple source feedback questions

What do you consider the disadvantages of positive feedback?

How do you implement positive feedback? Which kind of feedback or techniques do you use?

What happens to the behavior of the coachee/executive when they have received positive feedback?

Do you apply negative feedback to your coaching technique? On which grounds do you decide to provide negative feedback? In your opinion, what are the advantages of negative feedback? What do you consider the disadvantages of negatie feedback?

How do you implement negative feedback? Which kind of feedback or techniques do you use?

What happens to the behavior of the coachee/executive when they have received negative feedback?

Do you use multiple sources for your feedback interventions?

How do you apply multiple-source feedback?

What is noticeable in the behavior of the coach when the amount of sources increases?

What happens to the behavior of the coach when the feedback is provided by a superior?

What happens to the behavior of the coach when the feedback is provided by an equal?

What is noticeable in the behavior of the coach when the feedback is provided by an inferior?

Some aspects were important when conducting the interviews. General information was inquired as a means to start setting the stage and breaking the ice. Secondly, the interview contained open-ended questions to obtain a variety of experiences, eye-witnessed by the coach. Thirdly, the interview questions were of a general nature, however, additional questions were asked to clarify the experiences of the coach, for instance; when did you mention that emotion, how did the coachee react, what did you see? Furthermore, the additional questions were asked to ensure the absence of collected opinions. The interviewer continued asking about specific experiences. This interview technique contributed to a high quality of the provided answers.

5.2.2 Interview sample

A convenience sample method was used. Marshall (1996) describes a convenience sample as selecting the most accessible subjects. This method is least costly in terms of effort, time and money.

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The ST!R uses terms and conditions, in order to become a qualified coach. For instance, a coach needs to attend a certified course, approved by the ST!R. The stir guarantees the quality of knowledge and skills of the qualified coach.

5.2.3 Accessing interviewees

A letter was prepared to access the qualified coaches. A number of aspects were taken into account, when writing this letter. First of all, the letter was written concisely. The coaches receive a lot of email; therefore the information should be presented in a direct and concise manner. Secondly, the chosen subject of the email was also important, to be visible within the coachee’s/executive’s email box. Lastly, the letter contained personal information such as: name, gender, company name and address. This personal information ensures a specific and personal letter. Finally, feedback was asked from communication and marketing experts, to ensure the quality of the email.

5.2.4 Documentation of data

The interviews lasted about a hour/ hour and a half and have been recorded using a digital tape recorder (with the consent of interviewees). The digital tap recorder allowed the information to be described as concrete as possible. During the interview annotations were written down, in order to maintain the concentration of the interviewer. The transcription in Microsoft Office Word is a necessary step taken for the interpretation of the data derived from the interviews. The transcription consists of more than 200 pages and is retrievable on request.

5.2.5 Data population

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Table 5.2: Overview research population

Coach Age Experience Area Specialism

Coach 1 50-55 06 years Noord Holland Personal coaching, team coaching Coach 2 40-45 03 years Utrecht Time management, individual coaching Coach 3 40-45 15 years Utrecht Leadership training, executive coaching Coach 4 40-45 08 years Groningen Coaching on personal profile

Coach 5 40-45 05 years Noord Brabant Personal development, executive coaching

Coach 6 45-50 03 years Groningen Executive coaching

Coach 7 35-40 12 years Utrecht Personal development

Coach 8 40-45 04 years Gelderland Executive coaching

Coach 9 45-50 04 years Utrecht Executive coaching

Coach 10 35-40 05 years Zuid Holland Executive coaching Coach 11 40-45 06 years Noord Holland Performance coaching

Coach 12 35-40 02 years Zuid Holland Team coaching, executive coaching

Coach 14 45-50 05 years Noord Holland Personal and team development

Coach 16 45-50 02 years Noord Holland Career coaching Coach 17 40-45 21 years Zuid Holland Business coaching

5.3 Data analysis

The interpretation of data is the core of qualitative research. The purpose of data analysis is the extraction of information from the conducted interviews to answer sub questions.

5.3.1 Coding and categorizing

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of codes available, but the codes were conceived while reading the interview reports. Several mechanisms of behavior where revealed, during the process of open coding. Behav-ioral mechanisms were discovered for every manifestation of feedback. These behavBehav-ioral mechanisms were used for codes. Due to the process of open coding the conditions that promote or endanger the effectiveness of those specific behavioral mechanisms were revealed. These conditions were also used for codes. The precision of the used codes evolved during the process of open coding. A total of 44 different codes were used. The used codes are presented in the table below. Each table presents the codes for a particular manifestation of feedback, namely: positive feedback, negative feedback and multiple source feedback. These coding figures serve as input for the result section.

Table 5.3: Codes for positive feedback mechanisms, including conditions

Mechanism Environment related

conditions

Encouragement of functional behavior

Openness for positive feedback by coachee Reinforcement of functional behavior Inducement of Uncertainty Perceiving chemistry Existence of mutual respect High/low self-confidence of coachee Taking responsibility by coachee Practice related conditions Positivity-(over)-dosage Providing specific feedback Showing progress of coachee

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Table 5.4: Codes for negative feedback mechanisms, including conditions

Mechanism Environment related

conditions Improved awareness of dysfunctional behavior Recognizing own-behavior by coachee Adjustment of dysfunctional behavior Discouragement of changing behavior Presence of a climate of trust Taking responsibility coachee

The presence of mutual respect

Low self-esteem by coachee

Lack of a climate of trust

Practice related conditions Highlighting dysfunctional patterns Providing specific feedback Showing independecy Showing progress of coachee Providing nonjudgmental feedback

Lack of feedback with positive regard Negativity-over-dosage Providing non-specific feedback Providing delayed feedback Lack of a climate of safety

Table 5.5: Codes for multiple source feedback mechanisms, including conditions

Mechanism Conditions Obtaining comprehensive understanding of behavior Amount of feedback providers Becoming impressed Diversity of feedback providers Anonymity of feedback providers

The level of hierarchy

The quality of the relationship

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6. Results

The following chapter described the results of this paper. This section continues on the methods presented in the methodology section. The results of the three sub questions; eight distinct mechanisms are identified. A separate subsection is devoted to each of them: the mechanisms are explained, including the conditions that promote or endanger its effectiveness.

6.1 To what extent and how does positive feedback

con-tribute to the change of behavior; what behavioral

mechanisms play an role and what conditions are

deci-sive for that role?

The results of the first sub question; three distinct mechanisms, each of them giving rise to a certain impact of the provided positive feedback on the behavior of coachees’, turned up in the interviewees’ experiences, as told about in the interviews. A separate subsection is devoted to each of them: the mechanism is explained, including the conditions that promote or endanger its effectiveness, and the underlying interview outcomes are presented.

6.1.1 Encouragement of functional behavior

The interviewed coaches suggest that the encouragement of functional behavior of the coachee/executive creates a feeling of happiness and content. Coach 14 describes encour-agement as: ’I confirm what they do well’. Coach 1 and 2 are very much inclined to agree with the reasoning of coach 14, they imply: ’Positive feedback is a tool, to provide a compliment about the coachee’s functional behavior.

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Figure 6.1: Conditions for the effectiveness of the mechanism: Encouragement of functional behavior

Positive Feedback

Openness for positive feedback by coachee Presence of mutual respect Perceiving chemistry

Providing truthful feedback Providing specific feedback Positivity-dosage

Environment-related Practice-related

Encouragement of functional behavior

6.1.1.1 Environment-related conditions

Openness to positive feedback by a coachee is described as the willingness and ability of

the coachee/executive to receive encouragement. If the coachee/executive has a lack of openness to positive feedback, the result of the encouragement will minimally affect the future changes in his behavior. Coach 4 endorses with this line of reasoning, he suggests: ’There are a lot of people, who find it very hard to receive an encouragement, for instance

critical and perfectionistic people.’

Secondly, the coaches propose: The presence of mutual respect, creates faith in the personal qualities or abilities of the interlocutor. If the coachee/executive does not trust the coach’s ability to change behavior, this results in a lack of motivation, with the consequence of a decrease in the coachee’s/executive’s willingness to continue functional behavior.

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6.1.1.2 Practice-related

First, providing truthful feedback refers to providing a fair and sincere encouragement, regarding the functional behavior of the coachee/executive. The coaches suggest that a lack of truth causes the encouragement to lose its value and strength. The lack of value and strength could influence the willingness to strive towards personal behavioral change. Coach 16 additionally suggests: ’the coachee/executive recognizes when an encouragement lacks a certain degree of truth’.

Secondly, providing specific feedback is defined as: describing concrete functional behavior of the coachee/executive. The coach provides explicit examples of observed functional behavior to encourage continued behavior.

Finally, positivity-dosage refers to a proportionate amount of encouragements about the functional behavior of the coachee/executive. According to the coaches, a positivity-dosage creates an increase in the encouragement’s strength. Coach 11 suggests: ’if you receive the same compliment every time, it loses credibility. The coaches propose that if a coach provides dosage-positive feedback, it will stimulate the coachee’s/executive’s willingness to change behavior.

6.1.2 Reinforcement of functional behavior

According to the interviewed coaches, reinforcement of functional behavior is a phase beyond the encouragement of functional behavior. Reinforcement of behavior is described as trying to embed the changed behavior by providing positive feedback. Coaches suggest that positive feedback reinforces the displayed functional behavior. Coach 19 summarized: ’I think a coachee/executive will learn best from a positive approach of feedback’, consequently the coachee’s/executive’s self-confidence will increase, because of the confirmation of functional behavior.

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Figure 6.2: Conditions for the effectiveness of the mechanism: Reinforcement of functional behavior

High self-confidence of coachee Taking responsibility by coachee

Positivity-dosage Providing specific feedback Showing progress of coachee

Reinforcement of functional behavior

Firstly, high self-confidence of the coachee/executive refers to the belief in own abilities. According to the coaches self-confidence establishes energy, happiness, joy, and so allows the coachee/executive to continue his reinforcement of functional behavior. In addition, Coach 9 states: "as a coach I believe that people learn from positive impulses. People develop self-confidence, grow and learn to recognize their own behavior and thereby reinforce changed behavior."

Secondly, taking responsibility by the coachee/executive includes; taking ownership of the outcomes of the coaching process whilst giving incite into changing their own behavior. A lack of responsibility shows a lack of ownership, resulting in a postponed or delayed reinforced behavioral change.

6.1.2.2 Practice-related conditions

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im-provement. In addition, it could result in the stagnation of reinforcement of functional behavior. The coachee/executive could believe that he has sufficiently changed behavior. Secondly, several coaches mention the importance of providing specific feedback (Described in section 6.1.1.2). A lack of specific feedback shows a lack of recognition, resulting in a postponed or delayed reinforced behavioral change.

Lastly, showing progress of coachee could be described as a coaching method, which is important to show improvement in behavioral change. The coaches suggest that showing progress ensures an increase of motivation to work on the reinforcement of functional behavior. Coach 10 proposes: "In case of positive feedback, I often show progress". This method clearly indicates where the coachee/executive stands. It describes where the coachee/executive wants to go, and what the steps are to increase from 6 to an 8.

6.1.3 Inducement of uncertainty

Several coaches mention inducement of uncertainty as a result of positive feedback. They imply that the inducement of uncertainty has an adverse impact on the changing behavior of the coachee/executive. For instance, coach 2 proposes: ’Sometimes I won’t see the progression in behavior’. Furthermore, coach 4 suggests: ’the coachee/executive doesn’t react at all to the provided positive feedback’. The absence of a reaction is based on the inducement of uncertainty. In addition coach 10 states: ’I could imagine that the coachee/executive feels neglected through receiving positive feedback from the coach’. Since this creates awareness about the lack of positive feedback provided by the executive of the coachee/executive.

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Figure 6.3: Conditions for the effectiveness of the mechanism: Inducement of uncertainty

Low self-confidence of coachee Positivity dosage

Environment-related

Inducement of uncertainty

First of all, low self-confidence of the coachee is defined as: a low level of trust in their own capabilities and skills by the coachee/executive. Low self-confidence can result in a situation whereby the coachee/executive finds it difficult to receive a compliment. The level of confidence will further decrease when the coachee/executive realize the neglect of the executive in the workplace.

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6.2 To what extent and how does negative feedback

con-tribute to the change of behavior; what behavioral

mechanisms play an role and what conditions are

deci-sive for that role?

The results of the second sub question; three distinct mechanisms, each of them giving rise to a certain impact of the provided negative feedback on the behavior of coachees, turned up in the interviewees’ experiences, as told about in the interviews. A separate segment is devoted to each of them: the mechanism is explained, including the conditions that promote or endanger its effectiveness, and the underlying interview outcomes are presented.

6.2.1 Improved awareness of dysfunctional behavior

The first mechanism could be described as ’creating awareness of dysfunctional behavior’. Several coaches mention that an increase of awareness often results from providing negative feedback. For instance, coach 16 indicates the purpose of negative feedback as ’a tool to increase the awareness of a coachee/executive’. In addition coach 5 states: ’Negative feedback creates a high degree of understanding and a high-level of awareness. Coach 9 and coach 10 both argue that the coachee’s awareness is apparent through emotions, for example tears.

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Figure 6.4: Conditions for the effectiveness of the mechanism: Improved awareness of dysfunctional

behavior

Negative feedback

Recognizing own-behavior by coachee Presence of a climate of trust Taking responsibility by coachee

Highlighting dysfunctional behavior Providing specific feedback Showing independency Showing progress of coachee

Improved awareness of dysfunctional behavior

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Finally, taking responsibility by the coachee/executive (Defined in section 6.1.1.2) includes taking responsibility of the outcomes of the coaching and giving incite into changing behavior by the coachee/executive. A lack of taking responsibility shows a lack of ownership; therefore the initiated behavioral change could be delayed or postponed. Thereby coach 4 suggests: ’Effective coaching is impossible without ownership of the coachee/executive’. Furthermore, coach 4 states: ’If the coachee/executive does not take ownership of his/her coaching objective, this could result in a non-coachable situation’.

First of all, the coaches imply it’s important that the coach is able to highlight dysfunctional

behavior of the coachee/executive. The highlighting of dysfunctional behavior could be

described as the analysis given by a coach concerning the repetition of dysfunctional behavior over a period of time. By identifying patterns, the coach creates awareness of dysfunctional behavior allowing the coachee/executive to change behavior.

Secondly the coaches mention that specific feedback (Defined in section 6.1.1.2) aids in recognition and therefore raises awareness of dysfunctional behavior. Non-specific feedback will be dysfunctional, non-recognizable and therefore will not result in behavioral change. Coach 1 thereby endorses the importance of the specificity of feedback. The coach suggests: ’When the feedback isn’t specific, it is impossible to coach’.

Thirdly, showing independency could be described as keeping a certain distance to the coachee/executive and not becoming personally involved. Independency within coaching is utilized to protect the coachee/executive from not receiving completely objective feedback. Therefore coach 3 and 4 declare: ’Coaching is a neutral and independent role’. Finally, the coach can apply showing progress of the coachee. This method shows the progress in the behavioral change process of the coachee/executive. When the coachee/executives recognizes a visible behavioral change, this could have a motivating effect on the process of awareness and could result in a successful change.

6.2.2 Adjustment of dysfunctional behavior

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awareness that allow the coachee/executive to change dysfunctional behavior’. Further-more, coach 8 states that ’the coachee/executive shows awareness to continue his initiated behavioral change after receiving feedback’.

In order to create adjustment of dysfunctional behavior, several conditions promote or endanger it’s effectiveness. These conditions are summarized in figure 6.5. The section below figure 6.5 provides an explanation of these conditions.

Figure 6.5: Conditions for the effectiveness of the mechanism: Adjustment of dysfunctional behavior

Providing specific feedback Providing nonjudgmental feedback Showing independency

Adjustment of dysfunctional behavior

The presence of mutual respect The presence of a climate of trust Taking responsibility by coachee

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lacking within the coaching relationship, the coachee/executive will not adjust his/her dysfunctional behavior.

Finally, taking responsibility of the coachee (Defined in section 6.1.1.2) promotes the ad-justment of dysfunctional behavior. This refers to the full commitment and willingness of the coachee/executive to change behavior. Moreover the coachee/executive is responsible for the success of the own behavioral change.

First, the coaches indicate the importance of providing specific feedback (defined in section 6.1.1.2). A lack of specificity ensures that the incorrect and possible appropriate behavior remains. Therefore the realization that the dysfunctional behavior should be modified is lacking.

There is a possibility the coaches provides non-judgmental feedback this promotes the effectiveness of adjusting dysfunctional behavior. Coach 2 implies: ’One should constantly observe the actual behavior, not deviate from the observation’. The coachee/executive will become defensive and will be no longer mentally open to adjust his/her behavior. Finally, the coaches mentionshowing independency (described in section 6.2.1.2) as a condition of the adjustment of dysfunctional behavior. A lack of independency from the coach can result in the absence of objective feedback. As a result of this subjective feedback the coach is not able to adapt their behavior in an optimal way. Coach 4 suggests: ’When a coach portrays more independency a better course of the process is achieved’.

6.2.3 Discouragement of changing behavior

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Several conditions promote or endanger the effectiveness of discouragement of dysfunc-tional behavior. These conditions are summarized in figure 6.6. Figure 6.6 provides an explanation of these conditions.

Figure 6.6: Conditions for the effectiveness of the mechanism: Discouragement of changing behavior

Low self-esteem by Coachee Lack of a climate of trust Lack of a climate of safety

Providing judgmental feedback Negativity-over-dosage

Lack of feedback with a positive regard Providing delayed feedback

Providing lack of specific feedback

Discouragement of changing behavior

First of all, the coaches describe the low self-esteem of the coachee/executive as a determining factor. Low self-esteem refers to the low level of faith in their own abilities and qualities. When a lack of self-esteem exists, little confidence in the success of the own change exists. Therefore quitting the coaching session can occur.

Secondly, the lack of a climate of trust could be described as unable to keep the information from the coaching session private and safe. A lack of a climate of trust will result in the unwillingness of the coachee/executive to share any personal information. When a negative feeling about the level of confidence arises this could result in angry/aggressive behavior of the coachee/executive, therefore the discouragement to change behavior will increase.

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The coaches propose that a lack of safety creates discouragement of changing behavior, while the coachee/executive does not dare to show an open attitude towards behavioral change. A coachee/executive could clap, when the provided feedback is too harsh. Coach 2 suggests the importance of safety. Thus a coach shall provide less negative feedback at the start of the coaching, in order to avoid the discouragement of changing behavior.

First of all, according to the interviewees providing judgmental feedback influences the effectiveness of the discouragement. If feedback contains a judgment of value, the feedback reveals the values of the coach rather than the reality of what is observed. Even though every human possesses judgmental values, it is desirable to not display these values. When the coachee/executive experiences the judgment of negative feedback, the coachee/executive will become defensive, since it is not the task of the coach to decide whether something is right or wrong.

In addition a dosage can appear during coaching. This negativity-over-dosage appears when in a short period of time the coach generates too much negative feedback. An overload of negative feedback will result in discouragement to change behavior. The coachee/executive has the idea he cannot present the correct behavior. Thirdly, the coaches suggest that lack of feedback with positive regard refers to the process of inappropriate word choice when describing dysfunctional behavior of the coachee/executive. When the coach uses for example a negative phraseology, this could affect the mood of the coachee/executive into a negative mood. A negative approach for providing feedback could result in discouragement of coachee/executive.

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6.3 To what extent and how does multiple source feedback

contribute to the change of behavior; what behavioral

mechanisms play an role and what conditions are

deci-sive for that role?

The results of the third and final sub question; Two distinct mechanisms, each of them giving rise to a certain impact of the provided multiple source feedback on the behavior of coachees, arising from the interviewees’ experiences, as explained in the interviews. A separate subsection is devoted to each of them: the mechanism is explained, including the conditions that promote or endanger its effectiveness, and the underlying interview outcomes are presented.

6.3.1 Obtaining comprehensive understanding of behavior

The first mechanism of multiple source feedback could be described as obtaining

com-prehensive understanding of behavior. Several coaches mention the obtainment of a comprehensive understanding of behavior as a result of providing multi source feedback.

The quantity, diversity, hierarchy and objectivity give rise to a comprehensive understand-ing of the coachee’s/executive’s behavior. This comprehensive understandunderstand-ing provides the coachee/executive numerous insights, in order to change behavior.

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Figure 6.7: Conditions for the effectiveness of the mechanism: Obtaining comprehensive understanding

of behavior

Multiple Source Feedback

Amount of feedback providers Diversity of feedback providers Anonymity of feedback providers

Conditions

Obtaining comprehensive understanding of behavior

First of all the coaches’ mention that the amount of feedback providers promotes the possibility to obtain a comprehensive understanding of the coachee’s behavior. The amount of feedback providers could be best defined as the number of individuals from the coachee’s/executive’s environment, who provide feedback. A larger amount of people ensures a complete understanding of the coachee’s/executive’s behavior. Multi source feedback creates a comprehensive overview of multiple opinions given by various people in the environment of the coachee/executive. If the coachee/executive gathers feedback in his environment, it becomes apparent that more people experience the same behavior of the coachee/executive.

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dare to provide feedback. The coachee/executive notices an opportunity to adapt and improve dysfunctional behavior. Moreover coach 10 considers the diversity of feedback providers, stating: ’the colleagues, which you do not like, possess the most transparent information, whereby an objective view about the behavior of the coachee/executive emerges.

Finally, the coaches discuss the value of anonymity of the provided feedback. Anonymity of feedback providers could be best defined as the fact that the feedback is occasionally provided anonymous. According to the coaches this anonymity ensures the objectivity of the provided feedback, since the person providing feedback does not have to consider the social consequences of the provided feedback.

6.3.2 Becoming impressed

Becoming impressed by behavioral feedback is also widely spoken as a mechanism of multiple source feedback by several coaches. Several coaches conclude the response of a coachee/executive as a result of the judgment of the executive.

In order to become impressed, several conditions promote or endanger its effectiveness. These conditions are summarized in figure 6.8. The section below figure 6.8 provides an explanation.

Figure 6.8: Conditions for the effectiveness of the mechanism: Becoming impressed

Multiple Source Feedback

The level of hierarchy The quality of the relationship The level of confidence

Conditions

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First of all, according to the coaches the level of hierarchy between coachee/executive and coach influences the mechanism of becoming impressed. The level of hierarchy refers to the level of power an executive possesses in relation to the coachee/executive. Several coaches acknowledged the power an executive possess. The executive affects the future employment of the coachee/executive. In relation to this coach 2 mentioned: ’the coachee/executive outweighed the feedback of the executive because of the functional power the executive possesses’. Therefore it is interesting to note that if the coachee/executive collects feedback from his colleagues, the functional power is exactly reversed.

Secondly, the quality of the relationship between executive and coachee could result in becoming impressed. The quality of the relationship could be defined as the extent to which everything can be discussed within an executive-coachee/executive relationship. In relation to this Coach 5 states: ’Most coaches feel dependent on their executive, because they affect work and wages and therefore the income of the coachee/executive’. A proper relationship between coachee/executive and executive ensures openness between coachee/executive and his boss. This openness ensures an environment, where feedback can be openly provided, without any boundaries. In addition coach 12 states: ’if there is a troubled relationship between executive and coachee/executive, the feedback will have less impact’.

Finally, the presence of confidence is mentioned as important by the interviewed coaches. Confidence is necessary in order to discuss the behavior of the coachee/executive without restrictions.

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7. Discussion

As mentioned before, a number of scholars concluded only positive emotions arise from providing positive feedback. However, Deci et al. (1999) concluded that positive feedback could have negative emotions, depending on the manner in which the feedback is provided. The purpose of this paper was to discover and describe the manifestations of feedback, the behavioral mechanisms and the conditions that promote or endanger the mechanism’s effectiveness. Previous research indicates the behavioral mechanisms resulting from providing feedback remained ill-defined and unexplored. To gain deeper insight into the understanding of these mechanisms and conditions, the following research question was created: "What is the influence of feedback on behavioral change of executives during executive coaching?" This research was segmented into three sub questions.

7.1 Conclusion

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Table 7.1: Behavioral mechanisms for positive, negative and multiple source feedback including conditions

Improved awareness of dysfunctional behavioral patterns

Feedback Mechanisms

Negative feedback mechanisms Positive feedback mechanisms Multiple source feedback mechanisms

Environment-related conditions

Recognizing own-behavior by coachee

Practice-related conditions

Presence of a climate of trust

Taking responsibility by coachee

Highlighting dysfunctional behavioral patterns

Providing specific feedback

Showing independency

Showing progress of coachee

Adjustment of dysfunctional behavior Environment-related conditions

The presence of mutual respect

Presence of a climate of trust

Taking responsibility by coachee

Providing non-judgmental feedback

Showing independency

Discouragement of changing behavior Environment-related conditions Practice-related conditions

Low self-esteem by coachee Providing judgmental _feedback

Negativity-over-dosage

Lack of feedback with positive regard Lack of a climate of trust

Lack of a climate of safety

Providing delayed feedback

Providing non-specific feedback

Environment-related conditions

Openness for positivity

Practice-related conditions

Existence of mutual respect

Existence of a click

Providing honest feedback

Inclusion of explanation

Positivty-over-dosage

Encouragement of functional behavior Environment-related conditions

Openess for positive feedback by coachee

Presence of mutual respect

Perceiving chemistry

Providing truthful feedback

Environment-related conditions

Openness for positivity

Practice-related conditions

Existence of mutual respect

Existence of a click

Providing honest feedback

Inclusion of explanation

Reinforcement of functional behavior Environment-related conditions High self-confidence of coachee Practice-related conditions Taking responsibility by coachee Positivity-dosage

Showing progress of coachee

Openness for positivity Providing honest feedback

Inducement of uncertainty Environment-related conditions

Low self-confidence of coachee

Positivity-over-dosage

Obtaining comprehensive behavioral view

Amount of feedback providers Anonymity of feedback providers Diversity of feedback providers Becoming impressed

The level of hierachy The level of confidence

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Firstly, the results of positive feedback, for instance the behavioral mechanisms:

rein-forcement of functional behavior (Ryan and Deci, 2000) and encouragement of functional behavior (Carpentier and Mageau, 2013) confirm the previous findings in the theoretical

section.

The inducement of uncertainty receives little attention in the contemporary literature.

However, numerous coaches mentioned inducement of uncertainty as a result of positive feedback. They imply that the inducement of uncertainty has a adverse impact on the changing behavior of the coachee/executive. Researchers devote little attention to positive feedback, which causes negative emotions. This research indicates that positive feedback causes negative emotions, for instance the inducement of uncertainty. This uncertainty could be explained due to the contradiction of the coachee’s self-view with the provided feedback (Papousek et al., 2011). If the coachee/executive receives a lack of positive feedback, this implies the inadequateness of the coachee’s performance. When the coachee/executive suddenly receives a multiplicity of positive feedback this contradicts the self-view of the coachee/executive.

The conditions providing specific feedback (Brophy, 1981), and providing truthful feedback (Leung et al., 2001) also arose from this research. Some new environment related conditions and practices of the coach were discovered, by conducting this research. For instance, positivity-dosage, showing progress of the coachee/executive, perceiving chemistry and taking responsibility by the coachee/executive were discovered. According to Wang (2013)

taking responsibility by the coachee/executive is an essential characteristic of the coaching

process. Additionally, Wang (2013) propose that both the coachee/executive and the coach should take responsibility in the coaching process. Stern (2004) adds that it creates a positive effect on the process, when both the coachee/executive and the coach take responsibility for the coaching outcomes.

Secondly, the results of negative feedback, confirms what is revealed in the contemporary literature, for instance awareness of dysfunctional behavior (Steelman and Rutkowski, 2004) and discouragement of changing behavior (Kluger and Denisi, 1996). These findings are in line with the findings discussed in the literature section.

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of nonjudgmental feedback is especially important while providing negative feedback. Finally the results from multiple source feedback did not add any new insights to the contemporary literature. The behavioral mechanisms, for instance obtaining a

comprehensive behavioral understanding of behavior and becoming impressed (Yammarino

and Atwater, 1993) are consistent with the findings in the theoretical section.

This study created an overview of behavioral mechanisms and conditions that promotes or endanger the behavioral mechanism’s effectiveness. This overview is a huge contribution to the contemporary literature.

The interviewed coaches propose that feedback is one of the most important interventions of coaching, the key to change. Positive feedback, negative feedback and multi source feedback are indispensable while applying feedback. Considering the results, the coach has a great influence on the results of the feedback due to his skills and practices. In conclusion, if the proper conditions are created, feedback will have an great influence on the changing behavior of the coachee/executive and is therefore indispensable as a method within coaching.

7.2 Limitations

The research’s conclusions should be made with precaution, due to the limitations of this research. Firstly, the interview sample contained a small number of interviewees. Only seventeen coaches participated in this research, which makes it difficult to generalize the interview outcomes.

Secondly, the interviews are conducted with only Dutch coaches; therefore the results only apply to the Netherlands. Moreover, the coaches are all member of the ST!R and must comply with the same requirements to become a member of this coaching organization, which can cause an overall bias. In the future it might be wise to collect the interviewees from various coaching organizations.

Furthermore, a few coaches posses a limited experience (less than two years). Although the mix of experiences increases the generalizability of this research, the results could be influenced by the limited experiences of some coaches.

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7.3 Future research

Despite the many mechanisms and conditions derived from this research, there remain numerous opportunities for research.

Firstly, future research can be conducted to the outcomes of this study. The experiences of the coaches were primarily researched. Future research can be conducted from the coachee’s perspective instead of the coach’s perspective. Adding the perspective of the coachee to this research creates a multi perspective view. As a result, both the experiences of the coachee/executive and the coach will be discussed.

Secondly, research can be conducted on the mechanism: inducement of uncertainty. Only a few conditions were discovered, therefore more research should be conducted in order to discover more conditions. Moreover, a number of scholars concluded that only positive emotions arise from providing positive feedback, therefore this ’negative emotions’ should receive more attention for research.

Furthermore, research revealed a limited number of personal traits influencing the changing behavior of the coachee/executive. Future research should focus on the influence of personal traits on the behavioral mechanisms derived from this research.

Finally, future research should examine the generalizability of the results in other coun-tries. For example Earley and Stubblebine (1989) concluded a difference in reactions of feedback between employees from the United States of America and the United Kingdom. Future research could study the affect of the cultural variables (power distance, individu-alism/collectivism) on the coaching process between coach and coachee. Several aspects could be examined. For instance, when an organization consists a high power distance culture, the bosses and subordinates conunt themselves unequally. This inequality could have a negative effect on the receiving and processing of negative feedback. Ashford (1993) argues the cultural differences of employees could be an interesting direction for

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Experiences of coaches with behavioral mechanisms conducive to feedback eﬀectiveness