Reverse Discrimination in the European Union

REVERSE DISCRIMINATION IN THE EUROPEAN UNION

Discriminatierecht in theorie en praktijk / Discrimination law in theory and practice

Editors

Stefan Sottiaux en Jogchum Vrielink

REVERSE DISCRIMINATION IN THE EUROPEAN UNION

A Recurring Balancing Act

Valérie Verbist

Cambridge – Antwerp – Portland

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Reverse Discrimination in the European Union. A Recurring Balancing Act

© Valérie Verbist 2017

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Intersentia v

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Th is book arises out of my PhD thesis written at the KU Leuven. It would not have been possible without the support of many people. First, I would like to thank my PhD supervisor and co-supervisors, Professor Dr Marie-Claire Foblets, Professor Dr Piet Van Nuff el and Professor Dr Geert De Baere, for their suggestions, debate and discussion. I am also very grateful to Emeritus Professor Ren é Foqu é and my colleagues at the KU Leuven for their support and intellectual stimulation. Moreover, I owe gratitude to FWO for granting me a scholarship which made it possible to carry out research. I would also like to thank Pascale Van Houtte, publisher at Intersentia, for her invaluable cooperation in steering this book to publication. Finally, I would like to express my heartfelt thanks to my friends and family for their ever-present support.

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CONTENTS

Acknowledgements . . . v

Table of Cases of the European Court of Justice . . . xvii

Chapter 1. Introduction . . . 1

1. Problem Defi nition: Discrimination and Reverse Discrimination . . . 1

1.1. Equality and Non-Discrimination . . . 1

1.2. Reverse Discrimination . . . 3

1.2.1. Th e Concept of Reverse Discrimination . . . 3

1.2.1.1. Unexpected Group is Discriminated Against . . . 3

1.2.1.2. Th e Origins of Reverse Discrimination . . . 4

1.2.1.3. Purely Internal Situations versus Situations with a Connection with Union Law . . . 5

1.2.1.4. Examples of Reverse Discrimination . . . 6

1.2.2. Terminology . . . 8

1.2.2.1. Reverse Discrimination and Positive Action . . . 9

1.2.2.2. Renaming Reverse Discrimination? . . . 10

2. Research Aim . . . 10

2.1. Research Questions . . . 10

2.2. Delineating the Scope of Research . . . 11

2.3. Added Value to Previous Literature . . . 12

3. Methodology . . . 13

4. Structure . . . 15

4.1. Reverse Discrimination from a Union Law Perspective (Part I) . . . 15

4.2. Reverse Discrimination from a Variety of National Perspectives (Part II) . . . 16

4.3. Reverse Discrimination in a Federal State Context (Part III) . . . 16

PART I. REVERSE DISCRIMINATION FROM A UNION PERSPECTIVE Chapter 2. Th e European Court of Justice’s Approach to Reverse Discrimination . . . 21

1. ECJ’s Traditional Approach: Reverse Discrimination is Not Prohibited by Union Law . . . 21

1.1. Th e Early Case Law on Purely Internal Situations . . . 21

1.1.1. Th e Notion of a ‘Purely Internal Situation’ . . . 21

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1.1.2. Defi nition of a ‘Purely Internal Situation’ . . . 22 1.1.3. Justifi cation Put Forward by the ECJ for the Purely

Internal Situation Rule . . . 23 1.2. Reverse Discrimination is not Prohibited by Union Law . . . 25

1.2.1. Purely Internal Situations Outside the Scope of Union Law – Reverse Discrimination Not Prohibited

by Union Law . . . 25 1.2.2. Reverse Discrimination Should be Addressed

at the National Level . . . 27 1.2.3. Confi rmation of the ECJ’s Traditional Approach

on Reverse Discrimination Following the

Introduction of Union Citizenship . . . 28 2. Proposals to Address Reverse Discrimination at Union Level . . . 30 2.1. In the Light of the Common and Internal Market. . . 30 2.2. In the Light of Freedom of Movement for Persons and Union

Citizenship . . . 32 2.2.1. In the Light of Union Citizenship and EU Fundamental

Rights Protection . . . 32 2.2.2. Reverse Discrimination Incompatible with the Union

Principle of Equality . . . 33 3. Th e ECJ’s Traditional Approach Towards Reverse Discrimination

Remains Valid . . . 38 3.1. Reverse Discrimination as a Side Eff ect of the Limited Scope

of Application of Union Law. . . 39 3.2. A General Prohibition on Reverse Discrimination at the Union

Level is Unnecessary and Undesirable . . . 43 3.3. Interpretation of the Purely Internal Situation Rule . . . 46

Chapter 3. Applicability and Interpretation of the Purely Internal

Situation Doctrine . . . 47

1. Applicablity of the Purely Internal Situation Doctrine . . . 48 1.1. Th e Purely Internal Situation Doctrine is Applicable to Treaty

Provisions on Free Movement and Citizenship . . . 48 1.2. Refi nements of, and Exceptions to, the Purely Internal Situation

Doctrine . . . 48 1.2.1. Harmonisation of National Laws: No Need for

the Purely Internal Situation Doctrine . . . 49 1.2.1.1. No Application of the Purely Internal Situation

Doctrine in the Case of Harmonisation

of National Laws . . . 49

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Contents

1.2.1.2. Not all Forms of Harmonisation Exclude Application of the Purely Internal Situation Doctrine: Minimum Harmonisation

with a Market Access Clause . . . 51 1.2.2. Internal Tariff Barriers: An Exception to the Purely

Internal Situation Rule . . . 53 1.2.2.1. An Overview of the ECJ’s Case Law

on Internal Tariff Barriers. . . 53 1.2.2.2. Divergent Opinions on the ECJ’s Cases

on Internal Tariff Barriers. . . 56 1.2.3. Guimont Line of Cases: Indirect Exceptions

to the Purely Internal Situation Rule via

Article 267 TFEU . . . 60 1.2.3.1. Dzodzi and Guimont Line of Cases . . . 60 1.2.3.2. Criticising the Justifi cations Put Forward

in the Dzodzi and Guimont Line of Cases . . . 63 1.2.3.3. ECJ Puts ‘Limited’ Limits on the Guimont

Line of Cases . . . 65 2. Th e Purely Internal Situation versus Suffi cient Connection

with Union Law . . . 68 2.1. Traditional Interpretation of Suffi cient Link with Union Law:

Cross-Border Element as Actual Movement between

Member States . . . 69 2.1.1. Treaty Provisions on the Freedom of Movement . . . 69

2.1.1.1. Treaty Provisions on Freedom of Movement:

Cross-Border Element and Economic

Activity . . . 69 2.1.1.2. Having Exercised His or Her Right of Free

Movement . . . 70 2.1.2. Treaty Provisions on Union Citizenship . . . 71

2.1.2.1. Treaty Provisions on Union Citizenship:

Cross-Border Element . . . 71 2.1.2.2. Justifi cations for the ECJ’s Application of the

Purely Internal Situation Doctrine to the

Treaty Provisions on Union Citizenship. . . 75 2.2. Ever More Generous Interpretation of a Suffi cient Connection

with Union Law by the ECJ? . . . 79 2.2.1. As a Preliminary Remark: Criteria of Evaluation . . . 80 2.2.2. Precise Indications on How Much Movement

and (Re)introduction of Causal Link . . . 81 2.2.2.1. Suffi cient Connection with Union Law:

How Much ‘Movement’ is Necessary? . . . 82

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2.2.2.2. Causal Link Between the Exercise of Free Movement and the Right Protected

by Union Law . . . 84 2.2.3. Th e ECJ’s Restrictions Approach . . . 86

2.2.3.1. Dassonville Case Law in the Area of Free

Movement of Goods . . . 86 2.2.3.2. Extension of Restrictions Approach to Free

Movement of Workers, Services and

Establishment and to Union Citizenship . . . 88 2.2.3.3. Risks Implied in the Restrictions Approach –

Confi ning the Concept of Restriction . . . 93 2.2.4. Stretching the Notion of Movement . . . 99

2.2.4.1. ‘Returning Citizens’: Moving Back to Home Member State aft er Residing and Working

in Another Member State . . . 100 2.2.4.2. Residing in Another Member State . . . 106 2.2.4.3. Exercise of Free Movement without

Moving Residence . . . 114 2.2.4.4. Abuse of Union Law: A Stricter Notion

of Movement and Real Causal Link . . . 124 2.2.5. Reducing the Importance of Movement in the Light

of Union Citizenship . . . 128 2.2.5.1. External Element Other than Movement

between Member States: Nationality of One Member State and Resident

in Another Member State . . . 128 2.2.5.2. Intrinsic Connection with Union Law

Introduced in Rottmann and Ruiz Zambrano . . . . 135 2.2.5.3. In the Aft ermath of Ruiz Zambrano . . . 138 2.2.5.4. Th e Clear Impact of Union Citizenship on the

Connection Required with Union Law –

Recent Limits . . . 153

Conclusion Part I . . . 157

1. Reverse Discrimination as a Side Eff ect of the Scope of Application

of Union Law . . . 157 2. Th e ECJ’s Interpretation of a Purely Internal Situation . . . 158 3. Distinguishing Problematic and Unproblematic Cases of Reverse

Discrimination – Redefi ning the Scope of Application of Union Law . . . . 160 3.1. Proposals in Literature Distinguishing Problematic Cases

from Unproblematic Cases of Reverse Discrimination . . . 160

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3.2. Redefi ning the Scope of Application of the Treaty Provisions

on Free Movement and Citizenship . . . 164

3.3. Working Hypothesis Based on Compensation/Overcompensation by Union Law . . . 166

3.3.1. Th e Distinction between Compensation and Overcompensation by Union Law . . . 166

3.3.2. Interpretation of ‘(Over)Compensation’ and ‘Disadvantage Resulting from Exercise of Free Movement’ . . . 168

3.3.3. Illustration: Reverse Discrimination in the Area of Family Reunifi cation . . . 170

3.3.3.1. Family Reunifi cation Directive 2003/86 and Citizenship Directive 2004/38 . . . 170

3.3.3.2. Th e Evolution from Compensation to Overcompensation by Union Law in the Area of Family Reunifi cation . . . 171

PART II. REVERSE DISCRIMINATION FROM NATIONAL PERSPECTIVES Chapter 4. Reverse Discrimination with Respect to Goods . . . 183

1. Assessment by National Courts of Reverse Discrimination with Respect to Goods . . . 184

1.1. Th e French Council of State on Ethyl Alcohol . . . 184

1.2. Th e French Court of Cassation on Emmenthal . . . 186

1.3. Th e German Federal Administrative Court on the Purity Requirement for Beer . . . 188

1.4. Th e Italian Constitutional Court on Dried Pasta . . . 191

2. Reverse Discrimination of Goods: Rare Cases? . . . 194

Chapter 5. Reverse Discrimination of Persons . . . 197

1. Classic Economic Free Movement Rights of Persons . . . 197

1.1. Professional Qualifi cations . . . 198

1.1.1. Th e Austrian Constitutional Court on the Exemption from Proof of Qualifi cation on the Basis of Previous Professional Activity in Another EEA Member State . . . 198

1.1.2. Th e French Council of State on Tourist Guides and Architects . . . 200

1.1.2.1. Th e French Council of State on Proof of Good Behaviour for Tourist Guides . . . 200

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1.1.2.2. Th e French Council of State on the Restoration of Classifi ed Historic Monuments by a Specifi c Type of Architect . . . 202 1.1.2.3. Th e French Council of State on Attestation of

Professional Qualifi cations for Tourist Guides . . . . 205 1.1.3. Th e German Federal Constitutional Court on Skilled

Trades Order . . . 206 1.1.4. Intermezzo: Compensation by Union Law: Assessment

of a Purely Internal Situation in the Light of National

Law, but Union Rules May be Inspiration . . . 211 1.2. Acquiring Immovable Property: Th e Austrian Constitutional

Court . . . 214 1.3. Employment Conditions . . . 216

1.3.1. Wage-Setting Mechanisms: Changing Approach

of the French Court of Cassation’s Social Chamber . . . 216 1.3.2. Duration of Contracts: Extensive Interpretation of Link

with Union Law by the Italian Constitutional Court . . . 219 2. Family Reunifi cation with a Union Citizen . . . 223 2.1. Introduction . . . 223 2.2. Family Reunifi cation: An Emotive and Politically Sensitive

Subject . . . 224 2.3. Incomparable Situations According to French and German

Courts . . . 225 2.3.1. Th e French Council of State on Family Reunifi cation. . . 225 2.3.2. German Administrative Courts on Family Reunifi cation . . . .226 2.3.2.1. Administrative Appeal Court of Hesse 2006 . . . 226 2.3.2.2. German Federal Administrative Court 2011 . . . 228 2.3.2.3. Division of Competences Precedes

Assessment in the Light of the Principle

of Equality . . . 230 2.4. A Change of Approach in Austria and Belgium . . . 231

2.4.1. Developments in Austrian Legislation on Family

Reunifi cation . . . 231 2.4.1.1. Austrian Constitutional Court in 1997:

Diff erence in Treatment is Discriminatory . . . 231 2.4.1.2. Austrian Constitutional Court in 2009:

Autonomy of National Legislator to Treat

Purely Internal Situations Diff erently . . . 232 2.4.2. Developments in Belgian Legislation on Family

Reunifi cation . . . 234 2.4.2.1. Autonomous Legislative Alignment

in the Area of Family Reunifi cation . . . 234

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Contents

2.4.2.2. Intermezzo: Problems Concerning the Scope and Interpretation of Autonomously Aligned

Legislation. . . 236

2.4.2.3. Introduction of Reverse Discrimination in the Field of Family Reunifi cation in 2011 . . . 237

2.4.2.4. Th e Judgments of the Belgian Constitutional Court of 26 September 2013 . . . 239

2.4.2.5. Th e Constitutional Court’s Judgments of 26 September 2013: Analysis . . . 241

2.5. Th e Unique Italian Position: From a Prohibition on Reverse Discrimination in the Area of Family Reunifi cation to a General Prohibition on Reverse Discrimination . . . 251

2.5.1. Th e Italian Council of State Regarding Family Reunifi cation . . . 251

2.5.2. Th e Italian Legislator: Autonomous Alignment . . . 252

2.5.2.1. Legislative Autonomous Alignment in Family Reunifi cation . . . 252

2.5.2.2. General Legislative Autonomous Alignment . . . 253

2.5.2.3. Extensive Implications of General Legislative Autonomous Alignment . . . 254

Conclusion Part II . . . 257

1. Conclusion by Area? . . . 257

2. Application of the Working Hypothesis to the National Level . . . 258

2.1. Interpretation of Compensation and Overcompensation at National Level . . . 258

2.2. National Assessment in Cases of Compensation by Union Law . . . . 258

2.3. National Assessment in Cases of Overcompensation by Union Law . . . 259

3. Evaluation of the Application of the Working Hypothesis to the National Level. . . 260

3.1. Putting of Compensation and Overcompensation in Practice at National Level . . . 260

3.2. Alternatives to the Application of the Working Hypothesis at National Level . . . 262

4. Some Final Th oughts on Addressing Reverse Discrimination at the National Level . . . 264

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PART III. REVERSE DISCRIMINATION IN A FEDERAL STATE CONTEXT

Chapter 6. Union Perspective on Reverse Discrimination in a Federal

State Context . . . 267

1. Th e Status of Regions from a Union Perspective . . . 267

1.1. Th e ECJ’s Case Law on the Internal Division of Competences within a Member State . . . 267

1.1.1. Th e Autonomy of the Member States in the Allocation of Internal Powers . . . 267

1.1.2. Th e ECJ Does Not Accept Hiding behind Domestic Rules on State Structure . . . 268

1.2. Th e Status of Regions in the Treaties . . . 270

2. ECJ’s Case Law on Reverse Discrimination in a Federal State Context . . . 272

2.1. Flemish Care Insurance Case: Specifi c Situation of Reverse Discrimination as a Direct Consequence of the Flemish Decree . . . . 273

2.1.1. Th e ECJ’s Flemish Care Insurance Judgment . . . 275

2.1.2. Analysis of the ECJ’s Flemish Care Insurance Judgment . . . 276

2.2. Specifi c Situation of Reverse Discrimination as a Possible Consequence of the ECJ’s Las and Libert Judgments . . . 280

2.2.1. Las Case Regarding the Flemish Decree on Use of Languages . . . 280

2.2.1.1. ECJ’s Las Judgment . . . 280

2.2.1.2. Analysis of the ECJ’s Las Judgment . . . 282

2.2.2. Libert Case Regarding the Flemish Decree on ‘Living in Your Own Region’ . . . 283

2.2.2.1. ECJ’s Libert Judgment . . . 283

2.2.2.2. Analysis of the ECJ’s Libert Judgment . . . 286

2.3. ECJ’s Case Law on Specifi c Situations of Reverse Discrimination: Two Concluding Observations . . . 287

3. Recognition of the Autonomy of Regional Authorities by the ECJ in the Context of State Aid . . . 288

3.1. ECJ’s Judgments on State Aid Recognise the Autonomy of Infra-State Bodies . . . 288

3.1.1. ECJ’s Azores Judgment . . . 288

3.1.2. ECJ’s Trabajadores de la Rioja Judgment . . . 291

3.1.3. General Court’s Gibraltar v Commission judgment . . . 292

3.1.4. A Balancing Act in Cases on State Aid Involving Regional Authorities . . . 293

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3.2. Does the ECJ Recognise the Autonomy of Regional

Authorities in Other Areas as Well? . . . 294 3.2.1. Recognition of Regional Authorities

for Implementation of Union Law: Horvath . . . 294 3.2.2. Recognition of Regional Authorities in the

Assessment of Restrictions to Free Movement? . . . 297 3.2.2.1. AG Sharpston’s Proposal in the Flemish Care

Insurance Case . . . 297 3.2.2.2. Possibility of Preventing Specifi c Situations

of Reverse Discrimination at Union Level . . . 298

Chapter 7. National Perspectives on Reverse Discrimination

in a Federal State Context . . . 303

1. National Rules on the Internal Division of Competences . . . 304 1.1. Th e Belgian Constitutional Court’s Judgment on the Flemish

Care Insurance . . . 304 1.2. Analysis of the Belgian Constitutional Court’s Judgment

on the Basis of the Internal Rules on Division of Competences . . . . 306 2. Internal Free Movement . . . 309

2.1. Belgian Constitutional Court on the Belgian Economic

and Monetary Union . . . 311 2.1.1. Belgian Constitutional Court’s Flemish Care

Insurance Judgment . . . 311 2.1.2. Belgian Constitutional Court on Inheritance Tax . . . 313 2.2. Belgian Council of State on the Belgian Economic

and Monetary Union . . . 315 2.2.1. Inheritance Tax for Legacies in Favour of the Bilingual

Brussels-Capital Region . . . 316 2.2.2. Flemish Integration Policy . . . 317 2.2.3. Amendment of Decree on Use of Languages

aft er the ECJ’s Las Judgment . . . 319 2.2.3.1. Council of State’s Opinion on Amendment

of Decree on Use of Languages . . . 319 2.2.3.2. Comparison with the Belgian Constitutional

Court’s Judgment on Family Reunifi cation . . . 322 2.2.4. Freedom of Movement within the EU and Internal

Free Movement Not Necessarily Convergent

According to Belgian Case Law . . . 324 3. Th e Principle of Equality as Enshrined in National Law . . . 325 3.1. Belgian Constitutional Court . . . 325

3.1.1. Flemish Care Insurance Judgment: No Assessment

in the Light of Articles 10 and 11 Belgian Constitution . . . . 325

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3.1.2. Belgian Constitutional Court Prevents Specifi c Reverse

Discrimination in Land and Real Estate Policy . . . 328

3.2. German Federal Constitutional Court on University Tuition Fees . . . 329

Conclusion Part III . . . 333

1. Specifi c Situations of Reverse Discrimination from the Union Perspective . . . 333

2. Specifi c Situations of Reverse Discrimination from National Perspectives . . . 334

Chapter 8. Conclusion . . . 337

1. Reverse Discrimination as a Side Eff ect of the Scope of Application of Union Law . . . 337

1.1. Situations of Reverse Discrimination Fall within the Scope of Application of National Law . . . 337

1.2. Th e ECJ’s Interpretation of a Purely Internal Situation . . . 338

2. Diverging National Perspectives on Reverse Discrimination . . . 340

3. Distinguishing Problematic and Unproblematic Cases of Reverse Discrimination . . . 341

3.1. Redefi ning the Scope of Application of the Treaty Provisions on Free Movement and Citizenship . . . 341

3.2. Working Hypothesis Based on the Concept of (Over)Compensation by Union Law . . . 343

3.2.1. Th e Distinction Between Compensation and Overcompensation by Union Law . . . 343

3.2.2. Interpretation of ‘(Over)Compensation’ and ‘Disadvantage Resulting from Exercise of Free Movement’ . . . 344

3.2.3. Reverse Discrimination in Case of Mere Compensation by Union Law . . . 345

3.2.4. Reverse Discrimination in Case of Overcompensation by Union Law . . . 346

3.2.4.1. A Solution at Union Level . . . 346

3.2.4.2. A Solution at National Level . . . 348

Bibliography . . . 351

Intersentia xvii

TABLE OF CASES OF THE EUROPEAN COURT OF JUSTICE

References are to paragraph numbers.

Airport Shuttle Express , ECJ joined cases C-162/12 and C-163/12 [2014] . . . 150 – 151 Akrich , ECJ case C-109/01 [2003] ECR I-9607 . . . 12 , 228 , 232 , 234 , 278 , 279 , 284 , 748

Alevizos v Ypourgos Oikonomikon , ECJ case C-392/05 [2007] ECR I-3505 . . . 466

Allu é and Coonan , ECJ joined cases C-259/91, C-331/91 and C-332/91 [1993] ECR I-4309 . . . 504 – 506 , 509 , 511 , 747 Alokpa , ECJ case C-86/12 [2013] . . . 310 , 346– 348 , 352 Alpine Investments , ECJ case C-384/93 [1995] ECR I-1141 . . . 198 , 209 , 211 , 259 Angonese , ECJ case C-281/98 [2000] ECR I-4139 . . . 140 , 270 , 272– 274 , 693 Anker e.a. v Germany , ECJ case C-47/02 [2003] ECR I-10447 . . . 466

Anomar , ECJ case C-6/01 [2003] ECR I-8621 . . . 141

Attanasio , ECJ case C-384/08 [2010] ECR I-2055 . . . 141

Aubertin e.a. , ECJ joined cases C-29 to C-35/94 [1995] ECR I-301 . . . 111 , 396 Azores , ECJ case C-88/03 [2006] ECR I-7115 . . . 671 – 675 , 677 , 679 – 681 , 685 – 686 , 690 BAA , ECJ case C-98/01 [2003] ECR I-4641. . . . 207

Bartsch , ECJ case C-427/06 [2008] ECR I-7245 . . . 3 , 6 , 371 Baumbast , ECJ case C-413/99 [2002] ECR I-7091 . . . 88 , 163– 165 , 514 Bickel and Franz , ECJ case C-274/96 [1998] ECR I-7637 . . . 267 – 269 , 272 Blanco P é rez , ECJ joined cases C-570/07 and C-571/07 [2010] ECR I-4629 . . . 141

Bogendorff von Wolff ersdorff , ECJ case C-438/14 [2016] . . . 280 , 296– 298 , 378 Bond , ECJ case 352/85 [1988] ECR 2085 . . . 259

Bosman , ECJ case C-415/93 [1995] ECR I-4921 . . . 199 , 202 , 205 , 209 Boukhalfa , ECJ case C-214/94 [1996] ECR I-2253 . . . 82 , 499 Caixa Bank , ECJ case C-442/02 [2004] ECR 15 . . . 100 , 208 – 211 , 218 , 408 , 646 , 716 , 779 Carbonati Apuani , ECJ case C-72/03 [2004] ECR I-8027 . . . 82 , 119 , 122– 123 , 126 , 129 , 131 – 133 , 136 , 307 , 372 , 377 , 499 , 606 Carpenter , ECJ case C-60/00 [2002] ECR I-6279 . . . 79 , 86 , 89 , 188 , 207 , 257 , 261 – 265 , 292 , 386 , 395 , 511 , 589 , 593 Centro Europa , ECJ case C-380/05 [2008] ECR I-349 . . . 141

Centros , ECJ case C-212/97 [1999] ECR I-1459 . . . 293 , 735 , 736 Chatzi , ECJ case C-149/10 [2010] ECR I-8489 . . . 6

Cipolla e.a. , ECJ joined cases C-94/04 and C-202/04 [2006] ECR I-11421 . . . 145

Collins , ECJ case C-138/02 [2004] ECR I-2703 . . . 254

Commission v Austria , ECJ case C-102/06 [2006] . . . 625

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Commission v Belgium , ECJ case 149/79 [1982] ECR 1845 . . . 466

Commission v Belgium , ECJ case C-323/96 [1998] ECR I-5063 . . . 625

Commission v Belgium , ECJ case C-47/08 [2011] ECR I-4105 . . . 466

Commission v France , ECJ case C-50/08 [2011] ECR I-4195 . . . 466

Commission v Germany , ECJ case 178/84 [1987] ECR 1227 . . . 430– 434 , 444 Commission v Gibraltar , ECJ joined cases C-106/09 P and C-107/09 P [2011] . . . 682

Commission v Italy , ECJ case C-33/90 [1991] ECR I-5987 . . . 625

Commission v Italy , ECJ case C-388/01 [2003] ECR I-721 . . . 625

Commission v Italy , ECJ case C-87/02 [2004] ECR I-5975 . . . 624– 625 Commission v Netherlands , ECJ case 96/81 [1982] ECR I-1791 . . . 624

Commission v Spain , ECJ case C-157/03, [2005] ECR I-2911 . . . 12 , 232 Commission v Spain , ECJ case C-610/10 [2012] . . . 625

Corsica Ferries , ECJ case C-49/89 [1989] ECR 4441 . . . 207

Cowan , ECJ case 186/87 [1989] ECR 195 . . . 267 – 269 , 272 , 625 Crono Service , ECJ joined cases C-419/12 and C-420/12 [2014] . . . 150 – 151 CWF , ECJ case C-1/96 [1998] ECR I-1251 . . . 117

D ’ Hoop , ECJ case C-224/98 [2002] ECR I-6191 . . . 203

Dano , ECJ case C-333/13 [2014]. . . . 278 , 352 , 747 Dassonville , ECJ case 8/74 [1974] ECR I-837 . . . 177 , 192 , 194 – 198 , 206 , 286 , 443 De Agostini , ECJ joined cases C-34/95 to C-36/95 [1997] ECR I-3843 . . . 259

De Coster , ECJ case C-17/00 [2001] ECR I-9445 . . . 100 , 606 , 646 Debauve , ECJ case 52/79 [1980] ECR 833 . . . 70 , 107 Defrenne III , ECJ case 194/77 [1987] ECR 1365 . . . 6

Defrenne , ECJ case 43/75 [1976] ECR 455 . . . 15

Deli è ge , ECJ joined cases C-51/96 and C-191/97 [2000] ECR I-2549 . . . 174 , 269 , 705 Demirkan , ECJ case C-221/11 [2013] . . . 275 , 713 Dereci , ECJ case C-256/11 [2011] ECR I-11315 . . . 13 , 70 , 106 – 107 , 284 , 319 – 322 , 325 , 328 , 335 – 336 , 345 , 351 – 352 , 361 , 525 , 533 – 534 , 771 Dim-dip lighting , ECJ case 60/86 [1988] ECR I-3921 . . . 115 , 378 Drei Glocken , ECJ case 407/85 [1988] ECR 4233 . . . 11 , 371 Driancourt v Cognet , ECJ case 355/85 [1986] ECR 3231 . . . 70 , 110 , 173 , 500 Dzodzi , ECJ joined cases C-297/88 and C-197/89 [1990] ECR I-3763 . . . 45 , 108 , 137 – 138 , 142– 146 , 299 , 533 Edah , ECJ joined cases 80/85 and 159/85 [1986] ECR 3375 . . . 74 , 101 , 606 , 646 , 716 Eind , ECJ case C-291/05 [2007] ECR I-10719 . . . 230– 231 , 245 – 246 , 254 , 526 , 565 Eman and Sevinger , ECJ case C-300/04 [2006] ECR I-8055 . . . 185 , 611 , 482 ETI , ECJ case C-280/06 [2007] ECR I-10893 . . . 138 , 533 Federconsorzi , ECJ case C-88/91 [1992] ECR I-4035 . . . 137 , 143 , 299 Flemish Care Insurance , ECJ case C-212/06 [2008] ECR I-1683 . . . 62 , 87 – 88 , 119 , 134 , 136 , 169 , 185 , 254 , 299 , 564 , 619 , 625 , 634 , 637 – 649 , 663 , 667 , 669 , 683 , 689 – 694 , 700 , 703 , 705 , 708 – 709 , 715 , 740 – 741 , 746 , 748 , 753 , 755 , 759 – 761 Foglia II , ECJ case 244/80 [1981] ECR 3045 . . . 145

Franz é n , ECJ case C-189/95 [1997] ECR I-5909 . . . 100 , 371 , 646 , 716 Freskot , ECJ case C-355/00 [2003] ECR I-5263 . . . 259

Futura Participations , ECJ case C-250/94 [1995] ECR I-4821 . . . 209

Intersentia xix

Table of Cases of the European Court of Justice

Gallaher , ECJ case C-11/92 [1993] ECR I-3545 . . . 116 – 117 Garcia Avello , ECJ case C-148/02 [2003] ECR I-11613 . . . 10 , 69 , 87 , 101 , 134 , 169 , 185 , 287 – 292 , 295 , 297 , 299 , 301 , 314 , 706 Gauchard , ECJ case 20/87 [1987] ECR 4879 . . . 70 , 107 , 284 Gebhard , ECJ case C-55/94 [1995 ] ECR I-4165 . . . 199 , 205 , 209 Germany v Commission , ECJ case C-8/88 [1990] ECR I-2321 . . . 624 Geurts and Vogten , ECJ case 464/05 [2007] ECR I-9325 . . . 718 – 720 Gibraltar v Commission , EGC joined cases T-211/04 and T-215/04

[2008] ECR II-3745 . . . . . 681 Gourmet Classic , ECJ case C-458/06 [2008] ECR I-4207 . . . 138 , 145 , 533 Gourmet International , ECJ case C-405/98 [2001] ECR I-1795 . . . 259 Graf , ECJ case C-190/98 [2000] ECR I-1287 . . . 202 , 209 Groener , ECJ case C-379/87 [1989] ECR 3967 . . . 644 Grunkin & Paul , ECJ case C-353/06 [2008] ECR I-7639 . . . 294 , 295 , 300 Grzelczyk , ECJ case C-184/99 [2001] ECR I-6193 . . . 167 Guimont , ECJ case C-448/98 [2000] ECR I-10663 . . . 11 , 45 , 137 , 139 – 143 , 145 – 148 , 150 , 196 , 425 , 427 – 429 , 444 , 533 , 664 Hartmann , ECJ case C-212/05 [2007] ECR I-6303 . . . 647 Heinz Huber , ECJ case C-524/06 [2008] ECR I-9705 . . . 57 , 82 , 167 , 499 Horvath , ECJ case C-428/07 [2009] ECR I-6355 . . . 382 , 624 , 628 , 684 – 688 , 694 H ü nermund , ECJ case C-292/92, [1993] ECR I-6787 . . . 96 , 218 Hurd , ECJ case 44/84 [1986] ECR 29 . . . 60 , 179 , 369 Iida , ECJ case C-40/11 [2012] . . . 301 , 310 , 325 – 329 , 335 – 336 ,

351 – 352 Inasti e.a. , ECJ joined cases C-393/99 and C-394/99 [2002] ECR I-2829 . . . 648 Internationale Handelsgesellschaft , ECJ case 11/70 [1970] ECR 1125 . . . 627 J ä ger , ECJ case C-256/06 [2008] ECR I-123 . . . 70 , 107 Jakubowska , ECJ case C-225/09 [2010] ECR I-12329 . . . 19 Jersey Produce , ECJ case C-293/02 [2005] ECR I-9543 . . . 124 – 126 , 132 – 133 , 136 , 235 , 280 , 299 , 378 , 443 Jia , ECJ case C-1/05 [2007] ECR I-1 . . . 86 , 183 , 189 , 511 , 589 , 593 Jonkman , ECJ joined cases C-231/06 to C-233/06 [2007] ECR I-5149 . . . 19 Keck and Mithouard , ECJ joined cases C-267/91 and C-268/91

[1993] ECR I-6097 . . . . . 211 Kenny , ECJ case 1/78 [1978] ECR 1489 . . . 62 Kleinwort Benson , ECJ case C-346/93 [1995] ECR I-640 . . . 137 , 533 Knoors , ECJ case 115/78 [1979] ECR I-399 . . . 49 , 54 , 50 , 70 , 82 , 223 , 225 , 228 Kofi sa Italia , ECJ case C-1/99 [2001] ECR I-207 . . . 137 , 533 Kol , ECJ case C-285/95 [1997] ECR I-309 . . . 278 , 747 Kraus , ECJ case C-19/92 [1993] ECR I-1663 . . . 199 , 205 , 209 , 211 , 225 , 446 Kremzow , ECJ case C-299/95 [1997] ECR I-2629 . . . 159 , 301 , 327 Kurt , ECJ Order in case C-104/08 [2008] ECR I-97 . . . 19 Lancry , ECJ joined cases C-363/93 and C-407/93 to C-411/93

[1994] ECR I-3957 . . . 119 , 125 – 129 , 133 , 135 , 235 , 258 , 366 , 507 Las , ECJ case C-202/11 [2013] . . . 635 , 650 – 667 , 692 , 735 , 737 , 759 , 761 Laval , ECJ case C-341/05 [2007] ECR I-11767 . . . 219 Legros , ECJ case C-163/90 [1992] ECR I-4625 . . . 119 , 129

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xx

Leur Bloem , ECJ case C-28/95 [1997] ECR I-4161 . . . 137 – 138 , 533 Levin , ECJ case 53/81 [1982] ECR 1035 . . . 279 , 747 , 748 Libert e.a. , ECJ joined cases C-197/11 and C-203/11 [2013] . . . 635 , 650 – 667 , 692 , 747 – 748 , 759 , 761 Lindqvist , ECJ case C-101/01 [2003] ECR I-12971 . . . 15 , 390 Louren ç o Dias , ECJ case C-343/90 [1992] ECR I-4673 . . . 145 Luisi & Carbone , ECJ joined cases 286/82 and 26/83 [1984] ECR 377 . . . 266 – 267 Mac Quen , ECJ case C-108/96 [2001] ECR I-837 . . . 209 Mangold , ECJ case C-144/04 [2005] ECR I-9981 . . . 6 Marleasing , ECJ case C-106/89 [1990] ECR I-4135 . . . 583 Martinez Sala , ECJ case C-85/96 [1998] ECR I-2691 . . . 161– 162 , 166 Mathot , ECJ case 98/86 [1987] ECR 809 . . . 70 , 101 , 107 , 113 , 277 , 378 , 646 , 716 McCarthy II , ECJ case C-202/13 [2014] . . . 278 McCarthy , ECJ case C-434/09 [2011] ECR I-3375 . . . 13 , 70 , 79 , 106 – 107 , 169 , 190 , 229 ,

284 , 299 – 301 , 310 – 317 , 322 , 351 – 352 , 361 , 525 , 527 – 528 , 589 , 606 , 664 , 771 Metallgeschellschaft , ECJ joined cases C-397/98 and C-410/98

[2001] ECR I-1727 . . . . . 209 Metock , ECJ case C-127/08 [2008] ECR I-6241 . . . 12 , 89 , 233 – 235 , 254 , 284 , 395 , 544 , 588 Miritz , ECJ case 91/75 [1976] ECR 217 . . . 423 Morgan , ECJ joined cases C-11/06 and C-12/06 [2007] ECR I-9161 . . . 205 Morson and Jhanjan , ECJ joined cases 35/82 and 36/82 [1982] ECR 3723 . . . 13 , 55– 56 , 59 – 60 , 70 , 92 , 107 ,

155 , 158 , 167 , 229 Mosconi , ECJ Order in case C-3/02, OJ C 118, 30 April 2004 . . . 111 , 148 , 277 , 378 Moser , ECJ case 180/83 [1984] ECR 2539 . . . 159 MRAX , ECJ case C-459/99 [2002] ECR I-6591 . . . 12 , 232 , 565 Nerkowska , ECJ case C-499/06 [2008] ECR I-3993 . . . 169 , 205 Nino , ECJ joined cases C-54/88, C-91/88 and C-14/89 [1990] ECR I-3537 . . . 70 , 107 O and B , ECJ case C-456/12 [2014] . . . 12 , 229 , 231 , 237 , 243 – 254 , 264 – 265 , 275 – 281 , 323 , 335 – 336 ,

338 , 359 , 378 , 395 , 511 , 565 , 610 , 642 , 709 , 713 , 747 , 769 , 796 O and S , ECJ joined cases C-356/11 and C-357/11 [2012] . . . 310 , 339 – 345 , 351 – 352 ,

361 , 771 Omalet , ECJ case C-245/09 [2010] ECR I-13771 . . . 147– 148 Omega , ECJ case C-36/02 [2004] ECR I-9609 . . . 644 Ordine degli ingegneri di Verona e provincia e.a. , ECJ case C-111/12 [2013] . . . 19 , 61 , 65 ,

147 – 148 , 179 , 589 P v S , ECJ case C-13/94 [1996] ECR I-2143 . . . 6 Payroll Data Services , ECJ case C-79/01 [2002] ECR I-8923 . . . 209 Perfi li , ECJ case C-177/94 [1996] ECR I-161 . . . 209 , 686 Peureux , ECJ case 86/78 [1979] ECR 897 . . . 422 – 423 , 444 Pistre , ECJ joined cases C-321/94, C-322/94, C-323/94 and C-324/94

[1997] ECR I-2343 . . . 195 , 443 –444, 565 Presidente del Consiglio dei Ministri v Regione Sardegna , ECJ case C-169/08

[2009] ECR I-10821 . . . . . 682 Provide , ECJ case C-150/88 [1989] ECR I-3891 . . . 115 , 378 Pusa , ECJ case C-224/02 [2004] ECR I-5763 . . . 201 , 202 , 203

Intersentia xxi

Table of Cases of the European Court of Justice

Reisch , ECJ joined cases C-515/99, C-519/99 to C-524/99 and C-526/99

to C-540/99 [2002] ECR I-2157 . . . 141

Rendon Masin , ECJ pending joined cases C-165/14 and C-304/14 . . . 349

Rewe [known as Cassis de Dijon ], ECJ case 120/78 [1979] ECR I-649 . . . 196

Rewe , ECJ case 47/95 [1976] ECR 569 . . . 423

Rheinmuehlen , ECJ case 166/73 [1974] ECR 33 . . . 144

Rottmann , ECJ case C-135/08 [2010] ECR I-1419 . . . 136 , 302 – 305 , 308 , 350 Roux , ECJ case C-363/89 [1991] ECR I-273 . . . 155

Ruiz Zambrano , ECJ case C-34/09 [2011] ECR I-1177 . . . 26 , 79 , 88 – 91 , 136 , 141 , 158 – 159 , 169 , 183 , 190 , 229 , 275 , 299 , 301 , 305 – 352 , 360 – 361 , 511 , 525 , 527 – 528 , 589 , 593 , 664 , 713 , 770 – 771 S and G , ECJ case C-457/12 [2014] . . . 12 , 166 , 252 – 254 , 258 , 260 – 265 , 275 , 281 , 511 S.A. Kr ü ger , ECJ case C-253/01 [2004] ECR I-1191 . . . 65 , 407 S ä ger , ECJ case C-76/90 [1991] ECR I-4221 . . . 198

Salonia , ECJ case 126/80 [1981] ECR 1563 . . . 140

Salzmann II , ECJ case C-300/01 [2003] ECR I-4899 . . . 490 , 492 , 495 Saunders , ECJ case 175/78 [1979] ECR I-1129 . . . 13 , 52 – 53 , 57– 58 , 60 , 66 , 70 , 82 , 93 , 101 , 106 , 136 , 167 , 566 Sayn-Wittgenstein , ECJ case C-208/09 [2010] ECR I-13693 . . . 295 , 300 Schempp , ECJ case C-403/03 [2005] ECR I-6421 . . . 10 , 12 , 15 , 69 , 101 , 158 , 169 , 237 – 242 , 287 , 610 , 686 , 743 , 753 Schmidberger , ECJ case C-112/00 [2003] ECR I-5659 . . . 644

Scholz , ECJ case C-419/92 [1994] ECR I-505 . . . 155 , 157 , 647 Semeraro , ECJ case C-418/93 [1996] ECR I-2975 . . . 209

Simitzi , ECJ joined cases C-485/93 and C-486/93 [1995] ECR I-2655 . . . 119 , 125 – 126 , 129 , 133 Simmenthal , ECJ case 106/77 [1978] ECR 629 . . . 584

Singh , ECJ case C-370/90 [1992] ECR I-4265 . . . 186 – 187 , 203 , 224 , 227 – 229 , 232 , 245 – 246 , 275 – 278 , 394 , 482 , 526 , 610 – 611 , 747 Sokoll-Seebacher , ECJ case C-367/12 [2014] . . . 141

Steen , ECJ case C-132/93 [1994] ECR I-2715 . . . 63 – 64 , 128 Susisalo , ECJ case C-84/11 [2012] . . . 141 , 147– 149 Tas-Hagen , ECJ case C-192/05 [2006] ECR I-10451 . . . 203 – 204 Terhoeve , ECJ case C-18/95 [1999] ECR I-345 . . . 70 , 107 , 155 , 157 , 284 , 647 Th e Queen , ECJ case C-137/00 [2003] ECR I-7975 . . . 686

Th omasd ü nger , ECJ case 166/84 [1985] ECR 3001 . . . 137 , 143 , 299 Trabajadores de la Rioja , ECJ joined cases C-428/06 to C-434/06 [2008] ECR I-6747 . . . 676 – 679 , 683 Uecker and Jacquet , ECJ joined cases C-64/96 and C-65/96 [1997] ECR I-3171 . . . 10 , 15 , 65 – 70 , 101 , 107 , 160 , 169 , 287 , 407 , 529 , 676 , 679 – 680 , 683 Van Dam en Zonen , ECJ joined cases 185/78 to 204/78 [1979] ECR 2345 . . . 686

Van Hilten – van der Heijden , ECJ joined cases C-513/03 [2006] ECR I-1957 . . . 70 , 107 Vatsouras and Koupatantze , ECJ joined cases C-22/08 and C-23/08 [2009] ECR I-4585 . . . . . 696

Venturini , ECJ case C-159/12 [2013] . . . 141 , 151 Viking , ECJ case C-438/05 [2007] ECR I-10779 . . . 219

Intersentia Table of Cases of the European Court of Justice

xxii

Werner , ECJ case C-112/91 [1993] ECR I-429 . . . 187 , 482 , 611 Ymeraga , ECJ case C-87/12 [2013] . . . 310 , 325 , 330 – 336 , 351 Zenatti , ECJ case C-67/98 [1999] ECR I-7289 . . . 209 Zhu and Chen , ECJ case C-200/02 [2004] ECR I-9925 . . . 12 , 26 , 89 , 158 , 239 , 278 – 279 , 291 – 293 , 307 , 346 – 347 ,

349 , 546 , 548 , 735 – 736 , 747 – 748 Zoni , ECJ case 90/86 [1988] ECR 4285 . . . 17 , 438 , 444