University of Groningen Through the eyes of the beholder de Leeuw, Renske

Through the eyes of the beholder

de Leeuw, Renske

DOI:

10.33612/diss.113185162

IMPORTANT NOTE: You are advised to consult the publisher's version (publisher's PDF) if you wish to cite from

it. Please check the document version below.

Document Version

Publisher's PDF, also known as Version of record

Publication date:

2020

Link to publication in University of Groningen/UMCG research database

Citation for published version (APA):

de Leeuw, R. (2020). Through the eyes of the beholder: unfolding social participation "from within" the

classroom. Rijksuniversiteit Groningen. https://doi.org/10.33612/diss.113185162

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Students’ voices on social participation in

regular primary schools

A slightly adapted version of this chapter is published as: de Leeuw, R. R., de Boer,

A. A. and Minnaert, A. E. M. G. (2018*) Student voices on social exclusion in general

primary schools. European Journal of Special Needs Education, 33(2), 166-186. DOI:

10.1080/08856257.2018.1424783

*This publication is republished as a chapter in a special issue book series by Routledge

in 2019.

ABSTRACT

Advocates of inclusive education argue that the social inclusion of students with special educational needs SEN increases when they are educated with typically developing peers. However, research indicates that this is not apparent for all students with SEN. Students ZLWK6(%'DUHRIWHQVRFLDOO\H[FOXGHG7RXQGHUVWDQGWKHVLWXDWLRQRIWKHVHVWXGHQWVWKHLU YRLFHVVKRXOGEHKHDUG7KHDLPRIWKHFXUUHQWH[SORUDWLYHVWXG\ZDVWRJDLQLQVLJKWLQWR WKHH[SHULHQFHVRIVWXGHQWVZLWK6(%'UHJDUGLQJYLFWLPL]DWLRQDQGVRFLDOH[FOXVLRQDQG WKHDSSURDFKHVWKH\DSSOLHGDQGSUHIHUUHGUHVROYLQJVRFLDOSUREOHPV:HFRQGXFWHGVHPL VWUXFWXUHGLQWHUYLHZVZLWKVRFLDOO\H[FOXGHGVWXGHQWVIURPJUDGHVDQGDWWHQGLQJ

regular (1b bDQGVHJUHJDWHGVSHFLDO1b bSULPDU\HGXFDWLRQ7KHSDUWLFLSDQWVZHUH

SURPSWHGWRWDONDERXWWKHLURZQH[SHULHQFHVXVLQJK\SRWKHWLFDOVFHQDULRV7KHLQWHUYLHZV were analysed using a multi-grounded theory approach. The results show that students preferred different approaches to resolving these social problems than the applied approaches. They would have liked to have seen their peers and teachers to show more LQLWLDWLYH,QOLQHZLWKWKHVHUHVXOWVWKHQHHGWROLVWHQWRWKHVWXGHQWVèYRLFHVDUHHPSKDVL]HG

INTRODUCTION

The trend for more inclusive education for students with SEN in regular education has meant that such students can now enrol at regular schools in their own neighbourhoods. For many European countries, this inclusive education trend started with the signing of agreements such as the Salamanca Statement (UNESCO, 1994) and the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (UNCRPD, 2006). These statements stress that the educational and social needs of all students should be met, which is clearly stated in $UWLFOH81&53'çHIIHFWLYHLQGLYLGXDOL]HGVXSSRUWPHDVXUHVDUHSURYLGHGLQ HQYLURQPHQWVWKDWPD[LPL]HDFDGHPLFDQGVRFLDOGHYHORSPHQWFRQVLVWHQWZLWKWKHJRDO RIIXOOLQFOXVLRQè7KH1HWKHUODQGVLVRQHRIWKHFRXQWULHVZKLFKKDVVLJQHGDQGUDWLĆHG the UNCRPD, which recommends that education policies should aim to support students with SEN as appropriately as possible in regular education. The active participants in the development of inclusive education are policymakers, school boards, teachers and parents, ZKRWKHUHIRUHLQćXHQFHWKHVWXGHQWVèHYHU\GD\OLYHV:RRGKHDG )DXONQHU7KLV practice does not accord with the advice of Rose and Shevlin (2004), who advocate that implementations, interventions and future developments have a better chance of being effective if students’ voices are listened to, because the needs and perspectives of the VWXGHQWVZLOOEHLQFOXGHGLQWKHGHYHORSPHQWRIWKHLUHGXFDWLRQ7KLVH[SORUDWLYHVWXG\DLPV WRJDLQDEHWWHUXQGHUVWDQGLQJRIH[SHULHQFHVRIVRFLDOO\H[FOXGHGSULPDU\VFKRROVWXGHQWV with SEBD and to uncover which social problem-solving approaches these students use and SUHIHUWRUHVROYHVRFLDOH[FOXVLRQ

Advocates of inclusive education argue that the development and potential of students with SEN improve when they are educated with TD peers because they are afforded more social opportunities. Inclusive education should result in more reciprocal relationships and interactions, greater acceptance and positive self-perceptions among students with 6(1DQGWKHLU7'SHHUV.RVWHU1DNNHQHWDO+RZHYHUHPSLULFDOĆQGLQJVLQGLFDWH WKDWVRPHVWXGHQWVZLWK6(1H[SHULHQFHGLIĆFXOWLHVEXLOGLQJSRVLWLYHUHODWLRQVKLSVRU IDFHUHMHFWLRQZKHQWU\LQJWRLQWHUDFWZLWK7'SHHUVUHVXOWLQJLQYLFWLPL]DWLRQDQGVRFLDO H[FOXVLRQ/DGG/DGG9LVFRQWL (WWHNDO1HZFRPEHWDO5XLMVHWDO,Q SDUWLFXODUVWXGHQWVZLWK6(%'GRQRWDXWRPDWLFDOO\EHQHĆWIURPWKHVRFLDORSSRUWXQLWLHV RIIHUHGE\LQFOXVLYHHGXFDWLRQ&KDPEHUODLQ.DVDUL 5RWKHUDP)XOOHUGH0RQFK\ 3LMO =DQGEHUJ6WXGHQWVZLWK6(%'WHQGWRUHSRUWKLJKHUUDWHVRIVRFLDOH[FOXVLRQ LQWHUPVRIIHZHUIULHQGVKLSVDQGKLJKHUUDWHVRIORQHOLQHVVDQGYLFWLPL]DWLRQ$GGHUOH\HW DO6RFLDOO\H[FOXGHGVWXGHQWVDUHDWKLJKHUULVNRIH[SHULHQFLQJLQFUHDVHGQHJDWLYH academic and social outcomes, such as early school dropout, criminality and depression

These negative outcomes are diametrically opposed to the intended aims of inclusive HGXFDWLRQDQGDVDFRQVHTXHQFHDFWWRSUHYHQWLQFOXVLRQIURPZRUNLQJHIĆFDFLRXVO\ 7KH FODVVLĆFDWLRQ RI VWXGHQWV DV KDYLQJ VRFLDO HPRWLRQDO SUREOHPV DQG EHKDYLRXUDO GLIĆFXOWLHVHLWKHUIURPDFOLQLFDOGLDJQRVLVRUIURPUHFHLYLQJH[WUDHGXFDWLRQDOVXSSRUWLV based on a combination of student behaviours, including socially less accepted approaches WRUHVROYLQJVRFLDOSUREOHPV$PHULFDQ3V\FKLDWULF$VVRFLDWLRQ7KRPSVRQ 0RUULV  ,Q OLQH ZLWK WKH 'XWFK DFW RI ê%HĆWWLQJ (GXFDWLRQë WKH FXUUHQW VWXG\ XVHG WKH IROORZLQJRSHUDWLRQDOGHĆQLWLRQIRU6(%'WKHVWXGHQWKDVUHFHLYHGDIRUPDOGLDJQRVLVRU has been indicated by teachers or the school team as having social, emotional or behavioural GLIĆFXOWLHVDQGLVUHFHLYLQJH[WUDHGXFDWLRQDOVXSSRUWDVDUHVXOW0LQLVWHU\RI(GXFDWLRQ &XOWXUHDQG6FLHQFH%RWKWKHLQWHUQDWLRQDOO\DFFHSWHGFODVVLĆFDWLRQRIVWXGHQWV DVKDYLQJ6(%'DQGWKH'XWFKGHĆQLWLRQLPSOLHVWKDW6(%'ZLOOKDYHDQHJDWLYHLPSDFW on students’ social inclusion because of their characteristics. This negative impact might H[SODLQWKHORZHUOHYHOVRIVRFLDOLQFOXVLRQRIVWXGHQWVZLWK6(%'LQWKH:HVWFRPSDUHG WRWKHLUSHHUVZLWK6(1*XUDOQLFN1HYLOOH+DPPRQG &RQQRU6WXGHQWVZLWK SEBD apply more frequently social problem-solving approaches such as physical and verbal DJJUHVVLRQRUZLWKGUDZDOIURPVRFLDOVLWXDWLRQV*XPSHO 6XWKHUODQG.DXIIPDQ /DQGUXP1HZFRPEHWDO$-5RVH $VKHU7KHVHDSSURDFKHVWR resolving social problems are less readily accepted by their TD peers (Newcomb et al., 1993) and are known to affect their relationships with TD peers and teachers negatively $PHULFDQ3V\FKLDWULF$VVRFLDWLRQ&RRSHU &HIDL.DXIIPDQ /DQGUXP 2013; Newcomb et al., 1993; Thomas, 2013). Little is known about what students with SEBD themselves think about the social problem-solving approaches they apply and whether these students prefer other social problem-solving approaches.

2QHH[SODQDWLRQIRUWKLVNQRZOHGJHJDSLVWKDWWKHVWXGHQWVèYRLFHVDUHRIWHQQHJOHFWHG in studies on improving their social inclusion, regardless of whether or not they have 6(%')RUH[DPSOHWKHPHDVXUHPHQWRIVWXGHQWVRFLDOLQFOXVLRQLVFRPPRQO\FRQGXFWHG XVLQJWHDFKHUUHSRUWVHJ%DXPLQJHU .DVDULRUVRFLRPHWULFGDWDHJ)URVWDG  3LMO  $YUDPLGLV DQG FROOHDJXHV  KDYH SRLQWHG RXW VRPH PHWKRGRORJLFDO inconsistencies when assessing social participation. Sociometric data alone only depicts DVWXGHQWèVVRFLDOSDUWLFLSDWLRQZLWKLQWKHFODVVURRPDQGH[FOXGHVIULHQGVKLSVRXWVLGHWKH classroom (Avramidis et al., 2017). Another critical point is that teacher and peer reports DUHLQGLUHFWPHDVXUHPHQWVDQGUDUHO\FRQVLGHUWKHSHUVSHFWLYHRUYRLFHRIWKHH[FOXGHG VWXGHQWV$UWLFOH81&5&VWDWHVWKDWVWXGHQWVKDYHWKHULJKWWRH[SUHVVWKHLUYLHZVRQ every matter which affects them (UNICEF, 1989).

$OWKRXJK WKHUH LV DQ LQFUHDVLQJ WUHQG WRZDUGV OLVWHQLQJ WR VWXGHQW YRLFHV HJ +HU]  +DHUWHOUHVHDUFKVSHFLĆFDOO\LQFOXGLQJVWXGHQWVZLWK6(%'DQGDGGUHVVLQJWKHLU SHUVSHFWLYHVRQVRFLDOH[FOXVLRQFRQWLQXHVWREHUDUH&HIDL &RRSHU0LFKDHO  Frederickson, 2013). Moreover, despite acknowledging that the views of students with 6(%'DUHLPSRUWDQWWKDWWKH\DUHH[SHUWVRQWKHLURZQVLWXDWLRQDQGFDQFRQWULEXWHWR HGXFDWLRQDOLQLWLDWLYHVSROLFLHVDQGUHVHDUFKZKLFKLQćXHQFHWKHLUHGXFDWLRQ0LFKDHO  )UHGHULFNVRQ$-5RVH $VKHU:RRGKHDG )DXONQHUWKHUHLVDODFNRI knowledge about the perspectives of primary school students with SEBD. Studies which do include the voices of young students with SEBD focus on the students’ perspectives on the impact of inclusive education (Adderley et al., 2015; Mowat, 2015) or on the consequences RIYLFWLPL]DWLRQGXHWREXOO\LQJ%URZQ+DMGXNRYD+RUQE\ &XVKPDQ0HVVLRX 2012), but have not yet considered what the students think about how social inclusion FRXOGEHUHDOL]HGLQWKHFODVVURRP

The actions and responses of the TD peers and teachers of students with SEBD should also be taken into account, in addition to the students’ own characteristics and approaches to resolving social problems. Research has indicated that TD peers and teachers generally have negative attitudes towards students with SEBD (de Boer et al., 2012). The attitudes of TD students are found to play a role in the social acceptance of students with SEBD (de %RHUHWDO7KHWHDFKHUVèQHJDWLYHDWWLWXGHVPLJKWWKHUHIRUHLQćXHQFHKRZSHHUV UHVSRQGWRVWXGHQWVZLWK6(%'+HQGULFN[0DLQKDUG%RRU.OLS&LOOHVVHQ %UHNHOPDQV 2016; Runions, 2014). If a teacher responds negatively to the disruptive behaviour of a student with SEBD, their TD peers might make negative inferences about that student. It is, therefore, necessary to consider all the actors’ (peers and teachers) approaches to resolving VRFLDOSUREOHPVZKHQH[DPLQLQJDQGLPSURYLQJVRFLDOLQFOXVLRQ

To understand the needs of students with SEBD more adequately, it is important to listen WRWKHLUH[SHULHQFHVDQGWRXQGHUVWDQGWKHLUDSSURDFKHVWRUHVROYLQJVRFLDOSUREOHPV$V mentioned above, little attention has been paid to date to students’ voices, leaving a number RILVVXHVQHHGLQJH[SORUDWLRQ1HLWKHUWKHH[SHULHQFHVRISULPDU\VFKRROVWXGHQWVZLWK 6(%'ZKRKDYHEHHQVRFLDOO\H[FOXGHGQRUWKHDSSURDFKHVWRUHVROYHVRFLDOSUREOHPVWKDW DUHDSSOLHGDQGSUHIHUUHGE\WKHVHVWXGHQWVKDYHEHHQH[DPLQHGWKRURXJKO\7KHFXUUHQW H[SORUDWLYHVWXG\DLPVWRĆOOWKLVNQRZOHGJHJDSE\H[SORULQJWKHH[SHULHQFHVRIVRFLDOO\ H[FOXGHGSULPDU\VFKRROVWXGHQWVZLWK6(%'DQGWKHVRFLDOSUREOHPVROYLQJDSSURDFKHV that are applied and preferred by these students.

METHOD

4.1.1 Design

$V ZH VHHN WR H[SORUH DQG OLVWHQ WR WKH VWXGHQWVè YRLFHV ZH XVHG VHPLVWUXFWXUHG interviews. The following issues were taken into account in the design of these interviews: 1) participants must fully understand what taking part in a study means, 2) the participants themselves must provide active consent, and 3) the study design must include techniques DQGPHWKRGVZKLFKUHćHFWWKHVWXGHQWVèPHQWDODJHVWRIDFLOLWDWHRSWLPDOFRQYHUVDWLRQ DQGVWXGHQWHQJDJHPHQW&KDUORS&KULVW\&DUSHQWHU/H/H%ODQF .HOOHW.LUN .RUWHVOXRPD+HQWLQHQ 1LNNRQHQ0HVVLRX$-5RVH $VKHU

4.1.2 Sampling procedure

Sampling. The students included in this study either attended regular primary education or segregated special primary education. Participant recruitment was conducted using two different convenience-based processes. All the parents or legal guardians of the participants were asked to provide their consent and to complete a background questionnaire about their child. Approval from the university ethics committee was obtained prior to data collection.

The participants attending regular schools were recruited through the authors’ personal networks and through a social media campaign targeting parents and teachers of students with SEBD. The following inclusion criteria were applied:

• 7KHVWXGHQWèVVRFLDOLQFOXVLRQVFRUHGORZQHJOHFWHGLJQRUHGRUQHJDWLYHEDVHG

on sociometric data (sociograms)

• The student received additional support for social, emotional or behavioural

GLIĆFXOWLHVLQWKHFODVVURRP

Participants attending segregated special schools were recruited through a school RUJDQLVDWLRQVSHFLDOL]HGLQVSHFLDOHGXFDWLRQIRUVWXGHQWVZLWK6(%''LIIHUHQWLQFOXVLRQ criteria were used for these participants than for the students in regular education, as sociometric data was not available for the period the students attended regular education schools. Instead, the following inclusion criteria were used:

• The student has previously attended regular education schools

• 7KHVWXGHQWZDVVRFLDOO\H[FOXGHGZKLOHLQUHJXODUHGXFDWLRQFRQĆUPHGE\

4.1.3 Participants

Twenty-eight students participated in this study, from grades 5 and 6 (age range 10 to 13 \HDUV7KHDJHUDQJHLVJUHDWHUWKDQH[SHFWHGIRUJUDGHVDQGEHFDXVHVRPHSDUWLFLSDQWV ZHUHUHTXLUHGWRUHSHDWRQHRUWZRVFKRRO\HDUV$VWKHLQFOXVLRQFULWHULDVSHFLĆ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:HH[FOXGHGWKHLQWHUYLHZ RIWKHSDUWLFLSDQWZLWKQRH[SHULHQFHRIHLWKHUW\SHRIVRFLDOH[FOXVLRQDVWKHUHZHUHQR DQVZHUVWKDWFRXOGEHLQFOXGHGLQWKHDQDO\VLV:KHUHWKHVWXGHQWVKDGQRH[SHULHQFHRI YLFWLPL]DWLRQRUVRFLDOH[FOXVLRQDQGFRXOGQRWLQGLFDWHZKLFKDSSURDFKWKH\ZRXOGKDYH SUHIHUUHGLQWKRVHVLWXDWLRQVWKHLUDQVZHUVZHUHH[FOXGHGIURPIXUWKHUDQDO\VLV 7KHHGXFDWLRQDOGLVWULEXWLRQRIWKHĆQDOVDPSOH1b bZDVVHJUHJDWHGVSHFLDOSULPDU\

education (Qb bDQGUHJXODUSULPDU\HGXFDWLRQQb b7DEOHSURYLGHVDQRYHUYLHZRI

the distribution of SEBD.

Table 4.1 Distribution SEBD

Special education Regular education

Boys (Qb _b17) Girls (Qb _b4) Boys (Qb _b5) Girls (Qb _b1)

$'+' 4 2 2 1

ASS 9 2 2

ODD 2

Anxiety/extreme shyness 2 1

4.1.4 Instrument

Interview protocol. The interviews were conducted using a semi-structured interview protocol designed for the current study. The interview protocol included predetermined TXHVWLRQVDQGLQVWUXFWLRQVEXWHQDEOHGćH[LELOLW\LQTXHVWLRQRUGHUDQGDOORZHGIRUIROORZ XSRQLQWHUHVWLQJDQVZHUV7RVWDUWDFRQYHUVDWLRQZHEHJDQHDFKWRSLFYLFWLPL]DWLRQDQG VRFLDOH[FOXVLRQIURPSOD\ZLWKDK\SRWKHWLFDOVFHQDULR9LVVHU6LQJHUYDQ*HHUW .XQQHQ 7KHSDUWLFLSDQWVZHUHWKHQLQYLWHGWRGLVFXVVWKHLURZQH[SHULHQFHV

To make the scenarios more comprehensive for students with indications of attention GLIĆFXOWLHVRUDXWLVPVSHFWUXPGLVRUGHUZHXVHGGUDZLQJVWRVXSSRUWWKHK\SRWKHWLFDO scenario (Charlop-Christy et al., 2002). Another reason to use supporting drawings is that GUDZLQJVFDQVWLPXODWHWKHUHFROOHFWLRQRIDQH[SHULHQFH6DOPRQ2XUGUDZLQJV were sourced from a moral development study for students attending primary education -DQVPD0DOWL2SGHQDNNHU YDQGHU:HUIVHH$SSHQGL[7KHVFHQDULRVDQG GUDZLQJVUHćHFWHGWKHJHQGHUDQGVRFLDOHPRWLRQDOGLIĆFXOWLHVH[SHULHQFHGE\WKHVWXGHQW (DFKK\SRWKHWLFDOVFHQDULRZDVIROORZHGE\TXHVWLRQVDERXWWKHVWXGHQWèVRZQH[SHULHQFHV 7KHVWXGHQWVZHUHDVNHGWRSURYLGHGHWDLOVRIWKHH[SHULHQFHRIEHLQJYLFWLPL]HGRUVRFLDOO\ H[FOXGHGLQFOXGLQJGHWDLOVRIKRZRIWHQWKLVZDVGRQHZKDWKDSSHQHGZKHUHDQGKRZ VHYHUHWKH\FRQVLGHUHGWKHYLFWLPL]DWLRQRUVRFLDOH[FOXVLRQ,QDGGLWLRQWKHVWXGHQWVZHUH asked which approaches they, their peers and their teachers had taken to resolve social problems, which approaches they preferred and which approach they thought to be best. 6WXGHQWVZHUHDVNHGWRH[SODLQZKRLQLWLDWHGWKHDSSURDFKWRUHVROYHWKHSUREOHP6HH Table 4.2 for an overview of the interview protocol.

7KHLQWHUYLHZSURWRFROZDVSLORWHGZLWKĆYH7'VWXGHQWVQRWLQFOXGHGLQWKHSDUWLFLSDQW sample) which resulted in the adjustment of the wording of a few of the questions (for H[DPSOH WKH TXHVWLRQ DERXW WKH EHVW DSSURDFK YHUVXV WKH PRVW SUHIHUUHG RU OLNHG DSSURDFK:HGLGQRWSLORWWKHSURWRFROXVLQJVWXGHQWVZLWK6(%'EHFDXVHRIWKHGLIĆFXOW\ ZLWKUHFUXLWLQJVXFKVWXGHQWVIRUWKHVWXG\$UHDVRQIRUWKLVGLIĆFXOW\LQUHFUXLWPHQWLVWKDW it is common for parents of students with SEBD to be highly protective of their children )DONPHU$QGHUVRQ-RRVWHQ )DONPHU7RFKHFNZKHWKHUWKHLQWHUYLHZSURWRFRO ZDVVXLWDEOHIRUWKHSDUWLFLSDQWJURXSWKHĆUVWĆYHLQWHUYLHZVLQYROYLQJVWXGHQWVZLWK6(%' in segregated special education were asked to offer feedback on the interview protocol. They said they had enjoyed participating in the study and that the questions were clearly formulated.

7DEOH2YHUYLHZRITXHVWLRQVIURPLQWHUYLHZSURWRFRO

Interview protocol: Friends in Class

Hypothetical scenario Introductory story

y*HQGHUDQGVRFLDOHPRWLRQDOGLIĆFXOW\UHODWHGWRYLFWLPLVDWLRQVFHQDULR Example using scenario of a boy with aggressive behaviour

This drawing is about bullying. The teacher is not in the classroom. Ravi is new in the class. He has a temper, and when he loses it, he will throw things around the classroom.

Mohammed and Nick think it’s funny when Ravi gets into a temper and is punished by the teacher because throwing things in the classroom is not allowed. Mohammed tries to get Ravi angry. Mohammed says with a weird voice to Ravi: ç<RXDUHWKHVWUDQJHVWRQHLQWKHFODVVURRP1RERG\LVVWUDQJHUWKDQ\RXè The whole class laughs at Mohammed’s comment, and Nick gives a thumbs up to Mohammed. Ravi becomes sad and tries his best not to get angry. He feels bullied.

Questions on hypothetical scenario

y:KDWFRXOGWKHYLFWLPGRLQWKLVVLWXDWLRQ" y:KDWFRXOGWKHWHDFKHUGR"

y:KDWFRXOGWKHSHHUVGRLQWKLVVLWXDWLRQ" y:KDWZRXOGEHWKHEHVWVROXWLRQ"

Have you ever been victimised/excluded at school? Questions on experienceLIDQVZHUHGç\HVè A im 1 y+RZRIWHQKDYH\RXEHHQYLFWLPLVHGH[FOXGHG" y&RXOG\RXGHVFULEHWKHH[SHULHQFHZKDWKDSSHQHGDQGZKHUH" y+RZZRXOG\RXUDWHWKHVHYHULW\RIWKLVH[SHULHQFH"(rating from 1-4) A im 2 y:KDWGLG\RXGRWRUHVROYHWKHVLWXDWLRQ" y:KDWFRXOG\RXKDYHGRQH" y:KDWFRXOGWKHWHDFKHUKDYHGRQH" y:KDWFRXOG\RXUSHHUVKDYHGRQHLQWKLVVLWXDWLRQ" y:KDWZRXOGEHWKHEHVWVROXWLRQ"

4

4.1.5 Interview procedure

$OOLQWHUYLHZVZHUHFRQGXFWHGRQDRQHWRRQHEDVLVE\WKHĆUVWDXWKRUDQGVL[WUDLQHG 0DVWHUèVVWXGHQWVWKHUHVHDUFKWHDPH[FHSWIRURQHLQWHUYLHZ$WWKHUHTXHVWRIWKH student, this interview was conducted in the presence of a teaching assistant. The interviewers were all trained in the use of the interview protocol and kept a log of each LQWHUYLHZDOORZLQJODWHUUHIHUHQFHWRXQH[SHFWHGUHVSRQVHV0RVWLQWHUYLHZVZHUHFDUULHG out in a small, quiet room at the school. One interview was conducted at the participant’s home to account for personal circumstances. All participants were rewarded with a small token of appreciation after the interview. The interviews were held between February 2015 and January 2016 and varied in length between 20 and 45 minutes.

(DFKLQWHUYLHZVWDUWHGZLWKDQRYHUYLHZRIWKHLQWHUYLHZSURFHGXUHDQGDQH[SODQDWLRQRI the students’ rights, their options for participation, anonymity, the possibility of stopping WKHLQWHUYLHZRQUHTXHVWDQGWKHFRQĆGHQWLDOLW\RIWKHLUUHVSRQVHV$OOVWXGHQWVDFWLYHO\ consented to participating and to the interviews being recorded with a digital voice recorder. To leave the students with a positive note, each interview ended with a conversation about the meaning of friendship and why it is nice to play together. During the interviews, RQHVWXGHQWLQGLFDWHGWKDWKHGLGQRWZDQWWRWDONDERXWEHLQJYLFWLPL]HGEHFDXVHKLV H[SHULHQFHVZHUHWRRXSVHWWLQJ+RZHYHUKHZDVGHWHUPLQHGWRFRPSOHWHWKHLQWHUYLHZ DQGWDONHGDERXWKLVH[SHULHQFHVRIVRFLDOH[FOXVLRQ2QWKLVRFFDVLRQWKHLQWHUYLHZHUĆUVW author) adjusted the protocol and ended the interview with light conversation about the student’s hobbies to ensure the student would leave the interview feeling positive. The taped interviews were later transcribed by the research team using the F4 software (version $XGLRWUDQVNULSWLRQ7KHĆUVWDXWKRUFKHFNHGWKHWUDQVFULSWVIRUDFFXUDF\

4.1.6 Coding procedure and interrater reliability

7KHFRGLQJRIWKHWUDQVFULSWVZDVFRQGXFWHGE\WKHĆUVWWZRDXWKRUVXVLQJ$7/$6WLYHUVLRQ 7.10 (Friese, 2012). A multi-grounded theory approach was applied, allowing the use of DV\QWKHVLVRILQGXFWLYHGDWDGULYHQDQGGHGXFWLYHWKHRU\GULYHQFRGLQJ*ROGNXKO  Cronholm, 2010). 7ZRVHSDUDWHFRGLQJSURFHGXUHVZHUHFRQGXFWHGWRDGGUHVVERWKWKHVWXG\èVDLPV:LWK UHVSHFWWRWKHĆUVWDLPWKHGHVFULSWLRQVRIWKHH[SHULHQFHVZHUHLQGXFWLYHO\FRGHG7KLV LQGXFWLYHFRGLQJSURFHVVZDVFRQGXFWHGE\LGHQWLI\LQJVSHFLĆFXQLWVRIWH[WLQWKHWUDQVFULSWV 7KHVHXQLWVRIWH[WZHUHODEHOOHGDFFRUGLQJWRLQIRUPDWLRQFDWHJRULHVZKDWDQGZKHUHDQG WKHVHYHULW\DQGIUHTXHQF\RIWKHH[SHULHQFHVDQGLQFOXGHGDODEHOLGHQWLI\LQJWKHW\SHRI H[SHULHQFHYLFWLPL]DWLRQRUVRFLDOH[FOXVLRQ7KHDVSHFWVFRGHGZHUHZKDWRFFXUUHGZKHUH LWRFFXUUHGWKHSHUFHLYHGVHYHULW\RIWKHH[SHULHQFHDQGKRZRIWHQLWRFFXUUHG

Regarding the second aim, deductive coding categories were selected and given operational GHĆQLWLRQVEDVHGRQĆYHZLGHO\DFFHSWHGFRSLQJFDWHJRULHVSUREOHPVROYLQJDSSURDFK VHHNLQJVRFLDOVXSSRUWZLWKGUDZLQJIURPWKHVLWXDWLRQH[WHUQDOLVLQJEHKDYLRXUDQG LQWHUQDOLVLQJEHKDYLRXU&DXVH\ 'XERZ6NLQQHU(GJH$OWPDQ 6KHUZRRG In line with Causey and Dubow (1992), we acknowledge that emotions directed outwards differ from emotions directed inwards and should not be clustered into one category of HPRWLRQDOUHDFWLRQ7KHĆYHFRGLQJFDWHJRULHVLQFOXGLQJRSHUDWLRQDOGHĆQLWLRQVIRUPHG WKHLQLWLDOFRGHERRNXVHGE\WKHĆUVWDXWKRUWRXVHWKHGHGXFWLYHFRGHERRNWRFRGHWKH applied and preferred social problem-solving approaches found in the transcripts. During WKHFRGLQJQHZLQGXFWLYHFRGHVZHUHJHQHUDWHGDQGDGGHGWRWKHH[LVWLQJFDWHJRULHVHJ codes which did not occur in the deductive codebook). In addition, as part of the inductive FRGLQJ SURFHVV H[LVWLQJ FRGHV DQG GHVFULSWLRQV ZLWKLQ WKH GHGXFWLYH FDWHJRULHV ZHUH DPHQGHGWRĆWWKHZRUGLQJRIWKHSDUWLFLSDQWV'XULQJFRGLQJWKHSRLQWRIVDWXUDWLRQZDV UHDFKHGDIWHUFRGLQJWKHĆUVWVHYHQWHHQWUDQVFULSWV7KHVHZHUHWKHWUDQVFULSWVRIWKH students from the segregated special primary education.

The interrater reliability (IRR) of the final codebook (the combination of deductive DQGLQGXFWLYHFRGLQJZDVWHVWHGRQDUDQGRPVHOHFWLRQRIĆYHLQWHUYLHZVZKLFKZHUH LQGHSHQGHQWO\FRGHGE\WKHVHFRQGDXWKRUDQGUHVXOWHGLQD&RKHQèV.DSSDʃ).7KHĆUVW ʃZDVZKLFKLVQRWDFFHSWDEOH/RPEDUG6Q\GHU'XFK %UDFNHQ%DVHG RQ LWHUDWLRQV EHWZHHQ WKH ĆUVW WZR DXWKRUV DQG WKH FRGHG GDWD WKH FRGHERRN ZDV UHVWUXFWXUHG)RUH[DPSOHVHSDUDWHFRGHVZHUHJLYHQIRUWKHDFWRUDQGVROXWLRQV:LWK WKLVUHYLVHGFRGHERRNDQRWKHUUDQGRPVHOHFWLRQRIĆYHLQWHUYLHZVZDVWKHQLQGHSHQGHQWO\ FRGHGE\WKHĆUVWWZRDXWKRUV7KH,55ZDVQRZʃb bZKLFKLVVXIĆFLHQW/RPEDUGHW DO$OOLQWHUYLHZVZHUHUHFRGHGXVLQJWKHUHQHZHGDQGĆQDOFRGHERRNE\WKHĆUVW author.

RESULTS

4.2.1 Codebook

7KHFRGHERRNZDVWKHUHVXOWRIDPXOWLJURXQGHGWKHRU\DSSURDFK*ROGNXKO &URQKROP 2010). The codebook consisted of diverse descriptive codes used to code the students’ H[SHULHQFHVZKDWZKHUHSHUFHLYHGVHYHULW\DQGIUHTXHQF\WKHLQLWLDWRUWHDFKHUSHHUV parent or student) and the approaches to resolve social problems. Figure 4.1 provides a schematic overview of the codebook used to code the applied and preferred approaches to resolve social problems.

7KH ĆYH FRSLQJ FDWHJRULHV DUH KLHUDUFKLFDOO\ FOXVWHUHG LQWR WZR PDLQ W\SHV VROXWLRQ approaches, including problem-solving and seeking social support, and avoidance approaches including distancing and emotional reaction, separated into internalising and H[WHUQDOLVLQJEHKDYLRXU

)LJXUH6FKHPDWLFRYHUYLHZRIWKHKLHUDUFKLFDOVWUXFWXUHRIWKHç6RFLDOSUREOHPVROYLQJDS-proaches’ codebook

4.2.2 Research aim 1 - Experiences with victimization and social

exclusion

)ROORZLQJDQDO\VHVRIWKHLQWHUYLHZVDQRYHUYLHZHPHUJHGRIWKHSDUWLFLSDQWVèH[SHULHQFHV RIYLFWLPL]DWLRQDQGVRFLDOH[FOXVLRQDWWKHUHJXODUHGXFDWLRQVFKRROLQFOXGLQJWKHDSSOLHG and preferred approaches by the students.

Experiences of victimization by students with SEBD

:KDWRFFXUUHG)UHTXHQWO\PHQWLRQHGH[DPSOHVRIYLFWLPL]DWLRQZHUHJRDGLQJWKHVWXGHQW LQWRDĆJKWQDPHFDOOLQJDQGEHUDWLQJ2WKHUH[SHULHQFHVWKDWWKHVWXGHQWVPHQWLRQHGZHUH being laughed at, having their lunch taken away, and bullies blocking the way to or from VFKRRO7KUHHSDUWLFLSDQWVVDLGWKDWWKH\KDGH[SHULHQFHGEHLQJYLFWLPL]HGEXWFRXOGQRW SURYLGHH[DPSOHV2QHVWXGHQWIRXQGLWWRRXSVHWWLQJWRJLYHGHWDLOVDERXWWKHH[SHULHQFH

I got bullied a lot, especially during gym time in the changing room. My classmates would get my stuff and throw it around, throwing my bag at me until I cried. (Boy, 11 year old, ADHD, regular education)

:KHUH6WXGHQWVèH[SHULHQFHVRIYLFWLPL]DWLRQRFFXUUHGPRVWO\RXWVLGHWKHFODVVURRPDQG in the playground, either during the break or before or after school. On most occasions, an adult was nearby, such as a school guard or teacher. This was not always the student’s teacher.

Severity. +DOIWKHSDUWLFLSDQWVVDLGWKDWWKH\IRXQGEHLQJYLFWLPL]HGHLWKHUVHULRXVO\RUYHU\ VHULRXVO\XQSOHDVDQW7KHRWKHUKDOIRIWKHJURXSVDLGWKDWWKH\IRXQGWKHH[SHULHQFHUDWKHU unpleasant but understood that it was in the past, or that they had accepted that it was not that severe.

I was young when I was bullied. Back then, I found it really painful. (Girl, 11 year old, ADHD, segregated special education)

2FFXUUHQFH7KHRFFXUUHQFHRIYLFWLPL]DWLRQYDULHGEHWZHHQWKHSDUWLFLSDQWVIURPçMXVW VRPHWLPHVèWRçHYHU\ZHHNèVHH7DEOHIRUDQRYHUYLHZ

7DEOH2YHUYLHZRIRFFXUUHQFHRIYLFWLPL]DWLRQDQGVRFLDOH[FOXVLRQ

Occurrence Victimising (n_participantsb b Social exclusion (n_participantsb b

Sometimes 6 8

Once a week 2 1

Often 2 1

Always 5 1

Does not remember 3 6

Experiences of social exclusion by students with SEBD

:KDWRFFXUUHG$OPRVWHYHU\H[DPSOHRIVRFLDOH[FOXVLRQZDVOLQNHGWRH[FOXVLRQIURPSOD\ 7ZRSDUWLFLSDQWVUHSRUWHGWKDWWKH\GLGQRWKDYHDQ\H[SHULHQFHRIH[FOXVLRQEHFDXVHWKH\ always played by themselves.

I have no experiences of not being able to play along. If there is another ball, I play alone with the ball next to my friends.*LUO\HDUVROGH[WUHPHVK\QHVVVHJUHJDWHGVSHFLDO education)

:KHUH+DOIWKHSDUWLFLSDQWVGLGQRWJRLQWRGHWDLODERXWZKHUHWKHLUH[SHULHQFHVRIVRFLDO H[FOXVLRQ RFFXUUHG )RU WKRVH ZKR GLG DOPRVW HYHU\ H[SHULHQFHRFFXUUHG RXWVLGH WKH classroom.

Severity. ,Q JHQHUDO WKH SDUWLFLSDQWV LQGLFDWHG WKDW WKH\ IRXQG WKH H[FOXVLRQ PLOGO\ XQSOHDVDQWDQGH[SODLQHGWKDWLQPRVWVLWXDWLRQVWKHUHZDVDOHJLWLPDWHUHDVRQIRUQRW MRLQLQJWKHJDPH2QO\IRXUSDUWLFLSDQWVVDLGWKDWWKH\IRXQGEHLQJH[FOXGHGTXLWHVHYHUHO\ unpleasant.

It is not so bad now, because I know now that if someone does not want to play with you, they do not want to. And if they cannot understand that by excluding someone, you hurt that person, then I do not want to play with those children. (Boy, 12 year old, autism spectrum disorder, segregated special education)

2FFXUUHQFH0RVWSDUWLFLSDQWVLQGLFDWHGWKDWWKH\ZHUHVRPHWLPHVH[FOXGHGVHH7DEOH

4.2.3 Research aim 2 - Approaches to resolving social problems

The participants were asked which approaches were applied and which approaches they SUHIHUUHGWRUHVROYHVLWXDWLRQVRIYLFWLPL]DWLRQDQGVRFLDOH[FOXVLRQ%HORZWKHRXWFRPHV are elaborated per situation separately for the applied and preferred approaches, followed by a comparison of the applied and preferred approaches.

Victimization

Approaches adopted to resolve social problems. Social problems were frequently resolved WKURXJKêH[WHUQDOLVLQJEHKDYLRXUëZLWKWKHVWXGHQWDVLQLWLDWRUVHH7DEOH([DPSOHV RIêH[WHUQDOLVLQJEHKDYLRXUëDUHëYHUEDORUSK\VLFDODJJUHVVLRQëDQGêUHWDOLDWLRQëê3UREOHP solving” approaches were also frequently applied, with either the student or the teacher as WKHLQLWLDWRU)RUH[DPSOHê,ZHQWWRWKHWHDFKHUIRUVXSSRUWëêWKHWHDFKHUFRQIURQWHGWKH EXOO\EXOOLHVëDQGê,VWRRGXSIRUP\VHOIë

Preferred approaches to resolving social problems. Overall, the most preferred approaches to UHVROYLQJYLFWLPL]DWLRQZHUHêSUREOHPVROYLQJëDSSURDFKHVDQGYHU\GLYHUVHLQQDWXUHVHH Table 4.4). Students said that they preferred their peers to be the initiators in resolving the SUREOHPRIYLFWLPL]DWLRQ([DPSOHVRIWKHVHSUHIHUUHGDSSURDFKHVZHUHêP\SHHUVVKRXOG QRWEXOO\RUEXOO\OHVVëDQGêDSHHUWKHFODVVVKRXOGVWDQGXSIRUPHë,QWHUPVRIêVHHNLQJ VRFLDOVXSSRUWëVWXGHQWVVHHWKHPVHOYHVDVWKHLQLWLDWRU)RUH[DPSOHê,VKRXOGJRWRWKH WHDFKHUDQGDVNKLPKHUIRUKHOSëDQGê,VKRXOGWHOOP\PXPDERXWWKHEXOO\LQJë5HJDUGLQJ êGLVWDQFLQJëGLIIHUHQWH[DPSOHVZHUHJLYHQLQUHODWLRQWRGHDOLQJZLWKYLFWLPL]DWLRQ6WXGHQWV PHQWLRQHGH[DPSOHVVXFKDVê,FRXOGZDONDZD\IURPWKHVLWXDWLRQëDQGê,VKRXOGLJQRUH the name-calling, instead of calling them names or kicking them”. Although “internalising behaviours” are some of the approaches used to resolve social problems, this was not found WREHDSUHIHUUHGDSSURDFKWRUHVROYHYLFWLPL]DWLRQVHH7DEOH

Social Exclusion

Applied approaches to resolve social problems. In relation to applied approaches, there are VOLJKWGHJUHHVRIYDULDWLRQEDVHGRQHPRWLRQDOUHVSRQVHVH[WHUQDOLVLQJDQGLQWHUQDOLVLQJ behaviours (see Table 4.5). “Problem-solving” approaches were frequently mentioned as an approach to social problems, in most cases with the teacher as initiator (e.g. “the teacher H[SODLQHGLQWKHFODVVURRPWKDWHYHU\ERG\VKRXOGSOD\WRJHWKHUëRUêWKHWHDFKHUVDLGWKDW I could also play with the ball”). Overall, however, the students themselves were the main LQLWLDWRUVIRUH[DPSOHê,JRDQGGRVRPHWKLQJHOVHDORQHRUZLWKVRPHRQHHOVHëGLVWDQFLQJ approach) and “I asked why I could not join in” (problem-solving approach).

'XULQJWKHLQWHUYLHZVIRXUVWXGHQWVVDLGWKDWWKH\KDGQRH[SHULHQFHRIVRFLDOH[FOXVLRQ Three of the participants elaborated that this was because they chose to play alone. These responses were coded under the “distancing” category because the decision to play alone

T able 4 .4 N u mb e r o f ap plie d an d p re fe rr e d ap p ro ach e s p e r ac to r, vic timi zatio n A pp lie d a pp ro ac h P re fe rre d a pp ro ac h Initi atin g a c to r S tu d e nt Pe e r T e a c h e r P a re n t To ta l S tuden t P e e r T ea ch er Par e n t To ta l Pr oblem-solvi n g 1 3 6 12 5 3 6 4 7 4 15 S e ekin g s o ci al sup p o rt 1 0 1 3 1 4 3 1 4 Di st an c ing 1 0 4 1 4 4 1 5 ([W H UQ DO LV LQ J 20 1 1 22 1 1 Int e rnal is in g To ta l 53 6 1 8 9 1 1 9 4 T able 4 .5 N u mb e r o f ap plie d an d p re fe rr e d ap p ro ach e s p e r ac to r, so cial e x clus io n A pp lie d a pp ro ac h P re fe rre d a pp ro ac h Initi atin g a c to r S tu d e nt Pe e r T e a c h e r P a re n t To ta l S tuden t P e e r T ea ch er Par e n t To ta l Pr oblem-solvi n g 5 2 8 1 1 6 2 6 1 9 S e ekin g s o ci al sup p o rt 2 2 5 5 Di st an c ing 1 4 1 1 5 1 1 1 1 ([W H UQ DO LV LQ J 11 1 1 Int e rnal is in g 3 3 To ta l 25 3 8 1 2 0 6 1

Preferred approaches to resolving social problems. The most preferred approaches to resolving VRFLDOH[FOXVLRQLQYROYHGêGLVWDQFLQJëDQGZHUHLQLWLDWHGE\WKHVWXGHQWV$IUHTXHQWO\ PHQWLRQHGH[DPSOHRIGLVWDQFLQJZDVçI would go away and play somewhere else by myself’. A combination of “distancing” and “seeking social support” was also mentioned a couple RIWLPHVIRUH[DPSOHçI would go somewhere else and ask someone to play with me’. Another SUHIHUUHGDSSURDFKWRUHVROYLQJVRFLDOH[FOXVLRQZDVêSUREOHPVROYLQJëZLWKDSHHUDV

initiator: çDSHHUVWDQGVXSIRUPHDQGVD\VWKDWHYHU\ERG\FDQSOD\WRJHWKHU’.

4.2.4 Applied versus preferred approaches to resolving social problems

Victimization. _{Table 4.4 shows differences between the applied and preferred approaches for} VLWXDWLRQVRIYLFWLPL]DWLRQ6WXGHQWVDSSOLHGPXOWLSOHDSSURDFKHVWRUHVROYHWKHVHVLWXDWLRQV ZLWK WKH VWXGHQWV WDNLQJ WKH PDLQ UROH DV LQLWLDWRU DQG PRVWO\ DSSO\LQJ H[WHUQDOLVLQJ approaches.

There were two boys who would call me names and say that I looked like a girl. That hurt me so much that I would see a red haze, and I would punch and kick them. (Boy, 13 year old, autism spectrum disorder, segregated special education)

,QFRPSDULVRQZLWKWKHSUHIHUUHGDSSURDFKHVWRUHVROYLQJYLFWLPL]DWLRQVLWXDWLRQVVWXGHQWV WHQGHGWRSUHIHUWKHLUSHHUVWRSOD\DODUJHUUROHDVLQLWLDWRUVWRVWRSWKHYLFWLPL]DWLRQ2QO\ one student said that he preferred to use physical aggression because this response made KLPIHHOJRRGZKHQKHZDVEHLQJYLFWLPL]HG2WKHUVWXGHQWVZKRKDGGLVSOD\HGH[WHUQDOLVLQJ EHKDYLRXUVZKHQEHLQJYLFWLPL]HGSUHIHUUHGGLIIHUHQWDSSURDFKHV6RPHHODERUDWHGWKDW they now know how to control themselves better, although it still sometimes goes wrong.

I know it is not good, but I prefer to hit people. A few weeks later I will think that it was bad, but at that time it is good. (Boy, 12 year old, ADHD, segregated special education)

Eight students mentioned that they preferred to seek social support from their teachers to resolve social problems, but that they would not do so for various reasons. Students H[SODLQHGWKDWWKH\ODFNHGWUXVWLQWKHLUWHDFKHUèVVNLOOVRUWKDWWKH\EHOLHYHGWKH\ZRXOGEH or had been punished after going to the teacher and asking for support.

I would like to go tell the teacher that they (the peers) would not let me play with them, but I do not. Because last time I was the one who was sent to the headmaster. (Boy, 10 year old, ADHD, segregated special education)

Social exclusion. _{:KHQFRPSDULQJWKHDSSOLHGDQGSUHIHUUHGDSSURDFKHVWRUHVROYLQJVRFLDO} H[FOXVLRQDIHZGLIIHUHQFHVZHUHIRXQGVHH7DEOH$OWKRXJKVRPHVWXGHQWVDSSOLHG çGLVWDQFLQJè DSSURDFKHV HJ ç, ZHQW WR SOD\ DORQHè DQG ç, ZHQW VRPHZKHUH HOVHè WKHVH VWXGHQWVSUHIHUUHGWKHLUSHHUVWREHWKHLQLWLDWRUVLQUHVROYLQJWKHSUREOHPçSUREOHP VROYLQJèDSSURDFKE\çVWDQGLQJXSIRUWKHPDQGLQYLWLQJWKHPWRSOD\DORQJè

,IVRFLDOH[FOXVLRQZDVDIUHTXHQWLVVXHVWXGHQWVSUHIHUUHGWRVHHNVRFLDOVXSSRUWIURPWKHLU teacher. However, some students mentioned that this would not be a successful solution because it is no fun playing with others when it is enforced by the teacher.

It is no fun playing with the rest if the teacher has forced them to let you join the game. You know that it would not be fun anymore. (Boy, 12 year old, fear, segregated special education)

CONCLUSION

7RGDWHOLWWOHDWWHQWLRQKDVEHHQSDLGWRWKHYRLFHVRIVWXGHQWVZLWK6(%'7KLVH[SORUDWLYH VWXG\VRXJKWDEHWWHUXQGHUVWDQGLQJRIWKHH[SHULHQFHVRIVRFLDOO\H[FOXGHGSULPDU\VFKRRO students with SEBD in inclusive classes, and the approaches these students apply and prefer WRUHVROYHVRFLDOSUREOHPVVXFKDVYLFWLPL]DWLRQDQGVRFLDOH[FOXVLRQ

5HJDUGLQJWKHVWXG\èVĆUVWDLPZHFRQFOXGHWKDWWKHVWXGHQWVèH[SHULHQFHVRIYLFWLPLVDWLRQ DUHYDULHGUDQJLQJIURPĆJKWLQJWRQDPHFDOOLQJDQGXVXDOO\RFFXURXWVLGHWKHFODVVURRPLQ WKHSOD\JURXQG0RUHRYHULQPRVWFDVHVDQDGXOWLVQHDUE\7KHVRFLDOH[FOXVLRQH[SHULHQFHV DOVRXVXDOO\RFFXUUHGLQWKHSOD\JURXQGEXWZHUHQRWDVGLYHUVHDVWKRVHRIYLFWLPL]DWLRQ Regarding the second aim of the study, three conclusions can be drawn from the applied DQGSUHIHUUHGDSSURDFKHVWRVRFLDOSUREOHPVROYLQJ)LUVWLQYLFWLPL]DWLRQVLWXDWLRQVWKH SDUWLFLSDQWVXVXDOO\UHVRUWWRH[WHUQDOLVLQJEHKDYLRXUVVXFKDVYHUEDORUSK\VLFDODJJUHVVLRQ and retaliation. Second, some students applied and preferred distancing approaches, such as playing alone as a form of self-protection to avoid situations where they might be socially H[FOXGHG7KLUGWKHUHLVDGLIIHUHQFHEHWZHHQWKHDSSOLHGDQGSUHIHUUHGVRFLDOSUREOHP solving approaches. Students are often the initiators in the approaches applied but would prefer to see other actors, usually, peers, take the initiative more.

DISCUSSION

7KH UHVXOWV LQGLFDWH WKDW YLFWLPL]DWLRQ DQG VRFLDO H[FOXVLRQ XVXDOO\ RFFXUUHG LQ WKH SOD\JURXQG2QHH[SODQDWLRQFRXOGEHWKDWVWXGHQWVZLWK6(%'GRQRWNQRZKRZWRSOD\ HQJDJHDQGLQWHUDFWZLWKSHHUVOHDGLQJSHHUVWRYLFWLPL]HRUH[FOXGHWKHVHVWXGHQWV$V DSUHYHQWLYHRUFRSLQJPHFKDQLVPVWXGHQWVDSSO\çGLVWDQFLQJèDSSURDFKHVHJWKH\ZDQW WREHDORQHRUSOD\E\WKHPVHOYHV7KLVLVLQOLQHZLWKDVWXG\E\.DVDULHWDOZKHUH students with autism spectrum conditions preferred to isolate themselves or were ignored E\WKHLUSHHUV7KHVRFLDOLQFOXVLRQRIVWXGHQWVZLWK6(%'FRXOGWKXVEHQHĆWIURPVXSSRUW LQOHDUQLQJKRZWRSOD\ZLWKSHHUVGXULQJEUHDNV,QDGGLWLRQLGHQWLĆFDWLRQRIYLFWLPL]DWLRQ DQGVRFLDOH[FOXVLRQKRWVSRWVDUHQHHGHGZLWKLQVWUXFWLRQVIRUWHDFKHUVDQGSOD\JURXQG VXSHUYLVRUVWRPRQLWRUWKHVHKRWVSRWVDQGLQWHUYHQHZKHQQHHGHG7WRĆ )DUULQJWRQ 2011). $UHPDUNDEOHĆQGLQJZDVWKDWVHYHUDOSDUWLFLSDQWVVDLGWKH\KDGQRH[SHULHQFHRIEHLQJ YLFWLPL]HGRUVRFLDOO\H[FOXGHG2QWKHEDVLVWKDWDORZRUQHJOHFWHGVFRUHRQWKHVRFLRJUDPV ZHUHDFULWHULDIRULQFOXVLRQLQWKHVWXG\DQGSDUHQWVFDUHUVDQGWHDFKHUVFRQĆUPHGD KLVWRU\RIYLFWLPL]DWLRQDQGVRFLDOH[FOXVLRQLQUHJXODUHGXFDWLRQFODVVHVLWZDVH[SHFWHGWKDW DOOSDUWLFLSDQWVZRXOGKDYHH[SHULHQFHVWRVKDUHDERXWYLFWLPL]DWLRQDQGVRFLDOH[FOXVLRQ from their time attending inclusive classes. However, one participant said they had no H[SHULHQFHRIHLWKHUYLFWLPL]DWLRQRUVRFLDOH[FOXVLRQVHYHQSDUWLFLSDQWVKDGQRH[SHULHQFHV ZLWKYLFWLPL]DWLRQDQGIRXUSDUWLFLSDQWVLQGLFDWHGWKDWWKH\GLGQRWKDYHH[SHULHQFHVZLWK VRFLDOH[FOXVLRQ7KHUHFDQEHDQXPEHURIH[SODQDWLRQVIRUWKLVSKHQRPHQRQ6WXGHQWV PD\QRWKDYHIHOWVDIHHQRXJKWRWDONDERXWWUDXPDWLFVLWXDWLRQVVXFKDVYLFWLPL]DWLRQ7KH H[SHULHQFHVPD\EHOHVVH[WUHPHWKDQLQGLFDWHGE\WKHLUSDUHQWVDQGWHDFKHUV2OGHQEXUJHW al., 2016). Their perceptions may have changed over time and therefore, have changed their FRQFHSWLRQRIWKHH[SHULHQFH.LUN3HUKDSVWKHVWXGHQWVGLPLQLVKHGWKHVHYHULW\RI WKHLUH[SHULHQFHVDVDFRSLQJVWUDWHJ\,QVWXG\LQJWKHWUDQVFULSWVZHIRXQGWKDWGHVSLWH HIIRUWVE\WKHLQWHUYLHZHUVWRSURYLGHH[DPSOHVRIYLFWLPL]DWLRQDQGVRFLDOH[FOXVLRQWKDW were different to the hypothetical situation used in the interview, the students did not change their original statements. The transcripts did not indicate signs of trust issues, and in fact the participants indulged in a lot of small talk during the interviews.

Research indicated a correlation between the type of approach applied to resolve a social SUREOHPDQGWKHVRFLDOLQFOXVLRQRIVWXGHQWV*XPSHO 6XWKHUODQG.DXIIPDQ  /DQGUXP1HZFRPEHWDO$-5RVH $VKHU

([WHUQDOLVLQJEHKDYLRXUDSSURDFKHVWRUHVROYLQJVRFLDOSUREOHPVDUHOHVVDFFHSWDEOHDQG more likely to negatively affect the individual’s social position, whereas behaviours which focus on actual problem-solving are positively correlated with a positive social position 1HZFRPEHWDO7KHSDUWLFLSDQWVLQWKHFXUUHQWVWXG\PRVWO\DSSOLHGçGLVWDQFLQJè DSSURDFKHVDQGçH[WHUQDOLVLQJEHKDYLRXUVèWRUHVROYLQJVRFLDOSUREOHPVVXFKDVYLFWLPL]DWLRQ DQGVRFLDOH[FOXVLRQ+RZHYHUWKH\SUHIHUUHGçSUREOHPVROYLQJèDSSURDFKHV7KLVLPSOLHV that research is needed on how to help students with SEBD apply their preferred approach, the socially acceptable approach.

The reluctance of students to seek social support from their teachers raises several questions. Students indicated that they would have preferred to go to their teacher for support. However, they reported that they would not do so due to a lack of trust in the teacher-student relationship or from fear of being punished themselves. As a consequence, WKHVWXGHQWVDSSOLHGH[WHUQDOLVLQJRUGLVWDQFLQJDSSURDFKHVVXFKDVSK\VLFDODJJUHVVLRQRU LJQRULQJEXOOLHV2WKHUVWXGLHVKDYHDOVRIRXQGWKDWYLFWLPVGRQRWVKDUHWKHLUH[SHULHQFHV ZLWKWKHLUWHDFKHUV1RYLFN ,VDDFV+RZHYHUWKHUHDVRQVJLYHQE\VWXGHQWVLQ those studies differed from the current study. Students felt ashamed or feared that the teacher would dismiss their story as not credible in those studies. A study by Zee, de -RQJDQG.RRPHQIRXQGWKDWWKHSHUFHSWLRQRIWKHWHDFKHUVWXGHQWUHODWLRQVKLS HVSHFLDOO\ZLWKUHJDUGWRFRQćLFWVLVPRVWOLNHO\WKHUHVXOWRIWKHLURZQEHKDYLRXUDQG characteristics rather than the attitude of the teachers. Zee et al. (ibid) also found that the teachers’ perceptions are formed from teacher and student characteristics, especially for ER\VDQGVWXGHQWVVKRZLQJH[WHUQDOLVLQJEHKDYLRXUV7KLVFRQĆUPVWKHLPDJHW\SLFDOO\KHOG E\UHJXODUHGXFDWLRQSULPDU\WHDFKHUVWKDWVWXGHQWVZLWK6(%'DUHGLIĆFXOWWRKDQGOHEDVHG RQWKHVWXGHQWVèGLVUXSWLYHEHKDYLRXU*RHL .OHLMQHQ7KLVLQWXUQRIWHQUHVXOWVLQD vicious circle and a poor teacher-student relationship (Zee et al., 2017). Another possibility regarding teacher-student trust issues could be that the teacher does not see the student as DYLFWLPEXWUDWKHUDVDEXOO\1RYLFN ,VDDFV2OGHQEXUJHWDO:KDWH[DFWO\ leads to the lack of trust on the part of the students remains unanswered in the current study and could be a focus for future research.

4.3.1 Limitations

The current study has several limitations which should be considered when interpreting the results. This study was conducted using semi-structured interviews with students attending primary schools. During the selection of participants, it was found that some students had repeated one or two school years.

:LWKLQWKHFXUUHQWVWXG\ZHGLGQRWH[FOXGHWKHVHVWXGHQWVDVWKHUHDVRQIRUUHSHDWLQJD \HDUFRXOGEHH[SODLQHGE\GLIĆFXOWLHVDGDSWLQJWRWKHVFKRROWUDQVIHU$QRWKHUH[SODQDWLRQ FRXOGEHVRPHVWXGHQWVH[SHULHQFLQJFRJQLWLYHGLVDELOLWLHVDORQJVLGHVRFLDODQGHPRWLRQDO SUREOHPVDQGEHKDYLRXUDOGLIĆFXOWLHV

The design of the study and the sample (students varied in age, type of SEBD, and gender and were from both special and regular schools) invites the argument that the results FDQQRWEHDSSOLHGJHQHUDOO\WRWKHH[SHULHQFHVRIDOOVWXGHQWVZLWK6(%':HDFNQRZOHGJH the limitations regarding the heterogeneity of the sample and that the results should be interpreted with some caution. It is questionable whether the same results would be found with a more homogeneous sample, therefore a study with a larger and more homogenous sample is recommended. However, caution is also needed with a larger, homogeneous sample. A saturation point for codes was reached during the coding process in the current VWXG\1RQHZFRGHVZHUHDGGHGWRWKHFRGHERRNDIWHUWKHĆUVWVHYHQWHHQWUDQVFULSWV7KLV LQGLFDWHVWKDWHQODUJLQJWKHVDPSOHZRXOGSUREDEO\QRWOHDGWRQHZRUGLIIHUHQWĆQGLQJV &RUELQ 6WUDXVV,QDGGLWLRQDKRPRJHQHRXVJURXSRISDUWLFLSDQWVZRXOGQRW UHSUHVHQWWKHUHDOLW\RIWKHFODVVURRPDQGZRXOGUHTXLUHDIRFXVRQVSHFLĆFW\SHVRI6(%' Despite limitations in the heterogeneity of the sample, this study provides an overview of WKHH[SHULHQFHVVKDUHGE\SDUWLFLSDQWVGXULQJWKHLQWHUYLHZVDQGLQVLJKWLQWRWKHUDQJHRI needs and perceptions of students in order better to understand social inclusion and to allow students’ voices to be heard.

This study used peer-nomination data to determine whether students in regular education KDGDORZRUUHMHFWHGVRFLDOVWDWXV:HDOVRDUJXHGWKDWVWXGHQWVèSHUFHSWLRQVRIWKHLURZQ VRFLDO LQFOXVLRQ VKRXOG EH JLYHQ VXIĆFLHQW FRQVLGHUDWLRQ ZKHQ XVLQJ VRFLRPHWULF GDWD VXFKDVSHHUQRPLQDWLRQVRUWHDFKHUUHSRUWV$YUDPLGLVHWDO%DXPLQJHU .DVDUL )URVWDG 3LMO7KHGDWDLQRXUVWXG\VXSSRUWVWKLVDUJXPHQW$OWKRXJKWKH sociometric data indicates a low level of social inclusion, the students themselves indicated KDYLQJOLWWOHWRQRH[SHULHQFHRIYLFWLPL]DWLRQRUVRFLDOH[FOXVLRQ)XWXUHUHVHDUFKVKRXOG ĆUVWFRQWUROIRUWKHVWXGHQWVèRZQSHUFHSWLRQRIVRFLDOLQFOXVLRQEHIRUHLQWHUYLHZLQJWKHP DERXWWKHLUH[SHULHQFHVRIVRFLDOH[FOXVLRQ

4.3.2 Future research

The current study interviewed students aged 10 to 13 years. It has been argued that LQWHUYHQWLRQVVKRXOGEHLPSOHPHQWHGDVHDUO\DVSRVVLEOH*UHHU'L6WHIDQR/LX &DLQ 2015; Guralnick et al., 2007) to prevent long-term negative consequences. Therefore, it is imperative to know which approaches are preferred by younger students in primary schools. :HVXJJHVWIXWXUHUHVHDUFKZLWK\RXQJHUVWXGHQWVZLWK6(%'ZKLFKPLJKWFDSWXUHIURP the outset their perceptions and preferences for approaches to resolving social problems.

7KHH[SORUDWLYHQDWXUHRIWKHFXUUHQWVWXG\DOORZVXVWRPDNHJHQHUDOLVDWLRQVDERXWWKH ĆHOGRISUDFWLFHDQGVWXGHQWVZLWK6(%'&RQVLGHULQJWKHOLPLWDWLRQVRIWKHVWXG\DQGWKH critique of sociometric data, we recommend that the current study be reconstructed on a ODUJHUVFDOHXVLQJDVDPSOHZKLFKUHćHFWVVWXGHQWVZLWK6(%'LQLQFOXVLYHFODVVHVLQWHUPVRI age, gender, type of SEBD and level of social participation (Avramidis et al., 2017). The study VKRXOGDOVRDGGUHVVTXHVWLRQVDULVLQJIURPVWXGHQWVZLWKDKLVWRU\RIVRFLDOH[FOXVLRQZKR FKRRVHWRUHSRUWçQRH[SHULHQFHVèDQGçWUXVWLVVXHVèZLWKWHDFKHUVLQFOXGLQJLQWHUYLHZLQJ teachers or measuring their attitudes.

Overall, it can be concluded that the students with SEBD in this study preferred to be in classes where every actor (i.e. their peers, teachers and the students themselves) takes UHVSRQVLELOLW\IRUWKHLUVRFLDOLQFOXVLRQ+RZHYHUWKHUHLVQRSUHIHUUHGRQHVL]HĆWVDOO DSSURDFKRUVROXWLRQWRYLFWLPL]DWLRQDQGVRFLDOH[FOXVLRQ7KLVVWXG\èVUHVXOWVLQGLFDWH WKDWVWXGHQWVZLWK6(%'KDGGLIIHUHQWH[SHULHQFHVDQGSUHIHUUHGGLIIHUHQWDSSURDFKHV to resolving social problems. Therefore, it is self-evident that the students’ voices (e.g. their needs and preferences) should be heard when teachers, researchers or intervention designers attempt to understand the social inclusion of students. Students have the right to be heard in situations which concern them (UNICEF, 1989), and we should listen to them more often to gain a better understanding of their views. Only then will we be able to understand their needs adequately.

$FNQRZOHGJHPHQWV:HZRXOGDOVROLNHWRDFNQRZOHGJHDQGWKDQNWKHVL[0DVWHUèVVWXGHQWV/DXUD de Bel, Yvonne Buisman, Janet Coppens, Judith Eijgelaar, Eleonora Jansen-Postma and Henrike Steendam), who contributed to this study as interviewers.

APPENDIX 4.1

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