Groningen, The Netherlands, June 2004
POLLUTION OR SOLUTION ?
An overview of the Bangladeshi leather industry as chemical polluter of surface water
Prepared by R. Piepers Final Thesis
University of Groningen DSM, The Netherlands
Department of Business Administration Stichting Sponsor 3de Wereld Technology Management
Tutor 1: Prof. Dr. A.A. Broekhuis Tutors: Dr. P.J. de Groot
Tutor 2: Drs. M.P. van der Steen Drs. Ir. C. Versluis
PREFACE
Bangladesh. A country known for its population density, its floods, and its drinking water issues. Over 150,000,000 people living on an area three fold the area of The Netherlands. Majority of the Bangladeshi people do not have access to safe water supply. Reading this you probably could not imagine what this is like (or maybe you could). 8 Months ago I couldn’t as well. However ‘Stichting Sponsor 3de Wereld’ introduced me to Bangladesh and the immense drinking water problems the country is facing. They gave me the opportunity to give a little help to the Bangladeshi people on one hand and to complete my studies of Technology Management on the other. After 6 months of desk research at DSM, Heerlen in The Netherlands I went to Dhaka, Bangladesh to perform a case study. I greatly hope that by means of this research I could make a small contribution to the creation of chemical pollution free surface-water in Bangladesh, so another potential drinking water source for the people could be formed.
During the past years of studying I have learned a lot- I have learned in an academic sense, in a social sense and in an organizational sense as well. All seemed to be priority once in while, shifting back and forth. But most of all I have learned to combine all these priorities to the best of my power getting the most out of all the possibilities and the duties one has as a student.
The next ninety-three pages are here to show you what I have been researching and writing about in this last part of my education. I would like to thank Hans de Groot en Cokki Versluis for their professional support during the carrying out of this research. A special thanks to ‘Stichting Sponsor 3de Wereld’ and the ‘DSM Straw-Project’, especially Mantijn van Leeuwen, for making my visit to Bangladesh possible.
For their support by email, discussions and telephone from Groningen I would like to thank Ton Broekhuis and Martijn van der Steen.
Finally, a very special thanks to my parents, sister and Karlijn for your support during these last 6 years.
Where would I be without you…
Rogier Piepers
SUMMARY
Bangladesh is a highly densely populated country of which the 150 million people are facing serious drinking water problems. In 1993 the issue of arsenic contamination of ground water came to light affecting the most important drinking water source. Because of this growing issue there is a need to use other sources than ground water for drinking water. The drinking water potential of surface water seems to be increasingly under pressure by the chemical pollution caused by the industry. A brief problem analysis leads to the following objective of this research:
By creating insight in the problem of chemical pollution of surface water in Bangladesh caused by the leather industry, it is my objective to draw up well-founded recommendations for possible solutions. By means of these recommendations I want to make a stimulating contribution to the process of design and implementation of possible solutions.
The main research question this research intends to answer is:
What does the leather industry, as source of chemical pollution of surface water in Bangladesh, look like right now and how is it expected to develop during the next ten years?
What are at the moment and during the next ten years the nature, degree and consequences of the chemical pollution of surface water, caused by the leather industry in Bangladesh?
The overview of the leather industry is based on a product line breakdown encompassing all manufacturing activities needed to transform the raw material (i.e. hides and skins) into a finished good (i.e. leather good).
The three manufacturing activities (hides and skins manufacturing, leather manufacturing, leather goods manufacturing) are analyzed from three levels of investigation:
1. Micro: Manufacturing Process, Chemical Surface Water Pollution and Product.
2. Meso: Market & Trade
3. Macro: Context (Political, Economic, Social-Cultural, and Technological developments)
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
SS COD BOD Chromium TKN Cl-
Pollution Factor
Pollution Factor Chrome Tanning Effluents:
Most important subject is the Chemical Surface Water Pollution, which discusses the degree, nature and consequences of the chemical pollution caused by the various manufacturing activities. Mainly responsible for this chemical pollution are the sub activities of leather manufacturing. By means of the Pollution Factor these activities are analyzed:
Actual Pollution Load Bangladesh Standards for Effluent
Pollution Factor = Kg/l
Kg/l
( )
Only a minor part of the Bangladeshi tanners are taking measures aimed at reducing the negative environmental impact of chrome tanning; most of them are not even aware of this consequence. In most countries environmental legislation, formulated and inspected by the government, imposes duties and penalties on excessive chrome discharge. However lacking this in Bangladesh the tanneries should get another financial incentive to implement pollution reducing measures. This study introduces some measures that on one hand reduce the chemical pollution and on the other hand increases profitability of the tanneries. These measures are divided into three types:
1. Source-oriented measures focus on the source of environmental pollution. (Use of auxiliary preparations/agents, and vegetable tanning)
2. Process-integrated measures focus on improving the chrome-tanning process with a view to reduce contamination. (High chrome exhaustion, and redesign of manufacturing process)
3. End-of-pipe measures focus on the potential treatment of chrome containing waste streams.
(Direct chrome recycling, indirect chrome recycling, and brick manufacturing)
It seems that all end-of-pipe measures are yearly leading to enormous additional income and are extremely reducing the chrome pollution of the tanneries. However all these measures come down to huge investments.
Conclusion could be drawn that for almost every tannery in Bangladesh measures are available to reduce the production’s impact on the environment. Nevertheless before these ´technical solutions´ could be successfully implemented and utilized, developments in other fields should take place. Pollution reducing measures will better work when environmental legislation is being firmed up and being thoroughly inspected and when there comes an end to corruption. Besides these developments in the political field economical developments are more than welcome as well. A transition into a leather industry focused on the manufacture of leather goods will generate more income and result in more western buyers.
Although for every stakeholder within the leather industry in Bangladesh specific point of actions exist, there is one universal recommendation that is valid for every group. The key to reducing the tannin’s impact on the environment is working together and sharing information, knowledge and resources.
Performance of these pollution- reducing measures is summarized in this table. Additional annual income or expenditure, degree of chrome reduction, and complexity of process control are main criteria for this performance.
Pollution reducing measures: Income/
Expenditure
Chrome reduction
Complexity of process control
Auxiliary preparations/agents $5.580 30% 5
Vegetable tanning -$243.900 100% 6
High chrome exhaustion $26.930 20% 5
Redesign of manufacturing process -$12.870 5% 5
Direct chrome recycling $31.840 90% 9
Indirect Chrome Recycling $56.540 95% 8
Brick Manufacturing $59.751 95% 10
Pollution or Solution?
An overview of the Bangladeshi leather industry as chemical polluter of surface water
1. INTRODUCTION ...7
1.1. Background of Problem ...7
1.2. Problem Definition ...8
1.2.1. Scope of Research ...8
1.2.2. Research Objective...9
1.2.3. Conceptual Model ... 10
1.3. Plan of Approach ... 10
1.3.1. Definitions and restrictions... 12
1.4. Deliverables... 12
2. THE VALUE SYSTEM OF THE LEATHER INDUSTRY... 14
2.1. Introduction ... 14
2.2 Hides and Skins Manufacturing ... 15
2.2.1. Manufacturing Process ... 15
2.2.2. Chemical Surface Water Pollution... 17
2.2.3. Product... 17
2.2.4. Market & Trade ... 19
2.2.5. Context... 22
2.2.5. Summary ... 23
2.3. Leather Manufacturing ... 24
2.3.1. Manufacturing Process ... 24
2.3.2. Chemical Surface Water Pollution... 28
2.3.3. Product... 33
2.3.4. Market & Trade ... 34
2.3.5. Context... 38
2.3.6. Summary ... 39
2.4 Leather Goods Manufacturing... 39
2.4.1. Manufacturing Process ... 39
2.4.2. Chemical Surface Water Pollution... 40
2.4.3. Product... 40
2.4.4. Market & Trade ... 41
2.4.5. Context... 44
2.4.6. Summary ... 45
3. SEVERITY OF THE POLLUTION PROBLEM... 46
3.1. Introduction ... 46
3.2. Environmental Legislation... 47
3.5. Summary ... 49
4. POLLUTION REDUCING MEASURES... 51
4.1. Introduction ... 51
4.1.1. Breakdown of Solutions ... 51
4.1.2. Level of Impact... 51
4.2. Source-oriented Measures... 52
4.2.1. Auxiliary preparations/agents ... 52
4.2.2. Vegetable tanning ... 54
4.3. Process-integrated Measures... 55
4.3.1. High chrome exhaustion... 55
4.3.2. Redesign of manufacturing process... 56
4.4 End-of-pipe Measures... 57
4.4.1. Direct chrome recycling ... 57
4.4.2. Indirect Chrome Recycling ... 59
4.4.3. Brick Manufacturing ... 61
4.5. Performance Indicator... 62
4.6 Summary ... 64
5. CASE STUDY: HAZARIBAGH, DHAKA... 65
5.1. Introduction ... 65
5.2. Safety, Health and Environment... 65
5.3 Hartals and the Leather Industry ... 67
5.4. Bangladesh College of Leather Technology ... 67
5.5 Summary... 68
6. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS... 69
6.1 Conclusion... 69
6.2 Recommendations... 69
6.2.1. Environmental Organizations (NGO´s)... 70
6.2.2. Tannery Owners ... 70
6.2.3. Tannery Workers ... 71
6.2.3. Customers... 71
6.2.3. Bangladesh College of Leather Technology... 71
6.2.4. University of Dhaka... 72
Appendices
A: Factors determining the quality of hides and skins...Error! Bookmark not defined.
B: Livestock Population in Bangladesh...Error! Bookmark not defined.
C: Fresh hides production...Error! Bookmark not defined.
D: Market shares in total cattle hides and goatskins production...Error! Bookmark not defined.
E: Trade of hides and skins in Bangladesh...Error! Bookmark not defined.
F: Context of Hides and Skins Manufacturing...Error! Bookmark not defined.
G: Mass Balances Leather Manufacturing Activities according Ludvik, Reich, and Buljan Error! Bookmark not defined.
H: Finished Leather Production in Bangladesh...Error! Bookmark not defined.
I: Market Shares in Finished Leather Production...Error! Bookmark not defined.
J: Total Demand versus Total Supply of Finished Leather in Bangladesh ...Error! Bookmark not defined.
K: Context of leather manufacturing...Error! Bookmark not defined.
L : Leather Goods Production in Bangladesh...Error! Bookmark not defined.
M: Market Shares in Leather Footwear Production...Error! Bookmark not defined.
N: Total Demand versus Total Supply of Leather Goods in Bangladesh ...Error! Bookmark not defined.
O: Context of Leather Goods Manufacturing ...Error! Bookmark not defined.
P: National Limits for Chrome Concentration in Effluents...Error! Bookmark not defined.
Q: Potential Risk of Hexavalent Chrome Formation...Error! Bookmark not defined.
R: Morbidity Rate under Tannery Workers and Country Average...Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figures
Figure 1: Scope of research...9
Figure 2: Conceptual Model ...10
Figure 3: Breakdown of Hides and Skins Manufacturing Process ...16
Figure 4: Change in mass-composition from Fresh Hide (2) to Wet Salted Hide (3c)...18
Figure 5: Fresh hides production in Bangladesh ...20
Figure 6: Cattle hides Production...20
Figure 7: Goat skins Production...21
Figure 8: General Applied Manufacturing Process Diagram...24
Figure 9: Mass Balance Soaking Stage ...25
Figure 10: Mass Balance Liming/Unhairing...25
Figure 11: Mass Balance for Deliming/Bating...26
Figure 12: Mass Balance for Chrome Tanning...27
Figure 13: Mass Balance for Post Tanning ...28
Figure 14: Mass Balance for Finishing...28
Figure 15: From Wastewater to Surface Water:...29
Figure 16: Pollution Factor for the Soaking Effluent...30
Figure 17: Pollution Factor for the Liming and Unhairing Effluent...30
Figure 18: Pollution Factor for the Deliming and Bating Effluent ...31
Figure 19: Pollution Factor for the Chrome Tanning Effluent ...32
Figure 20: Pollution Factor for the Post Tanning Effluent...32
Figure 21: Change in mass-composition from Wet Salted Raw Hide to ‘Hairless, Fleshed and Clean Hide:...33
Figure 22: Change in mass-composition from Wet Blue to Crust Leather...33
Figure 23: Finished Leather Production in Bangladesh ...35
Figure 24: Imports and Exports of Finished Leather...36
Figure 25: Total demand versus total supply of finished leather...37
Figure 26: Breakdown of Leather Goods Manufacturing...39
Figure 27: Leather Goods Production in Bangladesh ...41
Figure 28: Imports and Exports of Leather Goods...42
Figure 29: Total demand versus total supply of leather goods...43
Figure 30: Main Chemical Polluters of Bangladesh leather industry...46
Figure 31: Flow Diagram Direct Chrome Recycling...58
Figure 32: Flow Diagram of Chrome Recovery...60
1. INTRODUCTION
DSM is a multinational company supplying virtually every major global producer in the pharmaceutical, food, automotive and transport, metal and machine building, agriculture and animal feed, textiles and construction industries. It has annual sales of approximately EUR 8 billion and employs in the region of 26,000 people around the world. DSM is headquartered in the Netherlands, with locations in Europe, Asia and the Americas.
A number of DSM employees in the Netherlands became aware of their privileged position compared to people in developing countries and joined together. With support of DSM they founded ‘Stichting Sponsor 3de Wereld’, a foundation aimed at raising money for less-privileged people. Because of the similarities between Bangladesh and The Netherlands, Bangladesh was selected as receiver of these funds. With around 150 million people, on an area three-fold the area of The Netherlands, Bangladesh is the most densely populated country of the world. Besides these comparable densities of population, Bangladesh has just like The Netherlands always been struggling against the force of water.
The Foundation started cooperation with the NOVIB, a Dutch NGO with an existing and spread network in Bangladesh. By using this network the Foundation insures itself that the raised money is destined for the right projects and people within Bangladesh.
1.1.
B
ackground ofP
roblemAt present a major share of the people in Bangladesh is having ground water for drinking water. However over the past few years the issue of arsenic contamination of ground water in Bangladesh has come to light. It appears that arsenic is responsible for a substantial pollution of ground water in the country causing serious health hazards. Origin of arsenic in the Bangladesh ground has not yet been clearly defined. However most people believe its origin is of natural degree. Various methods exist for purifying arsenic contaminated water.
Nevertheless, due to socio-economical reasons these filters are not widespread available.
Direct exchange of arsenic between ground water and surface water does not occur, although small quantities end up indirectly in surface water. Groundwater, contaminated with arsenic and used for housekeeping purposes, is discharged into rivers and canals etc.
Because of this growing issue there is a need to use other sources than ground water for drinking water.
Another main source of water in Bangladesh is surface water in rivers, reservoirs, lakes, canals and ponds.
Expectation and hope are that surface water can be an important source for drinking water in the future.
However, quality of this water seems to be under heavy pressure as well. An increasing share of surface water is being misused as a sink for highly polluting wastewaters from industrial sources. Since bacteriological
contamination could be filtered out, desire exists to prevent this chemical pollution of surface water resulting in an alternative source for drinking water.
Context of the problem concerning the chemical pollution of surface water by the Bangladesh industry is strongly connected with a lack of adequate legislation. Current legislation is not or barely being obeyed.
Moreover, Bangladeshi people do not worry at all about possible harmful consequences in the future of present pollution; main purpose is to survive and nobody looks further than the next day.
1.2.
P
roblemD
efinitionAlthough existence of a problem is absolutely evident, understanding on backgrounds, causes, consequences and context is missing. Besides this lack of insight in present situation, it is also unclear in what way the problem will evolve in the future.
In order to design and implement a successful technical solution for the chemical pollution problem mentioned above, insight in present and future situation is needed. Technical experts conducting the process of design and implementation of technical solutions should understand how much, why, where, and what kind of pollution is being caused by whom right now and in the future.
To conclude, this research is not about designing or implementing one technical solution for the chemical pollution of surface water in Bangladesh but will solve the lack of insight in this problem. I complement this insight with certain recommendations for possible solutions.
1.2.1. Scope of Research
Pollution of surface water in Bangladesh could be classified into two broad groups: Pollution caused by bacteriological contamination; and pollution caused by chemical contamination. Since for many types of bacteriological pollution ready-made solutions are available, focus in my research will be on possibilities for prevention of chemical pollution of surface water.
The major contributor of total chemical contamination of surface water in Bangladesh is the industry, as a result of which I will only discuss this industry as polluter. Because the industry is showing positive factors of growth during the recent years I expect the industry to continue this growth combined with an increasing chemical pollution. 1
In order to create depth during my research and not sticking in superficiality I will primarily focus on the leather industry in Bangladesh. Choice for this industry has been made upon the following arguments:
• The leather industry in Bangladesh delivers a substantial contribution to total chemical pollution of surface water.
• I expect the leather industry in Bangladesh to grow, resulting in an increase of chemical pollution.
This expectation is based on an increase of leather and leather goods production. 5
• Although the Bangladesh leather industry is a very traditional industry and is therefore by me considered as a mature industry, the industry does not behave like this. The industry is still characterized by dynamism, internationalisation and development. This dynamism and development result in an “openness”, which makes the leather industry well suited for external influences and possible changes.
The leather -and leather goods industry could be roughly divided into two sub-industries: the leather industry and the leather goods industry. The leather industry converts raw hides and skins into finished leather and the leather goods industry converts finished leather into leather goods like footwear, belts and jackets. Because in Bangladesh operations within the leather industry are executed on a larger scale than operations in the leather goods industry, more focus is on the leather industry. However, main reason for this focus is the higher degree of chemical pollution caused by leather manufacturing in comparison with leather goods manufacturing.
Figure 1: Scope of research
1.2.2. Research Objective
Based on the problem and the scope of research mentioned above, the research objective of my study is defined as follows:
By creating insight in the problem of chemical pollution of surface water in Bangladesh caused by the leather industry, it is my objective to draw up well-founded recommendations for possible solutions. By means of these recommendations I want to make a stimulating contribution to the process of design and implementation of possible solutions.
Insight in present and future situation6 and if taken this insight into account during the design process, increases the chance on a successful implementation. By giving this insight to the people of Proshika, SEHD
Pollution of surface water in Bangladesh
Bacteriological
Chemical
Textile industry
Leather industry
Other industries
Leather industry
Leather goods industry Industry
Others
T=2003
T=2013
and BRAC7, I want to raise their consciousness of the importance of the problem and to encourage the search for a solution. Recommendations for possible solutions could form a basis and motivation for this search.
Besides these Non-Gouvernmental Organizations (NGO’s), all stakeholders within the leather industry in Bangladesh are important target groups. The overview, conclusions and recommendations presented in this report could benefit all this groups in the creation of prosperous pollution-free leather industry.
1.2.3. Conceptual Model
The following conceptual model (figure 2) centrally shows the problem dealt with in my research. Insight in the leather industry, in the chemical pollution of surface water and in how these two are interacting serves as foundation for the search of solutions.
Figure 2: Conceptual Model
1.3.
P
lan ofA
pproachThe next section is about how to create insight, on basis of which I will eventually draw up my
Insight in:
Leather industry Bangladesh
Grow of leather industry Bangladesh
T=2003
T=2013
Chemical pollution surface water
Reduction of chemical pollution
surface water
Recommendations for possible solutions
Main questions
A What does the leather industry, as source of chemical pollution of surface water in Bangladesh, look like right now and how is it expected to develop during the next ten years?
B What are at the moment and during the next ten years the nature, degree and consequences of the chemical pollution of surface water, caused by the leather industry in Bangladesh?
Research questions
A1 On the basis of what criteria could a complete and clear overview of the leather industry in Bangladesh be created?
A2 How does the leather industry on the basis of the criteria mentioned by A1 look like?
A4 How is the leather industry expected to develop during the next ten years?
B1 What is the nature and degree of the chemical pollution of surface water caused by the leather industry in Bangladesh?
B2 What are consequences on the life in Bangladesh of the chemical pollution of surface water caused by the leather industry?
B4 What will be the nature, degree and consequences of the chemical pollution of surface water caused by the leather industry in Bangladesh the next ten years?
1.3.1. Definitions and restrictions
Leather industry
In my research the leather industry is defined as the industry responsible for the conversion of raw hides and skins into finished leather. It provides the input for the leather goods industry, which deals with the conversion of finished leather into leather goods.
Chemical pollution
By chemical pollution I only mean the pollution of surface water as a result of the chemical contamination by the industry. This chemical contamination is caused by the unloading of effluent from the production process of an industry.
Surface water and ground water
The people of Bangladesh are using ground water as well as surface water for drinking water. In my research I define surface water as all the water flowing through canals, rivers, lakes, ponds and reservoirs into sea. The water is “located” at the surface of earth.
In my study ground water is defined as the water in the ground. Most of the ground water is rainwater, trickled downwards.
Distinction between these two types of water is very strict; I assume that no significant exchange or contact takes place between surface water and ground water.
Hides and Skins
The difference between hides and skins is irrelevant. Both are raw materials for the leather manufacturing industry. Hides are products from the slaughtering of cattle, buffaloes and sheep; skins are derived from goats.
1.4.
D
eliverablesThe research questions above are supporting the process of finding required information for answering the two main questions of my research. This required information would be elaborated in the form of deliverables. These deliverables indicate what should be produced during my research.
The following deliverables are produced during my research:
• By means of an analyzing theory or model a set of criteria needed to create a complete and clear overview of the industry.
• An overview of the nature and degree of effluents from the leather industry in Bangladesh.
• An overview of direct and indirect, and of short –and long term effects of chemical pollution by the leather industry in Bangladesh.
• A forecast for the development of chemical pollution by the leather industry in Bangladesh.
The following most important deliverable is being produced at the end of my research:
• Recommendations for possible solutions for the chemical pollution of the surface water problem caused by the effluents from the Bangladesh leather industry.
2. THE VALUE SYSTEM OF THE LEATHER INDUSTRY
2.1.
I
ntroductionIn order to give a complete and clear overview of the Leather Industry in Bangladesh it is necessary to break down the industry in a meaningful way. Breakdown of an industry in its building blocks can be made in a number of ways. Since in my research the chemical pollution of surface water by activities within the industry is the focus, I am using a breakdown in conformity with the product line. Product line breakdown encompasses all the manufacturing activities needed to transform raw material into a finished good. Applied to the Bangladesh Leather Industry, three building blocks are identified:
1. Hides and Skins Manufacturing: Production of raw material.
2. Leather Manufacturing: Production of intermediate product.
3. Leather Goods Manufacturing: Production of end product.
The overview of the Leather Industry according product line breakdown is based on the value system proposed by Michael E. Porter. Although the value system is merely used as an instrument to describe series of value chains of upstream and downstream firms, it could also be well applied as a tool to analyze an industry. In my research the value system is serving the latter purpose. Porter divides activities executed within a value system into two large categories: primary activities and support activities. Only primary activities, associated with manufacture (and distribution) of products, are discussed here.
By means of certain generally applicable subjects three manufacturing activities are separately analysed.
Analysis is done from three levels of investigation:
1. Micro: Manufacturing Process, Chemical Surface Water Pollution and Product.
2. Meso: Market & Trade.
3. Macro: Context.
Techniques and methods used during manufacturing are treated by Manufacturing Process. Most important subject within the analysis is the chemical pollution of surface water caused by a certain manufacturing activity. Nature, degree and consequences of this pollution are dealt with by the Chemical Surface Water Pollution.
Product quality, value added, and costs incurred are highlighted on account of Product. Market & Trade encompasses facts and figures relating with import, export, production, and consumption Final subject
environmental drivers of change that is likely to affect the structure of an industry. It encompasses Political, Economic, Social-Cultural, and Technological developments and detects and analyses trends that will create opportunities and threats.
Table 1: The ‘Value System-Based’ Overview of the Bangladesh Leather Industry
2.2
H
ides andS
kins ManufacturingFirst activity in the value system of the Bangladesh leather industry is manufacturing of hides and skins. Hides and skins, as raw material for the leather industry, are by-products of the livestock processing meat industry.
Although manufacture of this raw material is mainly responsibility of an alternative industry (i.e. meat industry) it is included in my analysis because of its essence to the leather industry. Policies directed towards livestock and conditions in the meat industry are affecting for example quality and supply of hides and skins.
2.2.1. Manufacturing Process
The Manufacturing Process of hides and skins converts raw material, livestock, into preserved hides and skins.
Breakdown of this process into two sub-activities is possible.
Manufacturing
Process § 2.2.1 § 2.3.1 § 2.4.1
Chemical Surface Water Pollution
§ 2.2.2 § 2.3.2 § 2.4.2
Product § 2.2.3 § 2.3.3 § 2.4.3
Market &
Trade § 2.2.4 § 2.3.4 § 2.4.4
Context
Political Economical Social-Cultural Technological
§ 2.2.5
§ 2.2.5.1
§ 2.2.5.2
§ 2.2.5.3
§ 2.2.5.4
§ 2.3.5
§ 2.3.5.1
§ 2.3.5.2
§ 2.3.5.3
§ 2.3.5.4
§ 2.4.5
§ 2.4.5.1
§ 2.4.5.2
§ 2.4.5.3
§ 2.4.5.4 Hides and Skins
Manufacturing § 2.2
Leather Manufacturing § 2.3
Leather Goods Manufacturing § 2.4
Figure 3: Breakdown of Hides and Skins Manufacturing Process
2.2.2.1. Slaughtering/Flaying
In Bangladesh there is no mechanized slaughterhouse and only 12 to 15 percent of slaughters take place in semi-mechanized abattoirs. About 35% of all slaughters are done during the Eid ul Azha by unskilled people in manual way resulting in irregular shapes and knife cuts in hide. The rest of the slaughter (about 50%) is also done manually throughout the country in backyards of people’s homes 8. After flaying the hides and skins are collected by middlemen transporting them to local markets.
2.2.2.2. Curing
Because hides and skins (2) cannot be converted into leather right away, they should be cured and stored.
Curing is a form of preservation needed to increase the storage time. It is done in backyards directly after flaying, or by middlemen collecting hides and skins from different slaughterhouses.
In general there are three different ways in which hides and skins are cured:
1. Chilling (3a). Hides and skins are being cooled as a result of what bacteria are not given full play.
2. Drying (3b). Hides are folded over a frame and dried in the shade. Drying is a very time consuming method, but does not involve any use of salt. Additionally the high humidity common in Bangladesh does also not favour drying.
3. Salting (3c). Rule of thumb is that the amount of sodium chloride used equals about 30% of the weight of the raw hide 9.
Because of economical and climatological circumstances, curing in Bangladesh is done according to a variation on the latter method: wet salted curing. Before sodium chloride is added, hides are rinsed with large amounts
Hides and Skins Manufacturing
Slaughtering
/Flaying Fresh hide/skin Curing
Cow,goat,sheep (2) (1)
Cooled hide/skin (3a)
Salted hide/skins (3c) Dried hide/skin
(3b)
hours after flaying the animals but concerned persons are hardly aware about the time of curing. Middlemen believe that curing should be done within 24 hours in summer and 36 hours in winter season after slaughtering the animals. But in a country with an extreme humidity like Bangladesh it is advisable to undertake curing within 2-3 hours in summer and 5-6 hours in winter after slaughtering the animals11.
2.2.2. Chemical Surface Water Pollution
This section discusses the chemical pollution of surface water caused by the two sub-activities of hides and skins manufacturing. It appears to be neither slaughtering/flaying, neither the curing greatly contributes to the overall chemical pollution of surface water in Bangladesh.
2.2.2.1. Slaughtering/Flaying
The waste produced by slaughtering and flaying is not elaborately included in my study because of the following reasons:
1. Insides, organs and other residues of animals are the major components of this waste. Instead of chemical pollution, subject of my study, these components mainly produce bacteriological pollution.
2. Air, soil and water are the three main recipients of possible pollution. Slaughtering and flaying mainly produces solid waste, hardly affecting surface water.
2.2.2.2. Curing
Wet salted curing does not substantially contribute to total chemical pollution of surface water. Although salt is used in excess, hides take up most of the salt. This high uptake of salt is the result of the curing method common in Bangladesh. Large amounts of ground water remove blood, otherwise causing inferior uptake.
Although the wastewater stream of the curing process contains some chloride component, the contribution to overall chemical pollution of surface water is negligible.
2.2.3. Product
The product ‘produced’ during the manufacturing of hides and skins is the wet salted hide (3c). This end product of this manufacturing activity is processed from the intermediate product, the fresh hide (2). A fresh hide is already flayed from an animal but not yet cured. The quality and added value of these products is determined by manufacturing-related factors.
Figure 4: Change in mass-composition from Fresh Hide (2) to Wet Salted Hide (3c)
2.2.3.1. Quality
It is easy to understand that performance of the leather industry in Bangladesh depends on many factors of which quality of raw hides and skins is very important. Production of a fashionable pair of design shoes starts at the grasslands where livestock is grazing. Quality of hides and skins is influenced by factors arising during lifetime of the animals and factors arising after death of animals. Main deficiencies of ticks, scratches, brands, and goad marks are covering the former category. The second type includes flay-cuts, knife scratches, improper curing and transport, and irregular shapes in hides and skins that are attributed to ignorance and carelessness of the flayers. Appendix A summarizes all these factors.
Although improper flaying of hides and skins and lack of scientific curing cause $150 million loss in the leather sector in Bangladesh per year12. The fact, that hides and skins are by-products of the livestock- processing meat industry and consequently not top-priority is main reason for this loss. A better interference between leather industry and meat industry could prevent these problems. As a result quality of hides and skins will increase improving the export potential.
Because of their fine fiber and grain structure Bangladesh hides and skins are considered of high quality in comparison with hides from neighbouring countries like India. Reason for these lower quality hides and skins in India is the ban on slaughter of cattle. This results in more livestock dying a natural death generating fallen hides that are of lower quality.
6,5%
47,7% 5,0%
13,4%
27,5%
Corium/collagen Subcutis/flesh Epidermis/hair Water
Blood
4,9%
6,4%
38,2%
23,2% 0,4%
27,0%
Corium/collagen Subcutis/flesh
Epidermis/hair Water
Sodium Chloride Blood
2.2.3.2. Added Value
The two sub-activities of the manufacturing process of hides and skins both add value to the product.
Slaughtering and flaying delivers fresh hides and skins of which the value added is mainly dependent on methods and techniques used. In general, hides and skins manually manufactured are of lower value than mechanically produced hides. The less flay-cuts and knife cuts, the less value is destroyed, the more value is added.
Value added during the curing activity depends on quantity and quality of salts used, and on the time between slaughtering/flaying and curing. In Bangladesh Chittagong Sea Salt is used as curing salts; more value could be added when special hide curing chemicals with sea salt are used 13. Another factor determining value added during curing is the time elapsed between slaughtering/flaying of livestock and the actual curing of the hides.
The quicker the hides and skins are cured, the fewer bacteria have affected the hides, and the more value is added to the hides.
2.2.4. Market & Trade
Main purpose of international trade is to fill any gap, which exists between domestic demand and supply. This function can be expressed in terms of the trade identity, which relates domestic consumption (C) and production (P) to exports (X) and imports (M) in the following manner:
P + M = C + X (equation 2.1)
Left side of the equation represents total supply (domestic production plus imports) while right side indicates that total demand accounted for by domestic purchasers (consumption) and foreign buyers (exports).
2.2.4.1. Domestic Production
Cattle, and goat are the main species supplying the leather industry in Bangladesh with its raw material. Mainly driven by an increasing population, resulting in a growing demand for meat, total livestock population in Bangladesh has been growing for the past two decades with almost 90%. Major contributor to this growth was the stock of goats, which grew from 9,208,000 heads in 1980 to 34,400,400 heads in 2002. Appendix B shows the number of heads of the main species supplying the leather industry during the last two decades.
Figure 5 shows in comparison with the livestock population presented in Appendix 5 a similar growth in the amount of fresh hides produced in Bangladesh. During the last two decades total domestic hide production have been increasing from 40,5 kt in 1980 to 71,6 kt in 2002; an increase of 76,6%. This increase is mainly the result of the bigger amount of goats slaughtered, which grew during the last 20 years with more than 220%
(Appendix C). Especially with the increasing middle class in Bangladesh goat meat is getting more and more popular resulting in more goats being slaughtered.
Figure 5: Fresh hides production in Bangladesh (Mt= Metric tons = 1000 kg)
The amount of fresh cattle hides manufactured in Bangladesh was in 2002 only 0,4% of world total production of cattle hides. Regarding goatskins manufacturing Bangladesh is a more important player; 4,3% of the world production of goatskins was done in Bangladesh.
Figure 6: Cattle hides Production
0,4%
99,6%
Rest of the World Bangladesh 0
10000 20000 30000 40000 50000 60000 70000 80000
1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002
Time (years)
Hides production (Mt)
Goat Buffalo Cattle Sheep
Figure 7: Goat skins Production
2.2.4.2. Imports and Exports
In Bangladesh a ban exists on the exports of hides and skins. So foreign trade of hides and skins is officially limited to imports from other countries. Nonetheless the amount of imported hides is, in spite of the import promoting policy of the Bangladesh government, negligible. Although the share of imports in total trade of hides and skins is increasing, in the year 2000 only 0,36% of all hides and skins present in Bangladesh came from abroad (Appendix E) 14
2.2.4.3. Domestic Consumption
Since the share of imports and exports is negligible, conclusion based on equation 2.1 could be drawn that all the domestically manufactured hides and skins are consumed within Bangladesh. This consumption is done in several ways: the Bangladesh leather manufacturing industry consumes most of the hides and skins; some hides are ‘lost’ during transport, stored in warehouses, or used for other purposes.
P + M = C + X (equation 2.1) 71079 Mt + 258 Mt = 71336 Mt + 1 MT (year: 2000) 99,658 % + 0,362 % = 99,999 % + 0,001 % year: 2000)
2.2.4.4. Trade
Because only 12 to 15 percent15 of slaughters take place in an organized way in slaughterhouses, it is difficult to collect, store and transport rawhides and skins. The rest of slaughtering including ones that take place during the Eid ul Azha16 festival is done outside slaughterhouses throughout the country.
4,3%
95,7%
Rest of the World Bangladesh
Since leather manufacturing is increasingly concentrated in the area of Hazaribagh near Dhaka, the organizational structure of hides and skins trade resembles a pyramid. A large number of slaughters, collectors and small-scale dealers at the base and it gradually narrows down by the time the hides and skins reach terminal markets in the form of tanners. Trade of manufactured hides and skins is done in two different ways:
1. Independent trading intermediaries collect hides and skins from all over the country and transport them to the tanneries. This form of trade is most common, because of the disadvantageous bargaining position of small-scale tanneries in Bangladesh. They do not have the financial strength to maintain material stock or to delay sales resulting in the call in of trading intermediaries taking risk and responsibility.
2. Hides and skins are directly sold to tanneries, or to agents employed by these tanneries. Rural and unorganized manufacturing of hides and skins is common in Bangladesh. This leads to longer and more complex market chains what makes direct trade not often suitable. The longer and more complex market chains, the higher the need for trading intermediaries.
2.2.5. Context
This section detects and analyzes environmental drivers for change, shaping hides and skins manufacturing in the future. Most important drivers for change are summarized below. A complete overview of all external developments influencing hides and skins manufacturing is presented in Appendix F. The table in this Appendix subsequently shows the implications for the hides and skins manufacturing according the subject Manufacturing Process, Chemical Surface Water Pollution, Market & Trade, and Product.
2.2.5.1. Political Developments
Measures taken by the Bangladesh Government are mainly purposed to encourage the leather industry in Bangladesh to focus more on downstream activities like manufacturing of leather footwear. It is believed that these activities add a higher value than upstream activities, resulting in more generation of foreign exchange.
According the Principal of the Bangladesh College of Leather Technology, Prof. Dr. Karim, export earnings will be more than five to six times if the industry starts to produce leather footwear and products in full scale. Besides these national measures, supra-national measures could also create opportunities for hides and skins manufacturing in Bangladesh. The Uruguay Round Agreement 17 achieved a significant global reduction of the levels of tariffs, possibly resulting in an integration of the world trading system.
Critical remark should be made that the Government of Bangladesh does not have a good reputation of
2.2.5.2. Economic Developments
Advantageous conditions in Bangladesh could create huge possibilities of foreign investment in the leather sector. Lack of environmental legislation, huge amount of cheap work force, and large quantities of livestock could lead to a positive investment climate for foreign companies. However increasing wage rates and political instability could oppose a threat to this favourable climate.
2.2.5.3. Social-Cultural Developments
A decreasing Hindu population and a growing public protest regarding unhygienic slaughtering could positively affect quality of the hides and skins. According the Hindu culture it is not allowed to slaughter any cattle. The more cattle not being slaughtered but dying a natural death the more “low quality” hides are supplying the market. Outcomes of both developments are strongly related with policies set by the Bangladesh Government. More demand for meat caused by an increasing population could have positive effects as well.
2.2.5.4. Technological Developments
Although considerable modernization of slaughtering and flaying techniques is logical to expect, outcome of this technological development also depends on relating developments. Lack of foreign investment and lack of promoting measures by the government could hinder any form of technological development.
2.2.5. Summary
Hides and skins manufactured in Bangladesh are mainly aimed for domestic consumption; shares of imports and exports are negligible. Over the last two decades total hides manufacturing showed a very high growth factor.
One of the main weaknesses of hides and skins manufacturing in Bangladesh is the manual form of processing resulting in lower quality of hides and skins. External factors are expected to contribute to the process of modernization resulting in a higher degree of mechanization in the future.
Another important point of focus should be the improvement of interference between the meat industry and the leather industry. Better cooperation between these two links within the chain will improve the quality of hides and skins boosting up the export potential. The additional revenues could be used to invest in technology and pollution reducing measures.
The chemical pollution of surface water by manufacturing of hides and skins is in relation with other activities not a big issue. Most of the waste produced is of solid nature, not harmfully affecting surface water in Bangladesh. A small amount of chlorides constitutes the wastewater stream produced during curing. However
Leather Manufacturing
Soaking Liming/ Unhairing Fleshing Post- Finishing
Tanning Wet Blue
Splitting Chrome
Tanning Deliming
/Bating
§ 2.3.1.1. § 2.3.1.2 § 2.3.1.3 § 2.3.1.4 § 2.3.1.5 § 2.3.1.6 § 2.3.1.7 § 2.3.1.8
because of the wet salted curing method, common in Bangladesh, hides take up most over the curing salts.
Negligible quantities of salts remain in the wastewater.
2.3.
L
eatherM
anufacturingMost dynamic segment of the leather industry in Bangladesh is the leather-manufacturing segment.
Developments that have taken place in the leather industry in Bangladesh have been most clearly visible in the leather manufacturing activity.
Wastewater streams, discharged from the leather manufacturing process, are the main contributors of the chemical pollution of surface water.
2.3.1. Manufacturing Process
The manufacturing process of leather converts wet salted hides into finished leather. Breakdown of this process into a number of sub-activities is possible. Regarding sequence and purpose of these activities a general applied process diagram has been drawn up, which is regardless the development stage of the industry, valid for every leather manufacturing process18 An overview on the calculations of mass balances for the various sub-activities is presented in Appendix G19.
Figure 8: General Applied Manufacturing Process Diagram
2.3.1.1. Soaking
Purpose of the soaking stage is regaining the normal water contents of the cured raw hides returning to the original condition of the hides. Salt used to cure the hides is washed out, and the hides are hydrated. Other waste removed is dirt and blood. Soaking and washing of hides and skins is done by means of large quantities of water and some tenside. Tenside is a foaming, cleaning, soap-similar active substance.
Figure 9: Mass Balance Soaking Stage
2.3.1.2. Liming and Unhairing
After soaking the skin has regained its original condition. Purpose of the liming and unhairing stage is to depilate the skin. Main objective of depilating is to remove hair, epidermis, and to some degree interfibrillary proteins from the hide. It is also a step to prepare the hide for removal of loose flesh and flesh in following stages. In Bangladesh most common way of depilating is the liming method. The liming treatment solution, which contains calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2), sodium sulphide (Na2S), sodium hydrosulphide (NaHS), and water swells the hides and dissolves hair. A low concentration of salts is added to increase swelling.
Figure 10: Mass Balance Liming/Unhairing
2.3.1.3. Fleshing
After loosening hides from all the remaining hairs and epidermis, next step is to remove the remaining flesh and fat. Fleshing is either done manually, or mechanically. Since the degree of mechanization is still very low in Bangladesh most fleshing is executed by hand, often negatively affecting quality.
Liming/
Unhairing
Wet‘Clean’
Hides
Wet ‘Clean and Hairless’
Hides
= Water
=
=
Calcium Hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) Salts
= Sodium Sulphur (Na2S)
= Sodium Hydrosulphide (NaHS)
= Hair/Epidermis
Soaking
Wet Salted Hide
CleanWet Hides
=Water
=
=
=
Blood/Dirt Curing Salt Tenside
2.3.1.4. Deliming and Bating
Outputs of the fleshing stage are hides, which mainly consist of corium collagen, liming-and-unhairing chemicals and water. Only a small amount of chemicals is previously washed out by the large amount of water used. This large quantity of lime and sulphides still remaining in the hides will negatively affect the quality of leather end products in the end. Main goal of the deliming and bating stage is to remove all the rests of lime and sulphides resulting in a smoother and cleaner surface. Hides are processed in a bath containing water, weak acids, weak alkali (ammonium salts) and enzymes.
Figure 11: Mass Balance for Deliming/Bating
2.3.1.5. Chrome Tanning
Purpose of the chrome tanning stage is to convert hides, that are easily decomposing, into leather which is more stable, not decomposed, and resistant to various conditions of climate. Although various methods of tanning exist, chrome tanning is by far out the most popular over the world and in Bangladesh. Chrome tanned leather is characterized by top handling, high hydrothermal stability and excellent user properties.
Chrome tanning is actually built up out of two sub-activities: pickling and tanning. However because of overlap between these two activities, both are integrated into an overall chrome-tanning step. Pickling is necessary to adjust the pH value to a level, which is suitable for the chrome tanning reactions. After about
Deliming/
Bating
Wet ‘Fleshed and Hairless’
Hides
=
=
=
=
=
Wet ‘Fleshed, Clean, and Hairless’ Hides
Water
Calcium Hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) Ammonium Salts
Sodium Sulphur (Na2S) Sodium Hydrosulphide (NaHS) Weak acids
Enzyme products
=
=
corresponding to 2% Cr2O3 on hide weight. Towards the end of the tanning process a dosage of a basification agent is added to the solution. In Bangladesh sodium hydrogen carbonate (Na2CO3) is used in order to neutralize the picking agents and to enhance the reactivity of the chrome complexes.
Figure 12: Mass Balance for Chrome Tanning
2.3.1.6. Wet Blue Splitting
In order to level the hides to give them a uniform thickness, additional operations are required after chrome tanning. Upon this stage of the overall process in which hides are chrome tanned, hides are called ‘wet blue’
because of their color and water contents. The wet blues, which at this stage are fairly thick, are then split horizontally through their structure to produce two thinner pieces. The outer skin surface goes forward for processing as full grain leather; the inner side is suede-also known as split-leather. The thickness of the wet blue is further corrected during the shaving operation.
2.3.1.7. Post Tanning
Inputs for the post tanning are wet-blue grain leather and wet blue splits. The variety of and differences in post tanning methods followed by tanners is much broader than in chrome tanning. Nevertheless, whereas chemicals used, duration, temperature and sequence may differ, the general purpose is similar: the manufacture of dry crust leather with specific and desired characteristics. To attain these characteristics wet- blue grain leather and wet blue splits are retanned, dyed, fat liquored and dried.
=
=
==
=
=
Water Salts (NaCl) Reaction Salts
Basic Agents (Na2CO3) Sulphuric Acids
Basic Chrome Sulphate (25% Cr2O3 )
Chrome
WetBlue
Wet ‘Clean, Fleshed and Hairless’
Hides
