Food distribution in the Physical Internet

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Food distribution in the Physical

Internet

A modular approach to solving special cold-chain requirements

Wouter Keizer

A thesis presented for the degree of:

MSc Technology & Operations management and

MSc Operations & Supply chain Management

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Abstract

In this research critical elements of food distribution through the Physical Internet is discussed. A decoupling of the special requirements, using a new element called PI-modules, is proposed. These PI-modules could form an important element in the shipping of all products wit special requirements.

1 Introduction

Increases in food prices, high food-waste and the increased effects of climate change on crop-yields has lead to the development of more sustainable and robust food supply chains (G¨obel et al., 2015) as the world is looking for a solution to feed the entire population of about 9 billion people by 2050 (Parfitt et al., 2010).

It is estimated that 30% of the food produced for human consumption globally is lost or wasted somewhere along the food supply chain (Rezaei and Liu, 2017). A limited shelf life of food products, special requirements in regard to temperature and humidity control, possible interaction effects between products, time windows for delivering the products, high customer expectations, and low profit margins make food distribution management (i.e. Food Supply Chain Management, FSCM) a challenging area that has only recently began to receive more attention in the operations management and Physical Internet literature (Akkerman et al., 2010; Pal and Kant, 2017a). Furthermore, Validi et al. (2014) noted that traditional methodologies of handling food market distribution through storage and transportation of perishable food products is not sufficient in today’s sustainable environment. They noted that future supply chains should improve its environmental performance.

Zhong et al. (2017) suggested that a future solution for the complexity and sustainability issues of food supply chains could be applying the relatively new concept of Physical internet for FSCM. In the Physical Internet, FSCM for food handling, movement, storage, and delivery could be transformed in a global logistics efficient and sustainable network. Subsequently, lowering the cost, complexity and waste associated with the current food supply chains is a key.

The Physical Internet (PI or π), aims to increase the simplicity and sustainability of global supply chains, increasing the effectiveness and efficiency by applying the successes of the internet and translating them for the movement of physical goods (Montreuil, 2011). An envisaged Physical Internet has several elements such as; autonomous smart modular containers, smart information technology, special π-transporters and π-nodes (i.e. transits, hubs, switches). Which overall create a decentralised open network for effective and efficient transport of goods (Montreuil et al., 2015).

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The objective of this thesis is to further investigate, identify and validate the requirements of a PI-system design capable of transporting and handling perishable food products over a medium-long range distance. Based on this objective the following research question is defined:

What are the design requirements of a π-architecture that allow for food distribution within the π-system in an efficient and effective way?

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2 Theoretical background

In the theoretical background, first, the envisaged Physical Internet is shortly summarised and discussed, followed by the current research on food distribution in PI. Subsequently, the literature regarding current state-of-the-art in food distribution is explored.

2.1 Physical Internet

As previously mentioned the Physical Internet, hereafter PI or π, is the adaptation of the successes of the internet for distribution of physical goods. The Physical Internet has been formally defined as an open global logistics network, founded on physical, digital, and operational inter-connectivity, through encapsulation, interfaces, and protocols (Ballot et al., 2012). Several unsustainable trends in social, environmental and economics in global supply chains were found by Montreuil (2011), see below;

1. Shipping air and packaging

2. Empty travel is the norm rather than the exception 3. Truckers have become modern cowboys

4. Products mostly sit idle, stored where unneeded, yet so often unavailable fast where needed

5. Production and storage facilities are poorly used 6. So many products are never sold, never used

7. Products do not reach those who need them the most 8. Products unnecessarily move, crossing the world

9. Fast & reliable inter-modal transport is still a dream or a joke 10. Getting products in and out of cities is a nightmare

11. Networks are neither secure nor robust

12. Smart automation & technology are hard to justify 13. Innovation is strangled

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2.2 Physical Internet Elements

In order to achieve the above vision of the Physical Internet several fundamental function-alities and components have been envisaged and researched by several authors. First, the π-system encapsulates physical objects in physical packets or containers (hereafter termed as π-containers) just as in the internet. Furthermore, using π-transportation (e.g. equiv-alent to modern day trucks, trains forklifts etc.) the π-containers move autonomously through the Physical Internet passing π-nodes (i.e. locations expressly designed to per-form operations on π-containers) from producer to the final destination. Additionally, current supply chain or information technologies that are being used or developed such as smart highways, autonomous real-time data platforms, block chain, big data and machine learning are required to realise the π-internet vision.

2.2.1 π - containers

A π-container is an intelligent, autonomous and modular container, designed to easily interlock with other container to create larger structures easily handled by the π-system (Montreuil et al., 2010). The π-containers must have a minimal footprint when out of service, allowing their on-demand dismantling and assembling. They should be environment friendly and come in a variety of structural graded adapted to the weight and characteristics of the loads it has to contain. Last, they should be modularized and standardized worldwide in terms of dimensions, functions and fixtures. With this modularity function, load breaking during transport should become almost negligible in both temporal (time) and from an economic perspective (Montreuil et al., 2010).

Several authors have discussed the requirements for such π -containers. Landsch¨utzer et al. (2014) determined the technical aspect of a modular box for Fast Moving Con-sumer Goods (FMCG). In their research they looked at the required sizes, functional aspects, specifications, standardization, load function, bin packing and the interlocking mechanism. A design draft and prototype of a π-container was created in collaboration with the MODULSCHA project. A project funded by the 7th Framework Programme of the European commission, which provides a solution for better space usage and stan-dardization as well as providing interchange scenarios and technology for shipping goods between continents (Landsch¨utzer et al., 2014). Currently, modern reefer containers al-ready have some of the operational performance that π-containers require, like for example the Envirotainers (Baxter and Kourousis, 2015). Especially high value pharmaceuticals use these specialized cold-chain containers which are actively tracked and have modern sensing and communication techniques available.

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2.2.2 π - Transportation

The π-transportation sometimes called π-movers are the equivalent of modern day trucks, trains, forklifts etc. Main types of movers are the transporter, conveyors and π-handlers. The first refers to vehicles and carriers that enable easy, secure and efficient moving, differentiated by the fact that they are self-propelled. The π-conveyors (i.e. automated conveyor systems) and π-handlers (i.e. humans) need to push or pull using vehicles or others enhancement devices (Montreuil et al., 2015). All transport modes the π-system should be interconnected, open for all parties and decentralised and enable the movement of the previously discussed π-containers.

2.2.3 π - Nodes

The π−nodes are locations expressly designed to perform operations on π−containers, such as receiving, moving, sorting, storing, composing, decomposing and shipping π-containers (Montreuil, 2011). A variety of π-nodes are required in different settings such as π-switches (i.e. transport vehicle switch locations) and π-hubs (i.e. large cross-docking station for re-assembly). Generally, each π-node has its own specific function in the PI-system. Ballot et al. (2012) looked at three types of facilities rail (i.e. π-nodes) and provide a functional design for a rail-road, road-based and sea-port docks.

2.3 Food distribution in the Physical Internet

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2.4 Food supply chains

Quality of food changes continuously all the way from the supplier to the consumer and therefore, safety, quality and health are of utmost importance in the food distribution and should be taken into account accordingly (Akkerman et al., 2010). In the case of perishable logistics such as food- or pharmaceutical logistics it may result in significant spoilage and wastage of fresh food (Rezaei and Liu, 2017), and there is a natural trade-off between efficiency and freshness. Therefore, an effective blueprint for an economically competitive modern food/pharmaceutical market distribution systems call for the inclu-sion of a methodology, which can collectively deliver reduced environmental impact, lower operating costs and optimised traversed paths (Validi et al., 2014).

A current trend in order to optimise the previous factors is supply chain collaboration in the food industry (Matopoulos et al., 2001). Collaboration increases efficiency in food distribution and leads to less empty space being transported. However, research on coordination-related issues in an agricultural supply chain is in its early development. Current research mainly focuses on the coordination of different functions within a supply chain, but may not cover coordination of the whole supply chain (Handayati et al., 2015). As an alternative the envisioned Physical Internet could help provide supply chain collaboration in an effective and efficient manner.

Further, Zhong et al. (2017) performed a comprehensive literature review regarding food supply chain management (FSCM) in terms of current research and future trends. The key developments found were new IT systems, traceability systems, smart packaging and sensing and communication techniques. Further, the development of cooled supply chains by Environtainer is discussed and the relevance to this research.

A lack of knowledge about how to handle food products within logistics. With the help of a structured approach to product characteristics, it will be easier for researchers to apply the findings from logistics research within food logistics

• What are the specific product requirements of frozen and ambient food products, and how do they impact logistics activities?

• How are the characteristics of chilled food products interrelated? How generalisable are food product characteristics?

2.4.1 Traceability

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2.4.2 Smart Packing

Last, the field of smart packaging and new sensing and communication in the FSCM is discussed. Verghese et al. (2015) analysed the importance of packaging in the food supply chain, showing significant opportunities for technological innovation to reduce food waste in the supply chain such as:

Technology Description

Multi-layer barrier packaging Packaging containing multi-layer to provide required barriers against moisture, gases and odour.

Modified atmosphere packaging Gases added to packaging before sealing to control atmosphere within the pack.

Edible coating Based on a range of proteins, lipids, polysaccharides and their composites to create a protective barrier. Ethylene scavengers Removes ethylene which delays ripening and extend

shelf life of fresh produce.

Oxygen scavengers Remove oxygen which accelerates degradation of food by causing off-flavour, colour change and nutrient loss. Moisture absorbers Remove moisture to keep conditions less favourable

for growth of micro-organisms.

Aseptic packaging Sterilized packaging prior to filling with ultra-high-temperature to kill micro-organisms.

2.4.3 Sensing and communication

Further, a method for intelligent packing and to better monitor the food quality and safety was developed by Fuertes et al. (2016). Using a combination of nano chips, Time and Temperature indicators, Freshness indicators and integrity indicators nutritions and food degradation can be measured and tracked. Fuertes et al. (2016) also mentioned that most of the above techniques are already commercially available and used in some specialised supply chains such as the pharmaceutical and food supply chain. Last, a framework of communication with the shopping carts through RFID tags was provided , which could be reused in a π-design to keep track of the status of degradation of a product.

2.4.4 Environtainer

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Therefore, in the research a further look into Environtainer and shipment of Pharmaceu-ticals will also take place.

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3 Methodology

In this chapter the method and steps to perform this research are described. An ex-ploratory design science research strategy is performed, following the structure of Wieringa and Heerkens (2007). The main purpose is to develop new design knowledge that can be used in future development of food transport via the physical internet. First, the re-search questions and sub-questions are discussed, followed by the rere-search design. Next, design science research in general and the methods of data collection for this research are described.

3.1 Research questions

Based on the information of the previous chapter, the research question is extended and defined as follows:

What are the design requirements for π-transportation, π-containers and π-hub design to allow for distribution of food products within the pi-system in an efficient and

effective way?

Several sub-questions are posed based on the relevant steps in the design science cycle of Wieringa and Heerkens (2007) consisting of knowledge problem investigation, solution design and finally design validation, Both design implementation and the implementation evaluation are omitted due to the lack of actual implementation of this research.

1. What are the current requirements and functionalities of food dsitribution?

2. What are possible design solutions for food distribution in the envisaged π -systems? 3. How can the proposed design for food distribution in the π -system be realised in an

efficient and effective way?

3.2 Design science research

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Figure 1: Design Cycle (Hevner, 2007)

First, the Relevance Cycle bridges the contextual environment of the research project with the design science activities. It initiates the DSR with an application context that provides the requirements for the research (e.g. the opportunity/problem to be addressed) as inputs but also defines acceptance criteria for the ultimate evaluation of the research result. In this research and an extensive literature review of current food supply chain literature and food safety legislation is used as input for the relevance cycle.

The Rigor cycle connects design science activities with the knowledge based of scientific foundation, experience, and expertise that informs the research project. In the rigor cycle a DSR draws form scientific theory that provide the foundation and is build on the state-of-the-art in the application domain of the research and existing artefacts and processes found in the application domain. A review of the current π-literature is used for grounding this research. Furthermore, an evaluation of the current FSCM functionalities with the PI-functionalities is performed, to find the short coming of the current PI. After the design cycle, the additions to the knowledge base are the result of the validation and design process.

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3.3 Research Plan

Following the previous sub-questions and the regulative cycle of Wieringa and Heerkens (2007), a research plan was created that can be seen in Figure 2. A detailed description is of each step is given below.

Figure 2: Research Plan

First, it is required to perform a literature review of all that is known regarding food transportation in the π-system, however as previously mentioned only Kilinc (2018) and Pal and Kant (2017a) have discussed the topic in a meaningful way. Additional literature in similar product categories and characteristics of the Physical Internet is therefore required and discussed. Next, current literature regarding state-of-the-art food supply chains is examined. This literature research is enhanced with a single case study at a manufacturer of perishable food products in the Netherlands, in order to see what is currently being practised in industry.

3.4 Case study

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current FSCM functionalities and requirement (i.e. observations, interviews, documen-tation) to study the same phenomenon (Karlsson, 2016).

The unit of analysis for the single-case study is the supply-chain/distribution depart-ment of the company previously described. First, using company docudepart-mentation and observation of daily activities and processes the general process and requirements of food distribution are described. Next, several semi-structured interviews with the following experts in food transportation are performed, see table 2.

Function title Experience & description 1. Supply chain manager 30 years’ experience in food retail/service 2. Logistics manager 25 years’ experience in food retail/service 3. Production manager 30 years’ experience in food retail/service

Table 2: Case study interviewees.

The goal of the interviews is to discover the current critical elements of food distribution and the state-of-the-art practices. Each interview will be face-to-face, requires approxi-mately two hours, and are scheduled in the period of 1st of July until the 1st of august. At the start of the interview, general questions regarding the daily process earlier observed and the role of the interviewee in the company are asked. Afterwards, a predetermined set of questions regarding the criticality of the processes and importance of several controls of factors are asked. Additional questions following the interview are asked via email or telephone contact. All interviews are recorded for reliability purposes and are later transcribed using the following protocol.

Last, a general discussion with all interviewees is held to discuss the critical requirements and state-of-the-art in the perishable food distribution. This discussion is recorded and transcribed in the same manner as the previous interviews and aims to gain a consensus among the members. Below the company involved is shortly described.

Company involved

Pr´e Pain a company producing fresh and frozen bake-off bread products is involved in this study to provide information and validate the proposed π-system design. Pr´e Pain is part of Aryzta a large international food group and has 11 production lines and a large general warehouse from which is sources it customers. Daily, the company delivers fresh products throughout the Netherlands with several logistics partners. Furthermore, frozen bake-off bread products are transported to customers in the UK, Denmark, Germany, Belgium, France and the Netherlands. Both distribution channels require specialised cooled and frozen transport capabilities, which is partly performed by an in-house fleet of cooled trucks and partly by a third party logistics provider.

Design solution

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case study information and new designs. Each design is created in IDEF0, a function modelling technique for describing systems and functions.

Design validation

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4 Analysis

In the analysis, the critical success factors and current FSCM processes and requirements are investigated using multiple case studies (obtained from literature), exploratory in-terviews with FSCM professionals, and studying food regulations laws and certifications. This chapter will start with the generalised food supply chain stakeholders and processes, followed by the current practices and requirements for fresh food distribution.

4.1 Characteristics of the Food industry

The food industry can be characterised by transport of sensitive products, with low profits margins and a high margin of error and error cost (due to early degradation, waste and mismanagement (Samir, 2015) Generally, products are shipped via *private distributors or third party logistics providers (3PL’s) and require specialised equipment (container with climate control capabilities). Food safety is the most important factor and supplier and shippers of food products must adhere to strict rules and legislation (ATP, 2008) . Moreover, fresh food distribution requires additional handling procedures and sanitary working environments, to ensure products arrive in an optimal and save state to the consumer (Ackerley et al., 2010)

Generally, multiple stakeholders are involved in the Fresh Food Supply Chain, figure 4.1 shows a general overview of possible stakeholders and their relation.

Figure 3: Stakeholders map adapted from Rezaei and Liu (2017) Food producer or Agriculture supplier

The agriculture supplier (i.e. the farmers/fishers) receives order requests from the cus-tomer and is responsible for the optimal status and on-time delivery of products. In this regard the supplier has the most interest in ensuring efficient, cost-effective delivery and is therefore considered the main user of the PI-system.

Trader

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Food processor

The food processing industry, is the stakeholders that transform food products into more refined products that meet consumer requirements. Often extending shelf-life of the final products, mostly in ready-to-eat formats for the consumer, however, after this step normally food is not considered fresh any longer.

Distributor

A distributor act as the link between producers, processors and markets (i.e. the PI-system in the future), who will transport good from supplier to the customer.

Wholesaler

A wholesaler act mostly as the link to the food-services industry and will buy products from several suppliers world-wide in bulk and resell them on their internal market. Retailer

Retailers usually are in the form of shops or supermarkets collating multiple products (SKUs) for the consumer to choose. Currently, retailers have become large players, which have power to pressure the food producers for lower cost.

Food service (caterers)

Restaurants, hospitals and other food service players are buyers of food products. Usually they prefer higher-end products and have their own specialised need (such as consolidated transport and specific delivery times).

Consumer

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4.2 Current functions and requirements of Food supply chains

In order to discover the functionalities and requirements of the food supply chains and transport, an analysis of the following literature (i.e. case studies, protocols, laws), see table 3 was performed.

Nr Source Title 1 Akkerman et al.

(2010)

Quality, safety and sustainability in food distribution: A review of quantitative operations management approaches and challenges

2 Wakeland et al. (2012) Green Technologies in Food Production and Processing 3 Aramyan et al. (2007) Performance indicators in agri food production chains 4 Van Der Vorst et al.

(2009)

Agri Industry Supply Chain: concepts and applications 5 Samir (2015) Food supply chain management and logistics From farm

to fork 6 European Parliament

and Council (2002)

Regulation (EC) No 852/2004 of the European Parliament on the Hygiene of food stuffs

7 UK P&I club (2018) Carefull to carry

Table 3: Feature and requirement analysis sources

4.3 Food safety and legislation

Food transport is subjected to many food safety rules and legislation. Especially, due to major food incidents on a global scale. Governments, both national and international (FDA, 2013; European Parliament and Council, 2002), are responding to this by imposing new legislation and regulations to ensure safe and animal-friendly production, restricted pollution and to economise on the use of resources (Trienekens and Zuurbier, 2008). Examples of this are the Codex Alimentarius standards (FAO/WHO), The General Food Law (European Union(EU) 2002/178) and the EU-BSE regulations. In this section the legislation and regulations for food distribution are discussed.

4.4 Food transport legislation

Food transport regulations and legislation requires additional functionality from food transporters. In the table below a summation of some of the criteria from (European Parliament and Council, 2002; ATP, 2008; Bendekovi´c et al., 2015) is given.

1. Provide suitable temperature-controlled handling and storage conditions of suffi-cient capacity for maintaining foodstuffs at appropriate temperatures and designed to allow those temperatures to be monitored and, where necessary, recorded. 2. Food products that need to be chilled or frozen should be cooled as quickly as

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3. Traceability of food products is required and must identify and register the supplier in the country of origin .

4. International transport of food products requires the registration and licensing of transporters.

5. Means of transport have to be constructed in a way to enable efficient cleaning and disinfection, and have to be kept in a clean and good condition in order to protect the food from contamination.

6. All equipment used for distribution of chilled or frozen food products requires cer-tification.

7. Good food hygiene practices, including protection against contamination and, in particular, pest control.

8. Genetically modified food and feed, bio proteins and novel foods must be sealed and properly stowed.

9. Means of transport or containers for food transportation have to be construed in a way to ensure a transport of anything else besides food in a separate environment. 10. All equipment and materials used have to be regularly maintained and installed as to enable easier cleaning and disinfection. Protection is required against the accumulation of dirt, contact with toxic materials, the shedding of particles into food and the formation of condensation or undesirable mould on surfaces.

Summarised, food safety regulations include product temperature control along the entire supply chain, tracking of air and product temperature in refrigerated vehicles, production workcells and loading-reloading points, and verified standardised equipment.

4.5 Temperature-control and conditioning capability

One of the key differentiators of normal transport and transportation of food products is the special requirement for cooling and general conditioning capabilities. Post-harvest proper handling of food products, direct cooling and temperature helps maximise food products shelf-life (Samir, 2015; UK P&I club, 2018). In the current food transport infrastructure, reefer containers are used to have multitude of special conditioning ca-pabilities, such as cooling, freezing, ventilation and humidity control capabilities. Some reefer containers even additional functionality, such as ethylene removal (gas control) or odour blocking.

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4.5.1 Temperature control

Temperature control, or cold storage of fresh products is essential because it minimise the risk of food-borne illnesses, maintain optimal quality by reducing several physiological activities, and reduce the growth rate of spoilage microorganisms (Ackerley et al., 2010) Bacteria growth, freeze-burns and other factors all are important determinants of de-graded quality and potential health risk due to food-born illnesses. Therefore, the Eu-ropean Union requires (EuEu-ropean Parliament and Council, 2002) frozen products to be shipped at or below minus 18 degrees C for the entirety of transport and storage.

4.5.2 Gases, odours & ventilation control

Ventilation of the products is, in certain cases, critical to maintain freshness and nutri-tional value of the product. Both carbon dioxide and ethylene lead to advanced softening and ripening of fruits and vegetables. Air-flow using ventilators is normally regulated by the shippers to ensure both proper temperature control (cool air) and removal of ethy-lene or other gasses. Consequently, odour-contamination need to be controlled for and containers with odour absorbing products (e.g. coffee) need to be separated from odour excreting products (e.g. banana, fish) when natural ventilation of equipment is required (UK P&I club, 2018).

4.5.3 Humidity & condensation control

Similar to ventilation, humidity control is required for a category of food products. In-adequate humidity can for example, cause certain fish to dry out transport, decreasing the product quality. On the other hand, condensation can form due to high humidity, which can be caused by loading from warm to cold environments, can increase ripening times of some fruit types (UK P&I club, 2018). High humidity in containers has also been associated with carton boxes degradation and several types of moulds and rots (UK P&I club, 2018).

4.6 Climate & quality monitoring

In addition to controlling the climate inside containers and the food supply chain, active monitoring of all stages is required by the EU and other regulatory bodies (European Parliament and Council, 2002). Recently, new methods of testing food quality are con-tinued to be developed alongside improving traditional methods of analysis. The tools used, particularly those for analytical measurements, continue to get more sensitive, more specific, and faster, and the industries using these tools must keep up with these changes (Tanner, 2016).

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• Chemical reactions, mainly due to either oxidation or Maillard reactions.

• Microbial reactions: microorganisms can grow in foods; in the case of fermentation this is desired, otherwise microbial growth will lead to spoilage and, in the case of pathogens, to unsafe food.

• Biochemical reactions: many foods contain endogenous enzymes that can poten-tially catalyze reactions leading to quality loss (enzymatic browning, lipolysis, pro-teolysis, and more).

• Physical reactions: many foods are heterogeneous and contain particles. These particles are unstable, in principle at least, and phenomena such as coalescence, aggregation, and sedimentation lead usually to quality loss. Also, changes in texture can be considered

Current reefer containers also have their own measuring system, which monitors the temperature inside the container, air quality and that track the location of the container (World Shipping Council, 2017).

4.7 Traceability

Another key requirement mentioned in food safety legislation and in every researched source is traceability of food products and record keeping of time temperature data (European Parliament and Council, 2002) Food traceability refers to a data trail which follows the food physical trial through various statuses (Smith et al., 2005). Traceability allows countries and supply chains to confidently prove the food origins, and helps reduce food risk as any safety incidents also need to be reported.

Food business operators are to keep and retain records of traceability and relating to measures put in place to control hazards in an appropriate manner and for an appropriate period, commensurate with the nature and size of the food business. Food business operators are to make relevant information contained in these records available to the competent authority and receiving food business operators on request

Furthermore, traceability mitigates fraud and counterfeiting of food, which helps prevent financial losses and increases food safety, due to lower incident caused by fraudulent/-counterfeited products. From a supply chain perspective food products are more easily recalled. Additionally continuous tracking of food in transport and inventories helps with visibility of the supply chain. Finally, traceability helps consumers choose foods which are regulatory compliant and helps make them informed choices in regard of their food purchases.

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Examples are that of Hsu et al. (2008) which developed an RFID-enabled traceability system for live fish supply chain.

Therefore, it is important to establish and maintain an effective communication between all the subjects involved in processing the food, legislation and regulatory administra-tions and consumers, in order to preserve the quality and safety of food along the entire production chain.

4.8 International transport & environmental protection

Currently, food products being imported or exported are subject to country or nation specific import laws. Countries can require container to have special food only transport equipment, and follow specific hygiene and cleaning procedures. GMO crops and others seeds also require special sealing of the containers, to prevent accidental damage to the environment.

Generally, food product must be registered and in accordance to the national legislation (Bendekovi´c et al., 2015) and import/export licence are often required for food products (APHIS). Moreover, information regarding the imported/exported food product and final destination must be provided prior to shipment. Currently, distribution companies spend a lot of time on legislation and regulation handling, dealing with all legal documentation required for the transport of food products.

4.9 Certification of equipment

According to the ATP (2008) all equipment used for distribution of chilled or frozen food products requires certification. In current food supply chain, reefer containers are certified when they are taken into use, or after maintenance. An official test must take place to verify among others; the cooling capacity, structural integrity and cleanliness of the reefer container or other equipment.

In addition to certification of equipment, several food safety and private certification labels such as BRC and GMP-plus are used in current food transport. Akkerman et al. (2010) discussed that many customers require food transporters to have at least one private certification as a way to attract and satisfy consumers. Private certification mostly have similar elements, focusing on increasing food safety, efficiency and working conditions. For example, the BRC standard for storage and distribution has 8 sections;

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• Good operation practices

• Personell (training and hygiene)

4.10 Risk prevention and emergency control

Recent food incidents (e.g. salmonella outbreak from beans) have shown that risk preven-tion and clear communicapreven-tion is key to food safety. In recent years FDA(FDA, 2013) and the EU (European Parliament and Council, 2002) has enforced stronger regulation for risk prevention; including several emergency food safety measures and risk identification methods.

According to (Ackerley et al., 2010) there are five food safety hazards of greatest concern across all modes of transport.

• Lack of security

• Improper holding practices for food products awaiting shipment or inspection • Improper temperature control

• Cross-contamination during transport

• Improper loading practices, conditions, or equipment

One of the most used food risk prevention method which is required by both the FDA(FDA, 2013) and EU (European Parliament and Council, 2002) is Hazard analysis and critical control points. HACCP is a systematic preventive approach to food safety from biolog-ical, chemical and physical hazards in production processes and supply chains. HACCP attempts to avoid hazards rather than attempting to inspect finished products for the effects of those hazards. Systems are in place at all stage of the food chain, from food production to preparation (including packaging and distribution). General conditions according to the HACCP Guide for Good Sanitary Practice in Transportation are;

1. Food that is transported by any of the means of transportation or in containers has to be secured and arranged as to prevent any form of contamination.

2. Food in various forms (liquid, bulk, powder, granules or granular food) needs to be transported in canisters, containers, or tanks intended for food transportation, which must be vividly and clearly labelled with non-erasable labels in the language used in the international food transport, so their use could be clearly seen; they also have to be clearly labelled “for food transportation only”.

3. When means of transport and containers are used for the transport of other products or for the transport of different kinds of foods, it is necessary that they be thoroughly cleaned in order to prevent any contamination.

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5. Means of transport and containers used for the transportation of foods which needs to be at a specific temperature level, have to ensure proper temperature control. 6. Means of transport and containers used for transportation of deep-frozen foods

have to enable supervision and the list of the reached temperatures in line with regulations

Several overlaps can be found with the previously discussed general food regulations, however, the HACCP guidelines gives some additional insights into the required function-alities. Securing transportation, clear labelling of food containers and most importantly compatibility between connected or mixed containers must be ensured.

4.11 Hygiene, cleaning and (cross-) contamination

Food transport containers and storage facilities are only allowed to transport food product after effective cleaning and disinfection to avoid the risk of contamination (Ackerley et al., 2010). As previously discussed, all equipment coming into contact with food products should be constructed and kept in good order. Moreover, equipment must be constructed so it can be effectively cleaned, at a frequency sufficient to avoid any risk of microbial contamination (Bendekovi´c et al., 2015).

Among effective cleaning, additional pest-control is required during handling, storage and transport of food transport Akkerman et al. (2010). Fumigation of the containers and other facilities might be required for some international transports UK P&I club (2018).

4.12 Emergency, communication & recalls

An extension of risk prevention during food transport is the proper procedures and com-munication in case of emergency. Currently, a world wide food alert system from the World Health organisation called the ’International Food Safety Authorities Network or INFOSAN’ ensures rapid sharing of information during food safety emergencies to stop the spread of contaminated food from one country to another. Moreover, the EU legisla-tion requires all stakeholders in the food supply chain to make use of the RASFF (Rapid Alert System for Food and Feed) a similar system.

In case of emergency several procedures are currently used in food distribution (a) Technical problems with equipment

The contents of the reefer container or others must be removed as quickly as possible, re-conditioned and checked for any abnormalities. If in any case the temperature dropped below a critical value the food must be discarded properly

(b) Problems due to microbiological hazard or cross-contamination.

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(c) Loss of IT

If in any case, the monitoring equipment or traceability system fail products in the current food supply chain require additional test to ensure food safety.

4.13 Waste management

In the case that food products become inedible or unusable, whether due to exceeding their shelf-life or other factors, it must be properly discarded (Akkerman et al., 2010). Waste management deals with the destruction or re-use of unwanted or spoiled food prod-ucts. In a waste management system, activities such as collection, transport, treatment and disposal of waste, together with monitoring and regulation of the process are re-quired. From a sustainability perspective the most ideal case is minimal waste, however, for food products this is not always possible.

In some cases food products can safely be re-used or re-processed so that the valuable nutrients are still utilised. Food on the edge of spoilage currently is being sold to food-banks, conscious consumers and specialised food re-processes. However, when products cannot be re-used or re-processed the food needs to be composed, incinerated or dumped on a landfill.

Regulations for waste handling are (European Parliament and Council, 2002);

• Food waste, non-edible by-products and other refuse are to be removed from rooms where food is present as quickly as possible, so as to avoid their accumulation. • Food waste, non-edible by-products and other refuse are to be deposited in closable

containers, unless food business operators can demonstrate to the competent au-thority that other types of containers or evacuation systems used are appropriate. These containers are to be of an appropriate construction, kept in sound condition, be easy to clean and, where necessary, to disinfect.

• Adequate provision is to be made for the storage and disposal of food waste, non-edible by-products and other refuse. Refuse stores are to be designed and managed in such a way as to enable them to be kept clean and, where necessary, free of animals and pests.

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5 Evaluation of FSCM for Physical Internet

In this chapter, the FSCM functionalities and requirements from previous chapters are evaluated and matched with already known Physical Internet functionalities. The aim is to find what functionalities are lacking in PI literature and require further research. An overview of the functionalities is provided in figure - 4

Figure 4: DSR diagram

5.1 Climate control and temperature regulation

As already mentioned, climate control is required during food transport and handling, specifically, temperature control is required to prolong shelf-life in food transportation. Assuming that the Physical Internet will transport food products, climate control func-tionalities are expected.

Current cold chains provide a series of controlled temperature storage and transport conditions from the point of origin to the point of consumption. Cold chain infrastructure generally consist of grading, sorting, packaging, storage, processing and transportation, see figure 5.1.

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Figure 5: Cold chain infrastructure

the PI-system. However, no specific designs have been put forward which address this specific need and how this functionality will be provided.

Moreover, the additional functionalities such as active ventilation, humidity control, gas removal and the need for certification of all food transport related equipment has not been been addressed in the Physical Internet literature.

5.2 Communication, traceability & monitoring of food quality

One of the key principals of the Physical Internet is the use of advanced information systems which trace and monitor PI-containers through the network. As such traceability and communication are part of the basic requirements for PI-containers in the PI-system Montreuil et al. (2012).

Furthermore, Pal and Kant (2017a) describe methods for monitoring of food quality in the Physical Internet, suggesting a time-temperature indicator and nutrient degradation sensors, which are added to the food packing (in the form of stickers). Moreover, (Pal & Kant, 2018) described the method of communication between the IOT sensors and container (a mesh network). Subsequently, Moesker(2018) further specified how PI-containers communicate with the PI-network (even in remote areas) and what frequency of communication is required.

What is currently lacking in PI-literature is a description of the monitoring capabilities of PI-containers and what types of sensors are required for PI-containers in order to mea-sure all physiological aspects of food. Additionally, a framework for shared information with the customer, shipper and other stakeholders involved is currently missing from PI-literature.

5.3 International transport and certification of equipment

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In the case of special environmental protection required, such as sealing; Montreuil et al. (2012) has indicated that containers are required to be hermetically sealed.

5.4 Food safety risk prevention and emergency control

Food Safety and legislation in the Physical Internet haven’t been addressed beyond the basic remarks of Kilinc (2018) and Pal and Kant (2017b) following food safety regulations. Food safety is a result of several factors: legislation should lay down minimum hygiene requirements; official controls should be in place to check food business operators’ com-pliance and food business operators should establish and operate food safety programmes and procedures based on the HACCP principles. Moreover, risk prevention and emer-gency controls need to be in place.

In the analysis, security of transport, clear labelling of food containers and compatibility between mixed loads and foods is regarded most important. Assuming that ...

Current PI- literature lacks research in the topics of risk prevention and management of food products and in general.

Several types of risk have been discussed in the analysis such as; contamination (pan-demics), loss of power, loss of IT, disasters, quality problems, fraud.

5.5 Hygiene and cleaning operations

EU food law requires that every container moving food products is cleaned and disin-fected after each transport. Furthermore, all equipment’s used for transportation must be designed for cleaning operations. In the current PI-literature, cleaning and hygi¨ene operations are not mentioned except from the initial statement by Montreuil et al. (2012) that this would be a requirement for certain containers. Moreover, current literature is still lacking were cleaning operations should take place, and whether they should become part of the PI-system

5.6 Cross contamination

Samir (2015) and Akkerman et al. (2010) stated that when designing a supply chain for food handling it is important to understand that carrying different types of food may cause risk of product interaction. For example, ethylene producing accelerates the ripening of other fruits and listeria, salmonella from cheese or eggs can spread through the supply network.

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Modified atmosphere packaging or MAP is one solution wherein products are protected from advanced ripening of ethylene gas. Furthermore, current supply chain even show some cases wherein entire containers have modified atmospheres (i.e. gasses are added) to facilitate longer shelf-life.

However, in the PI-literature, this has not been addressed, and cross contamination of gasses and bacteria is still problematic during transport. The PI-system with it’s consolidation features would require a functionality to separate ethylene sensitive from ethylene producing products.

5.7 Emergency procedures

Another risk identified is equipment failure during transport of food products. Failure might occur in the temperature control, information monitoring, cleaning, loss of power (energy). In the PI-literature, Kilinc (2018) suggested that container-failure risk could be mitigated by strategically placing mutliple back-up containers in the PI-network or through a ”social capital” fund wherein containers help eachother out.

Regardless, emergency handling and procedures are required functionalities for the Phys-ical Internet which have not been adequately addressed.

5.8 Waste handling

If due to some reason, food spoils or is damaged during transport the products need to be processed.

From a sustainability point of view the best practice would be to re-use or re-process products which are still viable. PI-literature addresses a method of handling food waste. Pal and Kant (2017a) describes this procedure, wherein if the quality of some products deteriorates significantly at any stage of the food supply chain, products are sent to the food banks, where they are consumed at lower cost or for free by the people who need them. By distributing the food products that otherwise would be wasted to the food banks, the food loss in the chain can be significantly reduced.

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6 Fresh food distribution design in PI

In this chapter, the distribution of food in an envisioned PI-system is modelled using functional modelling techniques. First, an operational scenario of future food distribution in the Physical Internet is described. Next,

6.1 Future food distribution scenario

Traditionally, food products are bought by consumers at food-retail or food-service loca-tions (i.e. supermarkets, restaurants and shops). However, the rise of e-commerce, same day delivery and immediate delivery have made it possible for consumer to get their fresh food delivered directly through their door in an instant. Moreover, Ruan and Shi (2016) suggests that in the future customer will buy directly from farms (e.g. an online market-place which sells products from multiple farmers) instead of buying their products from local retailers.

Customer process

In a future envisioned scenario, a customer can order food directly from the farmer, agricultural producer or food processing industry (bakery products) using a common web-platform (e.g. an online supermarket such as PicNic or Ocado). On the ordering website the preferred order delivery time, method and costs are selected. A cost indication for the preferred services is given to the customer, directly from the PI-system (i.e. supermarkets can have plugins/API on their website directly linking to the PI ordering system). After ordering the customers is kept up-to-date, receiving information about the status of their delivery and estimated time of arrival. Last, the food products are received by the customer either directly from the PI-system or a third party logistic provider and a rating is given to the service provided.

Supplier Process

In this operational scenario, suppliers are argriculatural producers or the food processing industry. Assuming that food products are directly ordered from the supplier a make-to-order strategy can be used by the suppliers. For example, fruits can be freshly picked from the fields, processed, packaged, and send to the customer via the PI-system. Optimally, fruit and other products arrive fresh and properly conditioned at the customer, maximis-ing the shelf-life compared to the current process wherein products are first stored at several points in the supply chain.

The PI-system will provide climate controlled transport, and multiple sensors monitor the container and its content, which is communicated to all involved stakeholders. After the customer receives the products, the supplier receives payment and finalises the order (rating or auto-rating the PI-container for its services)

Advantages of PI

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(before e-commerce) most of it’s product are sold at local farmers markets, or at food-retail and service location. Wherein the latter in general has the highest percentage towards the overall revenue.

Additionally, due to uncertainty in forecasting and scheduling, requires fruits to be picked earlier, to have enough shelf-life in the retail aisles. However, due to forecasting errors, planning uncertainty and general consumer behaviours (i.e. a display must be full in order to sell more products) a large portion of product spoil/degrade in the aisles . An e-commerce approach can eliminate intermediate inventory at retailers or food-wholesalers and require a PI-system to effectively and cheaply transport food products to the consumer.

PI process

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6.2 Functional architecture (FA) for the FSCM in PI

In order to better understand the inter-dependencies of food distribution in the Physical Internet several functional architecture (FA) are created. New design solutions are created to further the understanding in the working of the critical PI requirements. In figure 6.2 below the three main functions of the future envisioned e-commerce process and Pi-system are described.

Figure 7: hierarchy: E-commerce (A-11) Supply product ;

Agricultural producers and food processors will provide the food products to be shipped in the PI, and will initiate the transport with a shipment request. Supplier will request a shipment for the PI-system based of an customer product request and sends the end-customer information to the PI-system. (Comment: Described differently from optimal scenario). Further, the supplier provides the products to be shipped and any other information required for transport.

(A0) Perform PI functions

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6.3 A0: Physical Internet functionalities

The main functional hierarchy, see figure - 9, consist of four functions, which describe how products, container and information moves through the PI-system. Further, it discusses special functions required for the PI-system for food products.

Figure 9: Hierarchy A0:Physical Internet functionalities

(A1) Matching of shipment and container

Horst (2018) described an auctioning mechanism/auctioneer were π -container and ship-ment request are matched. Shipship-ment-request are communicated with the auctioneer, that will find multiple π-containers that matches the shipment required specifications and func-tions (i.e. speed, delivery time, additional functionality required, delivery method). The supplier of goods chooses a π-container and sends a shipment order and partial payment to the PI-auctioneer. Several alternative options can also be conceived for the selection process of the container. For example, instead of a supplier selecting a container instead, the PI-system or the customer can choose the π-container

In this design, it is envisioned that the auctioneer (or PI-system auctioneer) functions act as a gatekeeper and dispute resolver. In this regards, the auctioneer ensure shipment invoices are sent after successful delivery. Moreover, payment for shipments is received from the customer and payed to all subsidiaries of the PI. The PI-system auctioneer also holds and communicates the record information regarding all used services, cost and other information for legal requirements.

(A2) Manage container

A π -containers is smart, modular and self-managed, meaning it will moves through the PI independently from it’s owner and is able to make it’s own decision.

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A price-bid for the shipment is sent back to the auctioneer and assuming that the π-container is chosen a shipment order is received and kept in the shipment backlog. Next, PI-transport and PI-hub are booked and the PI-container moves through the PI-internet. During it’s transport it will monitor it’s internals and contents, communicating with the supplier and consumer of the products.

As described by Moesker (2018) the cost calculation, matching and other decisions are performed by a digital twin of the PI-container. A digital twin is the digital representation of the container, which operates in the cloud and sends decision back to the PI-container.

(A3) Distribution of container

All functions required for the movement of food products and π -containers through the PI-network are contained in the distribution function. Several destinations, such as cleaning and maintenance locations, are envisioned based on the requirements for transport of food products, which are discussed later. However, assuming a cleaned and properly functioning container is transported to the pick-up location, than food products are loaded and encapsulated in the PI-system. Next, the PI-container continues its route through the system, passing along multiple nodes and switching to multiple PI-transporters, before reaching its final delivery location, where the products are unloaded and received by the customer.

(A4) Perform additional functions

Several additional functionalities are envisioned for a PI-system that can effectively trans-port food products. ’In general, a π-container makes a reservation for the required func-tionalities, transport to the location of service, receives service and continues its journey. Emergency activities are required in case of container malfunctioning, food safety issues or recalls. Further, it is envisioned that PI-nodes provide cleaning and maintenance services.

Last, one additional functionality is envisioned in this research wherein PI-containers can be customised for each transport journey. For example, PI-containers shipping food products can have a cooling-module, which can be installed at a nearby PI-node. This design decision allows for more flexibility and could solve the need for special containers, such as the reefer containers currently used. In the validation chapter the newly added π-modules are discussed, including there advantages and disadvantages.

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Figure

10:

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6.4 A2: Autonomous π-container management

Autonomy is one of the four key pillars in the PI and the self management of π-containers is modelled accordingly in this Functional Architecture. Functions of theπ-container are; management of shipment backlog and on-time arrangement of shipments to maximise utilisation and profits. Further, additional functionality modules or π-mods need to be booked, and routing through the PI-systems must be arranged for each shipment. Finally, during transport the containers status and contents are monitored and communicated to the different stakeholders, see figure 11

Figure 11: FA2: Autonomous π-container management (A21) Arrange new shipment orders

The π-container will actively seek out new shipment orders and participates in the PI-matching system. A shipment backlog is kept which contain the future orders to be executed. New shipment order can be found, while still carrying out previous shipments. Each π-container can offer a different value to the customer, for example some containers might offer faster delivery speed, higher quality of service, lower prices or additional functionality in order to win shipment orders. The π-container owners can differentiate their containers using these algorithms.

(A22) Arrange routing through Physical Internet

A shipment match request is send to the container, starting a routing and module cost calculation, wherein a container queries a price from π-transporters and π-hubs. Possibly, π-transportation or π-hub reservations are made ahead of the actual shipment order, to secure transport or transport during busy times. Again, the π-container owners can alter the algorithm in order to differentiate their container and create a profit.

(A23) Arrange modules for shipment

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(A24) Monitoring of container and shipment

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6.5 A3: Distribution of shipment through PI

In functional diagram A-3 the movement of PI-container and goods through the PI-system is modelled.

Figure 13: HIER3:Distribution of shipment (A31) Matching of transport & hub

Similar to the π-containers the π-transporters and π-hubs participate in the auctioneer and offer their services to π-containers. Similar to the other matching system reservations and bookings are made and communicated with the PI-network.

(A32) Encapsulate shipment

After π-containers arrive at the pick-up location the shipment is loaded by the shipper. Encapsulation of food-products in the PI-system is an important step, as any improper handling can cause harm to the products and extra care should be taken when loading to reduce vibration or shifting damage Ackerley et al. (2010).

(A33) Transport of container

In the Physical Internet described by Montreuil et al. (2012), specialised π-transport vehicles will transport π-containers to their destination. Additional functionality can be provided by the π-transporters, for example; by providing communication and power to π-containers

(A34) Consolidate container

In the consolidation function, several π-containers with a similar destination are combined to form a single transport structure, which can be loaded onto a transporter(boat, air-plane, truck, drone). A compatibility check is required during this procedure, to prevent security, safety and contamination issues. For example, cacao and coffee beans with res-piration modules cannot be latched to containers with fish or other strong odour releasing products due to risk of cross contamination and quality degradation.

(A35) Decapsulate shipment

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6.6 A3: Performing additional PI functionality

Several additional functionalities for the Physical Internet were previously envisioned and modelled in the last of the main A0 functions. The functions from figure 15 are not previously described in PI-literature regarding fresh food distribution, with the exception of maintenance.

Figure 15: Hierarchy A4: Performing additional functions (A41) Emergency function

Correct handling of emergencies in a PI-system need to be performed, early handling of malfunctioning containers reduces food waste and advanced monitoring ensure products arrive safely at the final destination.

On the occasion that the PI-container monitoring shows that either the contents or con-tainer enter a state of malfunctioning an emergency procedure will occur. A emergency decision will be made, dependent on the type of malfunctioning (or spoilage). How critical this process will become is still to be seen, since, fault reduction an advanced measurement can spot problems early and deal with them accordingly.

(A42) Maintenance of container

A π-container can have multiple reasons for maintenance, Postma (2018) shows how and where the maintenance process of PI-containers will take place.

(A43) Cleaning of container

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6.6.1 (A44) Install/de-install additional functionality (PI-modules)

Last, an additional decomposition of functions is made for the main design decision of this research, see figure - 16. In the validation these modules are explained extensively, however, the main purpose of these modules is to provide additional functionalities to PI-containers when needed.

Figure 16: Hierachy A44: Install/de-install additional functionality (PI-modules) For example, the PI-system get an order request for shipping peaches from Georgia to the Netherlands. The shippers requirement for this transport are temperature close to 2 degrees Celsius and ventilation is required UK P&I club (2018). In the A2 design, see figure 12, the required modules for this transport are arranged and transport to the module location is booked

A441: Find and install suitable module After arriving at the location where modules are storage, currently it is envisioned that PI-hubs will provide the modules, the required modules are installed in the PI-container.

A442: Check and certify module functions All modules that are installed must be checked and require certification in order to be legal.

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7 Validation of functionality decisions for PI

As the current PI-systems is still an envisioned system and the described functionalities and designs cannot be observed or tested in a real word scenario, an alternative vali-dation is performed to ”simulate the proposed functionalities of these designs”. In this validation the proposed design architectures is discussed with a group of experts in the food industry and transport sector. Specifically, to find critical design aspects, oversights and requirements for the proposed design architecture.

In this chapter first the general remarks of the design architecture are discussed. Followed by a more detailed discussion regarding the main design decision of this research.

7.1 General validation remarks

In the validation workshop all designs (A0; A1; A2; A3; A4) were discussed to find critical elements, problems and potential critical oversights by the author. All participants of the workshop (supply chain manager, production manager and quality manager) were unfamiliar with the concept, however, this was addressed by a presentation regarding the key points and ideas of the Physical Internet. Supporting the discussion was an design scenario specifically tailored for the company, a scenario of freshly baked croissants. The proposed concepts of outsourcing food distribution to the Physical Internet was con-sidered useful by the food producer, ”this concept would finally allow us to focus on our core business” (Production manager, 2018). Considering the companies current mainly operates in the business-to-business environment, ownership of the products during ship-ment and the overall reliability and risks of the PI-system must were considered crucial. According to the production manager, the PI-system must first prove itself, ensuring that our products are always on time at the customers otherwise the financial risk are to great. In general the Supply chain manager wants to know whether the PI-system will auto-matically cluster (consolidate) orders, so the total amount of containers arriving at the production location can be minimised. However, all participants agreed that using a PI-auctioneer would enable more flexibility and recommend to add several reliability ratings and factors when discussing the matching-system. The quality manager also described the requirements for a common data platform or information sharing with the customers as a critical element.

”Temperature and other information such as traceability and total transport time, give the customer an indication of the quality upon arrival at the customer.” (Quality manager, 2018)

Next, a method for finding the optimal transport conditions in the Physical Internet was discussed. The current process of the company is based on trial-and-error, to find the most suitable settings and the production manager mentions that after handing over this process to an PI-system an alternative needs to be found.

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making would be required according to the managers. Furthermore, according to the supply chain manager PI-container cleaning could be performed by the supplier, which has the additional benefit that the supplier controls this process. However, the alternative of cleaning at the PI-nodes was also accepted as a viable solution. Waste handling was not considered a part of the Physical Internet, the quality manager discussed that in most cases waste is regulated through local authorities and would be difficult to changes as it is bound to many regulations.

7.2 PI-modular climate control functionalities

The main design decision of this research is the decoupling of special requirements from the PI-container and capturing this in so called PI-modules. In this section an explanation of PI-modules is given as well as a discussion on the advantages and disadvantages, following from the validation research.

Explanation of PI-modules

A PI-modules is a re-attachable object/device which can be added to an PI-container and provide it with additional functionality. Several functionalities are envisioned such as; climate control, advanced sensing and communication, additional security, and providing power. Similar to PI-containers, the design of the PI-modules would need to be compat-ible with the current PI-system design. PI-modules should therefore be latchable, like PI-packages or M-boxes (Modulshca, 2018), and need easy installment and de-installment. Further, PI-modules would require power to operate, which can be provided externally or internally. Easy attachment of power cables or even better an integrated power supply system (which can power both PI-container and PI-modules) would be required.

Key reasoning behind the alternative design decision of PI-modules are the special re-quirements for food transport, and the effects this would have on the PI-system. In the first designs round, dedicated PI reefer (PIR) containers were considered. However, these PIR-containers coupled with climate controlled PI-nodes would essentially form a sep-arate cold-chain Physical Internet. Moreover, as currently 12 sizes of PI-containers are proposed an additional 12 PIR containers would be required, complicating the PI-logistics network.

Food distribution in the Physical Internet