86 samples drawn from 41 cultural groups in 38 countries. In total he gathered of over 44.000 schoolteachers and university students. Schwartz presents seven culture‐level value types: Conservatism, Intellectual and Affective Autonomy, Hierarchy, Mastery, Egalitarian Commitment, and Harmony. Conservative values emphasize maintenance of the status quo and avoidance of actions which might disturb the traditional order. Opposite of Conservatism are Intellectual and Affective Autonomy. Those values are likely to be important in societies which view the individual as an autonomous entity entitled to persue his interests and desires. Hierarchy emphasizes the legitimacy of hierarchical role and resource allocation. Mastery values promote active efforts to modify one’s surroundings and get ahead of other people. Egalitarian Commitment constitute promoting welfare of other people, and it must be present for societies of autonomous individuals to function smoothly. Schwartz presents his culture‐value dimension in a two‐dimensional model, where values that are next to each other have most similarities. Those opposites of each other have the most contradictory items (see Gigure 2.2).
CULTURAL VALUES AND WORK 29
FIG. 1. Theorised structure of culture-level value types.
Because of these contradictions, an emphasis on one value type is postulated to be accompanied in a culture by a de-emphasis on the polar type. The value types are also interrelated on the basis of the compatibilities among them. That is, certain value types share similar assumptions that make it possible for them to be emphasised simultaneously in a particular culture. These dynamic relations of contradiction and compatibility among the seven cultural value types are postulated to lead to the integrated structure of cultural value systems shown in Fig. 1.
In this !gure, pairs of value types that are in opposition emanate in opposing directions from the centre; pairs of value types that are compatible are located in proximity going around the circle. The theorised bases for the compatibilities among value types that organise the value dimensions into the order shown in Fig. 1 are brie"y noted next.
Hierarchy and Conservatism values relate positively because a view of the social actor (individual or group) as embedded in a collectivity of interdependent, mutually obligated others underlies them both. Egalitarianism and Autonomy values relate positively because a view of the social actor as an autonomous entity underlies them both. The Intellectual subset of values is more related to Egalitarianism than the Affective Autonomy subset. This is because it is critical to view social actors as autonomous decision makers who can choose to undertake social
Mode of control Normative requirements Informational requirements Market Bureaucracy Bureaucracy Clan Reciprocity Prices Reciprocity Legitimate authority Rules Reciprocity Legitimate authority Rules Reciprocity Legitimate authority
Common values and beliefs
Knowledge of the transformation process Knowledge of the transformation process
Perfect Imperfect Ability to measure outputs High Ability to measure outputs Low Behaviour or Output measurement Output measurement Behaviour measurement
Dimension Dimension Dimension
Dimension ChinaChinaChinaChina
Score Rank Band Adjustment
Performance Orientation Practices Performance Orientation
Values
Future Orientation Practices
Future Orientation
Values Gender Egalitarianism Practices Gender Egalitarianism
Values
Assertiveness Practices
Assertiveness
Values Collectivism (institutional) Practices Collectivism (institutional)
Values Collectivism (in-group) Practices Collectivism (in-group)
Values
Power Distance Practices
Power Distance
Values
Humane Orientation Practices
Humane Orientation
Values Uncertainty Avoidance Practices
and the Gindings of paragraph 3.2 (about adjusted culture dimensions) to reason the score of China on the different leadership dimensions. Additionally, these are compared to the GLOBE scores. Fu et al. (2007) continue on the GLOBE Gindings with their own research to clarify it further. Paragraph 3.3.4 discusses this research. Finally, paragraph 3.3.5 gives the conclusion about leadership dimensions in China. 3.3.2 GLOBE leadership dimensions “Cultural differences strongly inGluence important ways in which people think about leaders, as well as societal norms concerning the status, inGluence, and privileges granted to leaders” (House et al., 2004, p. 698). Next to the questionnaire about societal values, the same respondents also completed a survey about leadership. GLOBE determined the link between culture and leadership through calculations of correlations between societal dimensions and leadership dimensions. These calculations show which cultural dimensions are to what extent positive or negative value drivers for each leadership dimension. GLOBE measured on a 7‐ point scale where 7 means ‘greatly contributes to outstanding leadership’, 1 means ‘greatly inhibits outstanding leadership’, and a 4 means ‘has no impact on leadership’. For China, the leadership dimensions Charismatic / Value‐Based and Team Oriented Git best with culture according to the questionnaire survey. Both dimensions score a 5,6 on a 7‐points scale. Third is Humane Oriented and fourth is Participative. The last two, Autonomous and Self‐Protective, are seen as neutral effect on leadership.
Dimension Score Rank
A good leader knows how to balance between being conserva-ve and aggressive. Under the planned economy, a conservative leader (who was following orders) was considered a good leader. Nowadays, because of market forces, leaders have to be assertive. According to the focus group a balance between the two is necessary. The balance between the two seemingly contradictory forces may be consistent with the discrepancy between the values and practices of the Assertiveness societal dimension. A good leader must have a vision, must be able to look far ahead. Visionary leadership is new to China. Under the planned economy only the top of the communist party had a vision, managers just had to comply. Before communism, the vision of the emperor had to be carried out. Nowadays it is important to have a vision. A good leader must be open to new ideas and constantly try to improve himself. This quality is not new as Confucius asked his disciples to “take great pain in learning.” Under Mao only learning Maoism was encouraged and managers just had to follow orders. Now all managers have to learn managerial skills. “The new structure of the economy forces you to have a brain of your own” (Fu et al., 2007, p. 898). Most managers try to get as much information as they can, and nothing can beat the guanxi to get valuable information. A good leader must ini-ate change and be determined to carry out the change. One of the most important leadership qualities is change orientation (Fu et al., 2007). People do not trust a leader who makes a lot of empty promises. Therefore a leader should be very determined to carry out the change, even when there is a lot of pressure. Successful leaders can count on the respect of their employees. A good leader must be humane. The interviewees described good business leaders as “Confucius businessmen”. Confucius indicates benevolence or kindness. Businessmen used to be regarded as bad, someone who was only concerned about money and had no sense of renqing1. Being a Confucius businessman means to be humane while being proGit oriented. A good leader knows what works for the Chinese while learning from the West. After the reform (the ‘open door policy’) the communist party encouraged everybody to learn Western managerial philosophies. However, all interviewees pointed out “what works for the
1 “Renqing refers to being kind, benevolent, righteous, or respecting the feelings of others. According to
4. DESIGN 4.1 IntroducWon Chapter 4 contains the recommendations for AMQ how to set up the cohong. Paragraph 4.2 elaborates on the demands and goals of AMQ and the importance to the design. Next to discuss is the labour supply and its effect on the HR policy. Paragraph 4.4 discusses the best way to Git HR policy to the Chinese culture and the implications for the design. Finally, paragraph 4.5 will give the conclusion. 4.2 Goals of AMQ & design of the cohong Because of the geographical size of the area in which they operate, AMQ wants to split up the cohong in three regions. Each region will have its own representatives who will visit factories and buy products to ship to The Netherlands. Additionally, each region requires a manager who is head of the representatives. The cohong will need a headquarters to prevent the regions from working independently. The head ofGice will also serve as a warehouse for products before shipping to The Netherlands. Finally, a number of low‐educated workers will work in the warehouse. Schematically the cohong will look like Gigure 4.1. Figure 4.1 Visual representation of cohong. The cohong’s short‐term goal of increasing efGiciency can be accomplished shortly after the founding of the cohong. This is because of the fact that AMQ does not have to travel to China and can instead appoint people in China to take care of business. The long‐term goal of product renewal and product change is more difGicult to accomplish. The representatives are the main contributors to those goals. They have contact with the factories and see what is possible. Therefore, this goal works mostly bottom‐up. The HR policy should enable that. Manager Region 1 Represen-tatives Manager Region 2 Represen-tatives Manager Region 3 Represen-tatives Top management
Rewarding cohong 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Base pay Output merit Clan merit
Advice for AMQ regarding:
Entire cohong See paragraph:
1 use team-oriented leadership 3.3
2 divide workforce into low- and high-educated 2.4 & 4.3 Low-educated employees
3 hire anyone and implement a market-form of appraisal and rewarding 2.4 (& 2.5) 4.4.2 High-educated employees
4 use output measurement of short-term goals and (where possible) of long-term goals, to appraise and reward
4.4.2 5 use recruitment, selection, and training to implement a ‘clan-form’ of
control to stimulate long-term goals
4.4.3: sub 1-3 6 appraise and reward the clan in order to maintain it 4.4.3: sub 4-5
