THE G R A M M A R OF
E M A K H U W A V E R B A L E X T E N S I O N S
An I n v e s t i g a t i o n of the R o l e of E x t e n s i o n M o r p h e m e s in D e r i v a t i o n a l V e r b a l M o r p h o l o g y
an d
in G r a m m a t i c a l R e l a t i o n s
T h e s i s S u b m i t t e d for the D e g r e e of D o c t o r of P h i l o s o p h y
b y
J O S E M A T E U S M U A R I A K A T U P H A
S c h o o l of O r i e n t a l a n d A f r i c a n S t u d i e s U n i v e r s i t y of L o n d o n
F E B R U A R Y
1991
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T A B L E OF C O N T E N T S
PAGE
T A B L E OF C O N T E N T S 2
A C K N O W L E D G E M E N T S 10
A B S T R A C T 13
A B B R E V I A T I O N S 15
C H A P T E R 1: THE B A C K G R O U N D A N D SCO P E OF R E S E A R C H 18
1.0 I n t r o d u c t i o n 18
1 .0 . 1 Th e s t a t e of r e s e a r c h of the E m a k h u w a
l a n g u a g e - a b r i e f b a c k g r o u n d 24 1.1 The s t r u c t u r e of the main l e x i c a l c a t e g o r i e s
in E m a k h u w a - a p r e - t h e o r e t i c a l d e s c r i p t i o n 25 the
1 . 1 . 1 The m o r p h o l o g y ofj^noun c l a s s s y s t e m 26 1 . 1 . 1 . 1 E m a k h u w a n o m i n a l p r e f i x e s and a l l o m o r p h s 26 1 . 1 . 1 . 2 A h i s t o r i c a l n o t e on the m o r p h o l o g i c a l
c o n v e r g e n c e of E m a k h u w a n o u n c l a s s
pre f ixes 30
1 . 1 . 1 . 3 G e n d e r s y s t e m s 31
1 . 1 . 1 . 4 L o c a t i v e n ou n c l a s s s y st e m 35 1.1.2 The s t r u c t u r e of E m a k h u w a v e r b a l
l e x i c a l ite m 36
1 . 1 . 2 . 1 The r a d i c a l and the base 36
1 . 1 . 2 . 2 P e r s o n a l g r a m m a t i c a l c o - r e f e r e n t s 38 1.1.2. 3 The m a i n " Con j ug'at ional " m o r p h e m e s of
E m a k h u w a v e r b s 39
1 . 1 . 2 . 3 . 1 The n e g a t i v e and o t h e r p a r t i c l e s 39 1 . 1 . 2 . 3 . 2 The " t e n s e " a n d / o r a s p e c t m o r p h e m e s 40 1 . 1 . 2 . 3 . 3 Som e c o n j u g a t i o n s t r u c t u r e s 40
C H A P T E R 1: T H E B A C K G R O U N D AND S C O P E OF R E S E A R C H 48
1.2 M e t h o d o l o g y and t h e o r e t i c a l s e t - u p 48
1.2.1 The C o r p u s 48
1.2 . 2 L e x i c a l - F u n c t i o n a l G r a m m a r an d g r a m m a t i c a l r e l a t i o n s in Bantu:
the L e x i c a l m a p p i n g t h e o r y 50 1 . 2 . 2 . 1 Th e u n d e r l y i n g p r i n c i p l e s 52 1 . 2 . 3 The t h e o r y of L e x i c a l M a p p i n g - a b r i e f
o u t l i n e 5 4
1 . 2 . 3 . 1 The d e c o m p o s i t i o n of s y n t a c t i c f e a t u r e s 55 1 . 2 . 3 . 2 The a s s i g n m e n t of s y n t a c t i c v a l u e s to
t h e t a roles 57
1 . 2 . 3 . 3 M o r p h o l e x i c a l o p e r a t i o n s 61 1 . 2 . 3 . 4 C o n d i t i o n s of g r a m m a t i c a l w e l l - f o r m e d n e s s 62
1 . 2 . 3 . 5 P a r a m e t r i c v a r i a t i o n 62
N O T E S TO C H A P T E R ON E 65
C H A P T E R 2: T HE M O R P H O L O G Y OF V E R B A L E X T E N S I O N S IN
E M A K H U W A 66
2.0 I n t r o d u c t i o n 66
2.1 E a r l i e r r e s e a r c h 67
2.1 . 1 L e x i c a l M o r p h o l o g y an d the i n p u t to
w o r d d e r i v a t i o n 69
2.2 L e x i c a l r e l a t e d n e s s in E m a k h u w a
v e r b a l d e r i v a t i o n 74
2.2 . 1 V e r b a l w o r d f o r m a t i o n and v e r b a l
w o r d d e r i v a t i o n - a w o r k i n g h y p o t h e s i s 76 2 . 2 . 1 . 1 D e c o m p o s i t i o n of E m a k h u w a e x t e n d e d v e r b s 80 2 . 2 . 1 . 2 R a d i c a l - b o u n d and r a d i c a l - f r e e e x t e n s i o n
m o r p h e m e s 88
2 . 2 . 1 . 3 On the m o r p h o n o l o g i c a l i n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n the inp u t l e x i c a l ite m s an d the
s h a p e of the d e r i v e d v e r b 90
CHAPTER 2: THE MOR P H O L O G Y OF VERBAL EXT E N S I O N S IN
EMAKHUWA 94
2.2.2 M e a n i n g and f u n c t i o n of e x t e n s i o n m o r p h e m e s 94 2 . 2 . 2 . 1 L a y e r o r d e r i n g , p r e c e d e n c e an d o p t i o n a l i t y
of e x t e n s i o n s in the E m a k h u w a d e r i v e d v e r b 96 2 . 2 . 2 . 2 G a p p i n g and s u p p l e t i o n in m o r p h o l o g i c a l
l a y e r o r d e r i n g of e x t e n s i o n m o r p h e m e s 102 2 . 2 . 2 . 3 B l o c k i n g and s k e w i n g and e x t e n s i o n
m o r p h e m e s 104
2 . 2 . 2 . 4 C o m b i n a b i l i t y of e x t e n s i o n s in l a y e r2 109 2,2 . 3 E x t e n s i o n m o r p h e m e s - e x p o n e n t s of
m o r p h o l e x i c a l o p e r a t i o n s on v e r b a l
l e x i c a l items 117
N O T E S TO C H A P T E R TW O 122
C H A P T E R 3: TH E G R A M M A R OF E M A K H U W A M A T R I X V E R B S 126
3.0 I n t r o d u c t i o n 126
3.1 V e r b a l p o l y a d i c i t y in the t h e o r y of LFG 127
3.1.1 The u n d e r l y i n g p r i n c i p l e s 128
3 . 1 . 1 . 1 The f u n c t i o n - a r g u m e n t b i u n i q u e n e s s
c o n d i t i o n 128
3 . 1 . 1 . 2 The s u b j e c t c o n d i t i o n 130
3 . 1 . 1 . 3 T r a n s i t i v i t y and o b j e c t h o o d 131 3 . 1 . 1 . 4 V a r i a b l e p o l y a d i c i t y and th e role of
l e x i c a l rul e s 132
3,2 E m a k h u w a m a t r i x v e r b s and p o l y a d i c i t y 133 3 .2 . 1 O b j e c t h o o d and p o l y a d i c i t y 134
3 . 2 . 1 . 1 The m o n a d i c ve r b 137
3 . 2 . 1 . 2 Th e d y a d i c v e r b 142
3 . 2 . 1 . 3 Th e t r i a d i c v e r b 150
3.2,2 F ro m t h e m a t i c s t r u c t u r e to g r a m m a t i c a l
s t r u c t u r e : two types of t r a n s i t i v i t y 153 3,2.2 . 1 L e x i c a l t r a n s i t i v i t y : r e g u l a r and
i d i o s y n c r a t i c 155
3.2.3 V a r i a b l e p o l y a d i c i t y in E m a k h u w a m a t r i x
v e r b s 156
3 , 2 . 3 . 1 The m o n a d i c v er b and v a r i a b l e p o l y a d i c i t y 160 3.2.3 . 2 The d y a d i c v e r b and v a r i a b l e p o l y a d i c i t y 172 3 . 2 . 3 . 3 The t r i a d i c v e r b and v a r i a b l e p o l y a d i c i t y 175 3.2.4 C o n c l u d i n g r e m a r k s on. E m a k h u w a v e r b a l
p o l y a d i c ity 177
3 . 3 T r a n s i t i v i t y and the stat u s of g r a m m a t i c a l
r e l a t i o n s in E m a k h u w a m a t r i x v e r b s 178 3 .3,1 T r a n s i t i v i t y in B a n t u - a s y n o p s i s 178 3 . 3 . 1 . 1 H y m a n an d D u r a n t i - on "the o b j e c t
r e l a t i o n in B a n t u " 179
3 . 3 . 1. 2 B r e s n a n and M c h o m b o on " s u b j e c t and
o b j e c t a g r e e m e n t " in B a n t u - the C h i c h e w a
case 185
3.3,2 The o b j e c t f e a t u r e s in E m a k h u w a 190 3.3.2. 1 M a r k e d n e s s : o b l i q u e vs. o b j e c t f u n c t i o n s 195 3 . 3 . 2 . 2 T r a n s f e r a b i l i t y of g r a m m a t i c a l f u n c t i o n s 198
3 . 3 . 2 , 3 C o n t i g u i t y and w o r d order 199
3 . 3 . 2 , 4 A g r e e m e n t , c o n t r o l and c o n s t i t u e n c y 203 3 , 3 . 2 . 5 L i c e n s i n g f a c t o r s of o b j e c t h o o d 207 3 . 3 . 2 . 2 .1 S y m m e t r i c a l h i e r a r c h y b e t w e e n
t h e m a t i c r o l e s a n d c l as s / g e n d e r 208 3 . 3 . 2 . 2 .2 G r a m m a t i c a l c o - r e f e r e n t s or p e r s o n s 216
C H A P T E R 3: TH E G R A M M A R OF E M A K H U W A M A T R I X V E R B S 217
3,3 . 3 The s u b j e c t f e a t u r e s in E m a k h u w a 217 3 . 3 . 3 . 1 M a r k e d n e s s : r e d u n d a n c y or e x p o n e n c y of
N P ’s c l a s s and s e l e c t i o n a l r e s t r i c t i o n s 217 3 . 3 . 3 . 2 A g r e e m e n t , c o n t r o l , and c o n s t i t u e n c y :
the s t a t u s of the l o g i c a l and g r a m m a t i c a l s u b j e c t in some
g r a m m a t i c a l c o n s t r u c t i o n s 220
3.4 C o n c l u d i n g r e m a r k s 224
N O T E S TO C H A P T E R T H R E E 226
C H A P T E R 4: THE G R A M M A R OF E M A K H U W A E X T E N D E D VERBS:
A R G U M E N T A D D I N G E X T E N S I O N M O R P H E M E S 229
4.0 I n t r o d u c t i o n 229
4.1 The A p p l i c a t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n in E m a k h u w a 234 4 .1 . 1 S y n t a c t i c o - s e m a n t i c f i e l d s 234 4 . 1 . 2 The a p p l i c a t i v e rule and v a r i a b l e
p o l y a d i c i t y 236
4 . 1 . 2 . 1 The a p p l i c a t i v e rule an d the m o n a d i c v e r b 237 4 . 1 . 2 . 2 The a p p l i c a t i v e rule and the d y a d i c v e r b 244 4 . 1 . 2 . 3 The a p p l i c a t i v e rule and the t r i a d i c v e r b 249 4 . 1 . 3 The g r a m m a r of the A p p l i c a t i v e
c o n s t r u c t i o n s 253
4 . 1 . 3 . 1 O b j e c t - m a r k i n g an d the a p p l i c a t i v e
c o n s t r u c t i o n 254
4 . 1 . 3 . 2 W o r d o r d e r and the a p p l i c a t i v e
c o n s t r u c t i o n 260
4 . 1 . 4 The i n t e r a c t i o n of a p p l i c a t i v e
c o n s t r u c t i o n s 261
4 . 1 . 4 . 1 The d o u b l e a p p l i c a t i v e and the m o n a d i c
v e r b 262
CHAPTER 4: THE GRAMMAR OF EMAKHUWA E X T ENDED VERBS:
ARGUMENT ADDING EXTENSION M O R P H EM ES 265
4 . 1 . 4 . 2 The d o u b l e a p p l i c a t i v e an d the d y a d i c
v e r b 265
4.2 The C a u s a t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n in E m a k h u w a 266 4.2.1 S y n t a c t i c o - s e m a n t i c fie l d s of the C a u s a t i v e
m o r p h e m e 270
4 . 2 . 1 . 1 The C a u s a t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n 270 4 . 2 . 1 . 2 The A d j u t i v e r e a d i n g of the C a u s a t i v e 273 4 . 2 . 2 R o l e s u p p r e s s i o n in C a u s a t i v e
c o n s t r u c t i o n s 275
4 . 2 . 2 . 1 The I n d u c t i v e C a u s a t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n 276 4 . 2 . 2 . 2 The R a t i o n a l C a u s a t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n 277 4 . 2 . 3 R e s t r i c t i o n s to C a u s a t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n s 278 4 . 2 . 3 . 1 C a u s a t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n an d the d y a d i c and
t r i a d i c m a t r i x v e r b s 278
4 . 2 . 3 . 2 C a u s a t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n an d the u n e r g a t i v e
and u n a c c u s a t i v e m a t r i x v e r b s 283 4 . 2 . 4 The i n t e r a c t i o n of C a u s a t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n s 285 4 . 2 . 4 . 1 The d o u b l e C a u s a t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n 286 4 . 2 . 5 On the g r a m m a t i c a l range of -iSa-, -ULa-
and - I H a - c a u s a t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n s 289 4.3 The R e c i p r o c a t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n in E m a k h u w a 294 4 .3 . 1 The g r a m m a r of R e c i p r o c a t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n s 295 4 . 3 . 1 . 1 The R e c i p r o c a t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n p r o p e r 296 4 . 3 . 1 . 2 The C o m i t a t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n 298
4 . 3 . 2 The d o u b l e r e c i p r o c a l i v e 302
4.4 The i n t e r a c t i o n of a r g u m e n t a d d i n g t h e m a t i c
e x t e n s i o n m o r p h e m e s 306
4 . 4 . 1 The a p p l i c a t i v e v e r s u s the c a u s a t i v e 307 4 . 4 . 2 The r e c i p r o c a t i v e an d o t h e r a r g u m e n t a d d i n g
e x t e n s i o n m o r p h e m e s 311
4.5 C o n c l u d i n g r e m a r k s 316
N O T E S TO C H A P T E R F O U R 318
CHAPTER 5 THE GRAMMAR OF EMAKHUWA EXTENDED VERBS:
A R G U M E N T DROPPING EXTENSION MORPHEMES 322
5.0 I n t r o d u c t i o n 322
5.1 The P a s s i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n and o b j e c t h o o d 324 5.1.1 The P a s s i v e l e x i c a l rule and the m o n a d i c
v e r b 326
5 . 1 . 1 . 1 The u n e r g a t i v e v e r b and the P a s s i v e
rule 326
5 . 1 . 1 . 2 The u n a c c u s a t i v e v e r b and the P a s s i v e ru l e 328 5.1.2 The P a s s i v e l e x i c a l rule and the p o l y a d i c
v e r b 334
5 . 1 . 2 . 1 D y a d i c v e r b s and the P a s s i v e l e x i c a l rul e 334 5 . 1 . 2 . 2 T r i a d i c v e r b s an d the P a s s i v e l e x i c a l rule 338 5.1.3 The s t a t u s of A s y m m e t r i c a l o b j e c t p a r a m e t e r
in E m a k h u w a - e v i d e n c e from P a s s i v e 339 5 . 1 . 3 . 1 The A p p l i c a t i v e and P a s s i v e c o - o c c u r r e n c e 341 5 . 1 . 3 . 2 The C a u s a t i v e and P a s s i v e c o - o c c u r r e n c e 354 5 . 1 . 3 . 3 The c o - o c c u r r e n c e of R e c i p r o c a t i v e and
P a s s i v e 358
5 . 1 . 3 . 4 The P a s s i v e and the " A c c u s a t i v e
c o n s t r u c t i o n " 362
5.2 T h e m a t i c s t r u c t u r e and the g r a m m a r of the
S t a t i v e l e x i c a l rule 365
5.2.1 The S t a t i v e rule and the m o n a d i c v e r b 365 5 . 2 . 1 . 1 The u n a c c u s a t i v e v e r b and the S t a t i v e r u l e 366 5 . 2 . 1 . 2 The u n e r g a t i v e v e r b and the S t a t i v e rul e 368 5.2.2 The S t a t i v e rule and the p o l y a d i c v e r b 368 5 . 2 . 2 . 1 The d y a d i c v e r b and the S t a t i v e rul e 368 5 . 2 . 2 . 2 The t r i a d i c v e r b and the S t a t i v e rul e 370 5.2.3 On the i n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n the S t a t i v e and
a r g u m e n t a d d i n g l e x i c a l r u l e s 371
CHAPTER 5 THE GRAMMAR OF EMAKHUWA EXTENDED VERBS:
A R GU M E N T D R O PPING EXTENSION MOR P H E M E S 371
5 . 2 . 3 . 1 The A p p l i c a t i v e and the s t a t i v e 371 5 . 2 . 3 . 2 The C a u s a t i v e and the s t a t i v e 373 5 . 2 . 3 . 3 The R e c i p r o c a t i v e and the s t a t i v e 374
5 . 2 . 4 The S t a t i v e and the P a s s i v e 375
5.3 C o n c l u d i n g r e m a r k s 376
N O T E S TO C H A P T E R FIV E 379
C H A P T E R 6: R E T R O S P E C T AND C O N C L U S I O N 380
6.0 I n t r o d u c t i o n 380
6.1 On the m o r p h o l o g y of e x t e n s i o n m o r p h e m e s
and d e g r e e s of i d i o s y n c r a s y in the l e x i c o n 380 6.2 On the v a r i a b l e p o l y a d i c i t y a nd E m a k h u w a
g r a m m a r 381
6.3 C o n c l u s i o n 3 85
B I B L I O G R A P H Y 387
A C K N O W L E D G E M E N T S
I fi n d t h i s o c c a s i o n p a r t i c u l a r l y a p p r o p r i a t e to r e c a l l on e p a r t i c u l a r r i d d l e my late m o t h e r u s e d to say w h e n e v e r one of us f o r g o t to say: " t h a n k you". In E n g l i s h the r i d d l e goes a p p r o x i m a t e l y like this:
"In a c e l e b r a t i o n of s u c c e s s the u n i n v i t e d g u e s t
is t he bes t Who is it?"
" G r a t i t u d e "
The r i s k of t r y i n g to t h a n k p e o p l e who h e l p e d in a s u c c e s s f u l a d v e n t u r e by m e n t i o n i n g t h e m is that, not seldom, som e are f o r g o t t e n . I hope " G r a t i t u d e " wil l not be left out in this a c k n o w l e d g m e n t , if I fail to m e n t i o n all t h o s e who have h e l p e d me to a c c o m p l i s h thi s r e s e a r c h . Th e list is vast. It i n c l u d e s p e o p l e from d i f f e r e n t c o n t i n e n t s an d of all w a l k s of life:
s c h o l a r s , i n s t i t u t i o n s , p o l i t i c i a n s , p e a s a n t s , f a m i l y and f r i e n d s . To all of t h e m I w i s h to c o n v e y my w o r d s of g r a t i t u d e for t h e i r e x t r e m e l y u s e f u l s u p p o r t and my a p o l o g i e s if, t h r o u g h my own i n t u i t i o n s , I hav e b e t r a y e d t h e m by m i s - r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e i r c o n t r i b u t i o n s in this w o r k .
I w o u l d like to e x p r e s s s p e c i a l t h a n k s to my s u p e r v i s o r s , Mr, W. M i c h a e l M a n n and Dr. S c o t t Myers.
My g r a t i t u d e to Mr. M a n n go e s b e y o n d the b o u n d s of s u p e r v i s i o n . His s k i l l s in c o m p u t i n g and m a s t e r y in B a n t u l a n g u a g e s have h e l p e d me e n o r m o u s l y in the s y s t e m a t i z a t i o n of the data. But, m or e t h a n that, in the p r o c e s s of h e l p i n g me to a c q u i r e a g o o d d e a l of s k i l l s of d e t a c h i n g m y se l f fro m my own l a n g u a g e and be a b l e to a n a l y s e it more o b j e c t i v e l y , Mr, M a n n has
of
b e c o m e h i m s e l f o n e ^ u s ! T h a t is, no t o n l y has he h e l p e d me, bu t 1 als o have t u r n e d him into " M m a k h u w a " !
One of s i g n i f i c a n t a c h i e v e m e n t s of this r e s e a r c h is t h u s , h a v i n g p r o d u c e d a f r i e n d w i t h w h o m I can t a l k on E m a k h u w a (or e v e n in E m a k h u w a l ) w i t h o u t f i n d i n g the s u b j e c t boring.
Dr. S. M y e r s was i n f l u e n t i a l t h e o r y - w i s e . A l t h o u g h my c o n t a c t w i t h him was s h o r t - l i v e d , his c o m m e n t s on my f i r s t d r a f t s s h a p e d the fin a l form of the work.
A w o r d of g r a t i t u d e to P r o f e s s o r J o a n B r e s n a n who was p a r t i c u l a r l y s u p p o r t i v e in not o n l y h a v i n g k i n d l y a c c e p t e d to m e e t me t w i c e w h i l e she was in B r i t a i n but also in s e n d i n g all the a r t i c l e s and p a p e r s she f o u n d r e l e v a n t for my work.
I w o u l d like to t h a n k Dr. Wyn Chao, w h o s e m a s t e r y of B r a s i l i a n - P o r t u g u e s e m a d e t h in g s a lot e a s i e r for me to a p p r o a c h her an y time I needed, for h e l p i n g me to o v e r c o m e not o n l y some P o r t u g u e s e i n t e r f e r e n c e in the f o r m u l a t i o n s of my i n t u i t i o n s bu t a l s o for her e n c o u r a g e m e n t w h e n e v e r I felt c l i m b i n g the m o u n t a i n was too t o u g h for me.
I w o u l d like to r e g i s t e r in this a c k n o w l e d g e m e n t my g r a t i t u d e to the f o l l o w i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s : the F o r e i g n an d C o m m o n w e a l t h O f f i c e for h a v i n g p a i d all the e x p e n s e s of my s t u d i e s t h r o u g h the go o d s e r v i c e s of the F e l l o w s an d S c h o l a r s D e p a r t m e n t of the B r i t i s h C o u n c i l , To E d u a r d o M o n d l a n e U n i v e r s i t y , M a p u t o , M o z a m b i q u e , for h a v i n g r e l i e v e d me fro m my d u t i e s d u r i n g thi s p e r i o d in o r d e r to a c c o m p l i s h my t r a i n i n g . To S u m m e r I n s t i t u t e of L i n g u i s t i c s w h o s e c o n t r i b u t i o n and s u p p o r t h e l p e d me to be w i t h my f a m i l y in B r i t a i n .
"Waapaca mwiiliyale, weetta owaale naanaano"!
Forget not crawling, [for] walking has just arrived
[ D o n ’t t h r o w a w a y yo u r o l d clot h e s , for y o u may n ee d t h e m a g a i n !]
Th i s E m a k h w u a d i c t u m r e m i n d s me of ol d f r iends, c o l l e a g u e s , f a m i l y and, of course, the i n f o r m a n t s w h o s e c o n t r i b u t i o n has b e e n d e c i s i v e for thi s w o r k to see the light. To all of the m I say: o s u k h u r u , o l a t a n i k o k h o ,
"no m a t t e r how l i tt l e y ou r c o n t r i b u t i o n has been, I t h a n k y o u , all".
I hav e no a d e q u a t e w o r d s to t h a n k my wife, Getty. She has d i l i g e n t l y bo rje all sor t s of h a r d s h i p s that wen t into the a c c o m p l i s h m e n t of this work. M y two l i t t l e sons, S i g m a and Era y i had t he i r p r i c e to p a y too. To t h e m I w i s h to say: sorry, "I did no t m e a n to hurt you"; I am the same ol d f r i e n d of yours. I love you all, and t h a n k s for yo u r p a t i e n c e and u n d e r s t a n d i n g .
F i n a l l y , I w o u l d like to say a w o r d of s p e c i a l g r a t i t u d e to my m o t h e r who p a s s e d a w a y w h i l e this w o r k was in p r o c e s s . To her a n d to all Annaraaama "all my m o t h e r s " , w o m e n p e a s a n t s , in the l a n d of " A m a k h u w a " , the b e s t c u s t o d i a n of our l a n g u a g e , I d e d i c a t e this w o r k and as k t h e m to a c c e p t it as a t i n y c o n t r i b u t i o n to t h e i r c u s t o d i a n s h i p .
A B S T R A C T
The c e n t r a l c o n c e r n of this t h e s i s is a g r o u p of d e r i v a t i o n a l s u f f i x e s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of the B a n t u l a n g u a g e s k n o w n as v e r b a l e x t e n s i o n s y i e l d i n g such d e r i v e d v e r b s as c a u s a t i v e , f r e q u e n t a t i v e , p a s s i v e , rec i p r o c a t i v e ,
The s t u d y is b a s e d on a t e x t u a l c o r p u s f r o m E m a k h u w a , a B a n t u l a n g u a g e of M o z a m b i q u e , s u p p l e m e n t e d by the a u t h o r ’s n a t i v e k n o w l e d g e of the l a n g u a g e . The t h e o r e t i c a l b a c k g r o u n d is p r o v i d e d by L e x i c a l F u n c t i o n a l G r a m m a r ( B r e s n a n (1982)), w h i c h p r o v i d e s a m e a n s of r e l a t i n g t h e t a r o l e s (agent, i n s t r u m e n t , the m e etc.) to g r a m m a t i c a l f u n c t i o n s t h r o u g h the L e x i c a l M a p p i n g s u b - t h e o r y .
A f t e r e x p l o r i n g in c h a p t e r two the m o r p h o l o g y of the s e s u f f i x e s and t h e i r s u p p l e t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h i n the l e x i c o n , c h a p t e r t h r e e e x a m i n e s the s y n t a x of p r i m i t i v e v er b s , c l a s s i f i e d p r i n c i p a l l y as e r g a t i v e , u n e r g a t i v e and u n a c c u s a t i v e . In th i s a n a l y s i s " o b j e c t h o o d " and
" r e s t r i c t e d n e s s " p r o v e d i f f i c u l t to e s t a b l i s h , sin c e o b j e c t c l i t i c i z a t i o n is l a r g e l y r e s t r i c t e d to h u m a n r e f e r e n c e , w h i l e p a s s i v i z a t i o n ( c h a p t e r five) is a p p l i e d to all r o l e s b e l o w the h i g h e s t , i n c l u d i n g roles s u c h as tim e and mann e r , n o r m a l l y p e r c e i v e d as a d v e r b i a l . F u r t h e r m o r e , w o r d o r d e r is l i t t l e c o n s t r a i n e d an d not d e c i s i v e of f u n c t i o n . C e r t a i n c o n s t r u c t i o n s a l l o w v a r i a b l e m a p p i n g of r o l e s to f u n c t i o n s an d i n t r o d u c t i o n of s u p p l e m e n t a r y o b j e c t s c o r r e s p o n d i n g to c o - r e f e r e n t p a t i e n t s or reason, but w i t h o u t m o r p h o l o g i c a l v e r b a l i n d e x a t i o n .
F o c u s in c h a p t e r s four and five i's n a r r o w e d to t h e m a t i c e x t e n s i o n s a d d i n g or d r o p p i n g roles.
The a p p l i c a t i v e i n t r o d u c e s a b e n e f i c i a r y , i n s t r u m e n t or goal, i n t e r p r e t e d p a r t i a l l y a c c o r d i n g to a n i m a c y ; the r e p e a t e d e x t e n s i o n s may i n t r o d u c e m u l t i p l e roles.
The c a u s a t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n s i n c l u d e the i n d u c t i v e , i n t r o d u c i n g a r e a s o n / i n s t r u m e n t role w i t h o p t i o n a l s u p p r e s s i o n of a ge n t a n d / o r theme.
The r e c i p r o c a t i v e may h a v e a q u a s i - c a u s a t i v e r e a d i n g i n t r o d u c i n g an i n v o l v e d but u n e q u a l p a r t i c i p a n t .
Us e s of t h e s e e x t e n s i o n s w i t h the p a s s i v e and s t a t i v e , s i n g l y or in c o m b i n a t i o n , are s y s t e m a t i c a l l y e x p l o r e d . The c o n c l u s i o n c a s t s d o u b t s on the a d e q u a c y of t h e o r i e s r e l y i n g h e a v i l y on the t r a d i t i o n a l m o r p h o - s y n t a c t i c m a n i f e s t a t i o n s of object.
acc. A c c u s a t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n
adj A d j e c t i v e
ag A g e n t
ap p l A p p l i c a t i v e m o r p h e m e be n B e n e f a c t i v e t h e t a rol e
C O M P C o m p l e m e n t
cp C o p u l a or c o n n e c t i v e p a r t i c l e
cse C a u s a t i v e m o r p h e m e
c s e e C a u s e e o b j e c t
deft. D e f a u l t c l a s s i f i c a t i o n
dm d e m o n s t r a t i v e
f .u . F u n c t i o n a l u n d e r s p e c i f i c a t i o n
gn G e n i t i v e
go Goal t h e t a role
gp g e n i t i v e p a r t i c l e
i*c. I n t r i n s i c c l a s s i f i c a t i o n
inst I n s t r u m e n t t h e t a role
Li,L 2 etc. M o r p h o l o g i c a l l a y e r s in w h i c h e x t e n s i o n s o c c u r
loc L o c a t i v e
N C O M P N o m i n a l C o m p l e m e n t
ng n e g a t i v e m a rk e r
nra N u m e r a l
NP N o u n P h r a s e
OBJ P r i m a r y o b j e c t
O B J2 S e c o n d a r y o b j e c t
OB L O b l i q u e o b j e c t
om O b j e c t m a r k e r
l.om O b j e c t m a r k e r of c l a s s 1.
l s g . o m O b j e c t m a r k e r of 1st. p e r s o n s i ng u l a r
pi P l u r a l
pN P r o p e r n o u n
pos P o s s e s s i v e
PP P r e p o s i t i o n a l p h r a s e
pro p r o n o u n
psv P a s s i v e m o r p h e m e
rat R a t i o n a l t h e t a role
rep R e c i p r o e a t i v e m o r p h e m e
rec R e c i p i e n t t h e t a role
refl R e f l e x i v e p r o n o u n
rm R e l a t i v e g r a m m a t i c a l s u b j e c t m a r k e r rs R e l a t i v e l o g i c a l s u b j e c t m a r k e r S C O M P S e n t e n t i a l c o m p l e m e n t
sg S i n g u l a r
so S o u r c e t h e t a role
sp S u b j e c t p r e f i x
7 . s p S u b j e c t prefix, sp. of c l a s s 7 0 . s p 3 r d . p e r s o n cl.l s u b j e c t p r e f i x
stv S t a t i v e m o r p h e m e
SUBJ S u b j e c t
th The m e
tm T e n s e m a r k e r
[ T n ] E x t r a c t from text n.
[*] S e 1 f - p r o v i d e d e x a m p l e
0 T h e t a role
0 a c c T h e t a role i n t r o d u c e d by a c c u s a t i v e
c o n s t r u c t i o n
0 appl T h e t a role i n t r o d u c e d by
" a p p l i c a t i v e " l e x i c a l ru l e
VP Verb P h ra s e
w.f. W e l l - f o r m e d n e s s c o n d i t i o n
Xe X is a r e s t r i c t e d t h e t a role
* X X is an u n a c c e p t a b l e e x a m p l e [-1] N o u n s w h i c h lack c 1 i t i c i z a t i o n
p r o p e r t i e s , i.e., [ c l a s s e s 3 - 18]
[1] G e n d e r of n o u n s t r i g g e r i n g c l i t i c i z a t i o n , i.e., [ c l . 1/2]
X
d e m a r c a t i o n of a l e x i c a l item or p r o p e r t i e s of a l e x i c a l item, e.j NP t
hum an i m -1
O p t i o n a l o c c u r r e n c e of X
M e m b e r s of a p a r a d i g m a t i c set
X and Y are c o - r e f e r e n t i a l
X a nd Y are m e m b e r s of a set or c a t e g o r y
Y
Z is a p r o d u c t of f u s i o n of f e a t u r e s of X and Y
C H A P T E R 1: TH E B A C K G R O U N D AN D S C O P E OF R E S E A R C H
1.0 I n t r o d u c t i o n
A m o n g s t u n i v e r s a l f e a t u r e s of h u m a n l a n g u a g e the v e r b t a k e s a p r e v a i l i n g p o s i t i o n i n a s m u c h as it is t a k e n as the c e n t r a l u n i t of a s e n t e n c e . For i n s t a n c e , B a k e r ’s I n c o r p o r a t i o n (1988) t a k e s the v e r b as the p i v o t a l l e x i c a l u n i t f r o m w h i c h his " t h e o r y of g r a m m a t i c a l f u n c t i o n c h a n g i n g " d e v e l o p s . G u t h r i e (1961) regards the verb as usually instantiating "the nucleus, [i.e.], the irreducible core of the clause". G r u b e r (1976) p o s t u l a t e s t h a t the v e r b is
"the principal variable in sentences upon which the syntactic form of a sentence depends".
The w a y in w h i c h b o t h l e x i c a l and s y n t a c t i c i n f o r m a t i o n are e n c o d e d in B a n t u v e r b a l l e x i c a l ite m s r e n d e r s the n u c l e a r i t y of the v e r b all the m o r e p r o m i s i n g and i n t e r e s t i n g a p o i n t of d e p a r t u r e for the s t u d y of g r a m m a t i c a l r e l a t i o n s in E m a k h u w a , a B a n t u l a n g u a g e of M o z a m b i q u e , G u t h r i e ’s P . 30 ( G u t h r i e ( 1 9 6 7 - 7 1 ) ) .
On e c a t e g o r y of m o r p h e m e c o m p o n e n t of E m a k h u w a v e r b s , h e r e r e f e r r e d to as the v e r b a l e x t e n s i o n , p l a y s an
i m p o r t a n t rol e in the e n c o d i n g of m o r p h o s y n t a c t i c i n f o r m a t i o n . P r e v i o u s l y , W e r n e r (1919) has r e f e r r e d to e x t e n s i o n s as " v o i c e s " : - ( p a s s i v e v o i c e , c a u s a t i v e vo i c e , r e v e r s i v e v o i c e etc.). D o k e (1973) c l a s s i f i e s t h e m as " d e r i v a t i v e s u f f i x e s " . G u t hr i e , fro m w h o m we t a k e our term, d e s c r i b e s t h e m as " r a d i c a l e x t e n s i o n s "
( G u t h r i e (1962)). In all t h e s e a u t h o r s t h e r e is s h a r e d c o m m o n g r o u n d a b o u t t h e s e m o r p h e m e s , t h a t is, t h a t t h i s c a t e g o r y of m o r p h e m e o c c u r s w i t h v e r b s d e r i v i n g mo r e
s y n t a c t i c a l l y an d s e m a n t i c a l l y c o m p l e x ne w verbs. In E m a k h u w a , this k i n d of m o r p h e m e 1- may be e x e m p l i f i e d as in ( 1 . a - b ) and (2):
1 . a o - t t h u k - a "tie up"
o - t t h u k - el - a "tie up f o r / w i t h "
o - t t h u k ~ el - iy - a "be t i e d up f o r / w i t h "
1 * b C I N T T H U K E L I Y A " t h e y are use d to tie up":
2. i y u u m a c o o t e e n e n ’ye
8 . iron 8 . a d j . a l l 8 . dm those All t h o s e iron [cuffs]
ci - n - t t h u k - EL - IY - a a t t h u [To]
8 . sp tm tie appl psv tm 2 , p e o p l e are u s e d for t y i n g p e o p l e up w i t h
w h e r e the m o r p h e m e - e l a is u s e d in t h i s c o n t e x t to i n t r o d u c e an " i n s t r u m e n t a l a p p l i e d O B J ( e c t ) " , w h i l e the m o r p h e m e - i y a i n s t a n t i a t e s the P a s s i v e rule, p a s s i v i z i n g the a l r e a d y d e r i v e d v e r b o t t h u k e i a "tie up w i t h " .
It is thi s c a t e g o r y of v e r b a l m o r p h e m e s t h a t is the t o p i c a n d the o b j e c t of our i n v e s t i g a t i o n . T h e q u e s t i o n to w h i c h our r e s e a r c h s e e k s to p r o v i d e a full d e t a i l e d a n s w e r is w h a t is the rol e of the v e r b a l m o r p h e m e e x t e n s i o n s in w o r d d e r i v a t i o n and in g r a m m a t i c a l r e l a t i o n s of E m a k h u w a g r a m m a r .
O u r m a i n t h e s i s in thi s e x e r c i s e is t h a t e x t e n s i o n m o r p h e m e s are m o r p h o l o g i c a l i n d e x e s of l e x i c a l r u l e s of v e r b d e r i v a t i o n . S o m e of the s e r u l e s not o n l y g e n e r a t e n e w v e r b a l l e x i c a l items, but also p r o v o k e c h a n g e s in the p r e d i c a t e a r g u m e n t s t r u c t u r e as w e l l as in the s e l e c t i o n a l r e s t r i c t i o n s of the inp u t verb.
T h e s e two m a i n f e a t u r e s of e x t e n s i o n m o r p h e m e s d e f i n e the s c o p e of our r e s e a r c h as t w o fo l d , namely, the r e s e a r c h on the s t r u c t u r e and the m o r p h o l o g y of the l e x i c o n in w h i c h the e x t e n s i o n m o r p h e m e s are i n v o l v e d , on the one hand, and, on the other, th e r e s e a r c h on the role of the e x t e n s i o n m o r p h e m e s in g r a m m a t i c a l r e l a t i o n s ,
The f o r m e r p a r t is the o b j e c t of c h a p t e r two. In this c h a p t e r c o n c e p t s of L e x i c a l M o r p h o l o g y s u c h as
" l e x i c a l l y r e l a t e d " , " h e a d of a wor d " and the p r i n c i p l e of " f e a t u r e p e r c o l a t i o n " p o s t u l a t e d by W i l l i a m s (1981), S e l k i r k ( 1982 ) and L i e b e r ( 1983) are underlying'ly a s s u m e d in the d e s c r i p t i o n of shape, m e a n i n g a n d the p l a c e of the e x t e n s i o n m o r p h e m e s in the l e x i c a l i n s t a n t i a t i o n of v e r b a l w o r d d e r i v a t i o n in E m a k h u w a . T h e s e c o n c e p t s are i n t r o d u c e d in (2.1). The m o r p h o l o g i c a l c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n of e x t e n s i o n in E m a k h u w a is u n d e r t a k e n c r i t i c a l l y u s i n g G u t h r i e ’s t e r m i n o l o g y (2.2.1). In t h i s p r o c e s s we p o s i t t h a t e x t e n s i o n m o r p h e m e s s u b c a t e g o r i z e for v e r b s a n d the l e v e l or c a t e g o r y of l e x i c a l item w i t h w h i c h t h e y are a t t a c h e d to d e r i v e new v e r b s is r a t h e r that of w o r d than s t e m or root ( 2 . 2 . 2 . 1 ) . P r o f i t i n g from K i p a r s k y ’s l e x i c a l i s t a p p r o a c h to m o r p h o l o g y (1983) as a p p l i e d by S h e p a r d s o n ( 1986 ) an a t t e m p t is m a d e in th i s c h a p t e r to v i e w e x t e n s i o n m o r p h e m e s as an i n t e g r a l p a r t of the l e x i c a l t i s s u e i n a s m u c h as t h e i r s e m a n t i c c o n t e n t r e l a t e s b o t h to the l e x i c o n and to ea c h o t h e r in s u c h a w a y t h a t th e y can be b l o c k e d or s u p p l e t e d ( 2 . 2 . 2 . 2 ) . We show that the r e g u l a r and p r e d i c t a b l e wa y in w h i c h t h e s e m o r p h e m e s r e l a t e to v e r b a l r a d i c a l s a n d to e a c h o t h e r a l l o w s one to e s t a b l i s h m o r p h o l o g i c a l layers. The d i s t i n c t i o n of m o r p h o l o g i c a l layers, a l l o w i n g us to s e p a r a t e p r o d u c t i v e , r e s t r i c t e d an d f o s s i l i z e d p r o c e s s e s , e n a b l e s us to move c l o s e r to a s t a t e m e n t of
p e r m i s s i b l e c o - o c c u r r e n c e of e x t e n s i o n s ( 2 . 2 . 2 . 3 ) and ( 2 . 2 . 2 . 4 ) .
The way in w h i c h the e x t e n s i o n m o r p h e m e s a f f e c t the v e r b a l l e x i c a l ite m s has a l l o w e d us to d i s t i n g u i s h two g r o u p s of e x t e n s i o n m o r p h e m e s , n am e l y , t h e m a t i c an d m o d a l e x t e n s i o n m o r p h e m e s . The f o r m e r g r o u p a f f e c t the a r g u m e n t s t r u c t u r e of the v e r b w i t h w h i c h t h e y o c c u r and the l a t t e r b e h a v e as "modal o p e r a t o r s " in the v e r b ’s s e m a n t i c c o n t e n t ( S e l k i r k (1982)) (2,2.3).
In line w i t h ou r main w o r k i n g t h e s i s , we t he n c o n c e n t r a t e our r e s e a r c h on the t h e m a t i c e x t e n s i o n m o r p h e m e s , w h i c h a f f e c t the a r g u m e n t s t r u c t u r e of verbs. W i t h i n this g r o u p we e s t a b l i s h two s u b g r o u p s , n a m e l y , a r g u m e n t a d d i n g an d a r g u m e n t d r o p p i n g e x t e n s i o n m o r p h e m e s , ( C a u s a t i v e , A p p l i c a t i v e an d R e c i p r o c a t i v e vs. P a s s i v e and S t a t i v e ) ,
O u r s e c o n d r e s e a r c h o b j e c t i v e is u n d e r t a k e n in c h a p t e r s fo u r and five a f t e r n e c e s s a r y p r e l i m i n a r i e s in c h a p t e r three. T h e s e c h a p t e r s r e s u m e the i n v e s t i g a t i o n of the rol e of e x t e n s i o n m o r p h e m e s as m o r p h o l o g i c a l e x p o n e n t s of l e x i c a l rul e s t ha t a f f e c t the s y n t a c t i c d i s t r i b u t i o n of the v e r b w i t h w h i c h t h e y occur. T he a r g u m e n t a d d i n g t h e m a t i c e x t e n s i o n s are a n a l y s e d in c h a p t e r fo u r and the a r g u m e n t d r o p p i n g t h e m a t i c e x t e n s i o n s are d i s c u s s e d in c h a p t e r five.
T h e s e m o r p h e m e s are a n a l y s e d b o t h in i s o l a t i o n a n d in i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h e a c h o t h e r u s i n g the L e x i c a l m a p p i n g s u b t h e o r y of L e x i c a l - F u n c t i o n a l G r a m m a r ( B r e s n a n (1982)), o u t l i n e d l a t e r in thi s c h a p t e r ( 1 .2.3). The a n a l y s i s f o c u s e s on the g r a m m a t i c a l r e l a t i o n s d e r i v i n g f r o m the a p p l i c a t i o n of e a c h of the l e x i c a l r u l e s i n d e x e d by the e x t e n s i o n m o r p h e m e s . I s s u e s s u c h as w o r d
order, o b j e c t c I i t i c i z a t i o n (4.1.3) and p a s s i v i z a b i 1 ity (5.1.3) are e x a m i n e d and c o n f r o n t e d w i t h s o m e of the g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s t h a t are p a r t of the b o d y of th e t h e o r y in us e in this work, e.g., the h i e r a r c h i c a l c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of t h e m a t i c roles, the i n t r i n s i c c l a s s i f i c a t i o n p a r a m e t e r w h i c h e x p l a i n s a s y m m e t r i e s in the m a n i f e s t a t i o n of o b j e c t p r o p e r t i e s in d i f f e r e n t
l a n g ua g e s , and so forth.
L i n k i n g t h e s e two l i n e s of r e s e a r c h is the a n a l y s i s an d the c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of the E m a k h u w a n o n - d e r i v e d or m a t r i x v e r b s a c c o r d i n g to p o l y a d i c i t y or v a l e n c y . T h i s a n a l y s i s t o g e t h e r w i t h a s u r v e y of the m a i n f e a t u r e s of g r a m m a t i c a l r e l a t i o n s in B a n t u c o n f r o n t e d w i t h t h o s e in E m a k h u w a c o n s t i t u t e s the c o n t e n t of c h a p t e r (3.0). The a n a l y s i s of the t h e m a t i c s t r u c t u r e of m a t r i x v e r b s an d the g r a m m a t i c a l r e l a t i o n s d e r i v i n g fro m t h e m is c a r r i e d out in the l i g h t of the t h e o r e t i c a l b a c k g r o u n d o u t l i n e d in (1.2.2) a nd (1.2.3). S p e c i a l e m p h a s i s is g i v e n to the t h e o r y of p o l y a d i c i t y ( B r e s n a n (1982)) in t h i s c h a p t e r (3.1) w h i c h lays the g r o u n d for the d i v i s i o n of v e r b s into t h e m a t i c a l l y d i f f e r e n t c a t e g o r i e s , an d for the c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n of g r a m m a t i c a l r e l a t i o n s of E m a k h u w a m a t r i x v e r b s (3.2). The c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n of the g r a m m a r of E m a k h u w a m a t r i x v er b s is u n d e r t a k e n in the l i g h t of a b r i e f o v e r v i e w of the p r e v a i l i n g f e a t u r e s of B a n t u t r a n s i t i v i t y (3.3). The p r e l i m i n a r y f i n d i n g s of this e n d e a v o u r show t h a t E m a k h u w a has a p e c u l i a r b e h a v i o u r in the m a n i f e s t a t i o n of g r a m m a t i c a l r e l a ti o n s . In p a r t i c u l a r , cl i t i c i z a t i o n , j u x t a p o s i t i o n to the v e r b and p a s s i v i z a b i 1 ity (3.3.2) are s h o w n to be p r o p e r t i e s of n o n - s u b j e c t NPs but n o t u n i q u e l y of the o b j e c t .
C h a p t e r (6.0) sums up an d r e f l e c t s u p o n o u r f i n d i n g s . In a n t i c i p a t i o n we may d i s c l o s e that our i n v e s t i g a t i o n has r e v e a l e d t h a t E m a k h u w a d a t a b l u r s the d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n s u b c a t e g o r i z a b l e and n o n - s u b c a t e g o r i z a b l e g r a m m a t i c a l f u n c t i o n s by i g n o r i n g , so to speak, f e a t u r e s of o b j e c t h o o d t h a t are d i s t i n c t i v e in o t h e r B a n t u l a n g ua g e s . On the a s s u m p t i o n s of B r e s n a n (1982) this m i g h t lea d one to r e g a r d E m a k h u w a r a t h e r as a t o p i c th a n a s u b j e c t - o r i e n t e d langu a g e , in c o n t r a s t to the m a j o r i t y of B a n t u l a n g u a g e s .
In o r d e r to p r o v i d e a b a c k g r o u n d of the l a n g u a g e u n d e r our s c r u t i n y we o u t l i n e b a s i c i n f o r m a t i o n on the E m a k h u w a n o m i n a l s y s t e m in s e c t i o n (1.1.1) a n d the m o r p h o l o g i c a l s t r u c t u r e of the E m a k h u w a v e r b a l w o r d (1.1.2). In t h i s c h a p t e r we als o o u t l i n e the f u n d a m e n t a l s of the t h e o r y of L e x i c a l - F u n c t i o n a l g r a m m a r g i v i n g s p e c i a l e m p h a s i s to the t h e o r y of L e x i c a l m a p p i n g (1.2), w h i c h we h a v e u s e d as our w o r k i n g m o d e l w i t h o u t n e c e s s a r i l y e n d o r s i n g it as f u l l y a d e q u a t e for the c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n of the facts. The i n t r o d u c t i o n to the b a c k g r o u n d of E m a k h u w a d a t a (1.0.1), (1.1,1) and (1,1.2), d r a w s s u b s t a n t i a l l y on the i n t r o d u c t i o n as w e l l as on c h a p t e r s fou r and five of my M.Ph i l . thes i s , ( Katupha, 1983). A p a r t from th i s no o t h e r p a r t s of thi s w o r k has b e e n t a k e n f r o m any
s o u r c e w i t h o u t due r e c o g n i t i o n and a c k n o w l e d g e m e n t .
1.0.1 The s t a t e of r e s e a r c h of the E m a k h u w a l a n g u a g e - a b r i e f b a c k g r o u n d
E m a k h u w a ( G u t h r i e ’s P . 30), a B a n t u l a n g u a g e s p o k e n in M o z a m b i q u e , the s o u t h e r n p a r t of T a n z a n i a , p a r t s of M a l a w i and in an e n c l a v e of n o r t h w e s t e r n M a d a g a s c a r , is one of the m o s t w i d e l y s p o k e n l a n g u a g e s in M o z a m b i q u e , but has l i t t l e b e e n r e s e a r c h e d . W i t h i n M o z a m b i q u e , thi s l a n g u a g e is r e p r e s e n t e d by s e v e r a l d i a l e c t a l v a r i a t i o n s and s p o k e n p r e d o m i n a n t l y in four p r o v i n c e s out of ten and by a r o u n d 42% of the tot a l p o p u l a t i o n ( G e n e r a l C e n s u s , (1980)),
As a c o n s e q u e n c e of the P o r t u g u e s e a s s i m i 1 a t i o n i s t c o l o n i a l p o l i c y E m a k h u w a as wel l as o t h e r B a n t u l a n g u a g e s in M o z a m b i q u e w e r e d e l i b e r a t e l y n e g l e c t e d . T he l i t t l e e a r l y s c h o l a r l y a t t e n t i o n t h a t was g i v e n to E m a k h u w a was m o t i v a t e d by m i s s i o n a r y e n t e r p r i s e a l w a y s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h or p r o p e l l e d by c o l o n i a l e x p l o r a t o r y e x p e d i t i o n s for t e r r i t o r i a l o c c u p a t i o n and s l a v e - t r a d i n g . H e n c e a c o n s i d e r a b l e n u m b e r of v o c a b u l a r i e s are to be f o u n d s c a t t e r e d in l i b r a r i e s e l s e w h e r e in the w o r l d ( r a r e l y in M o z a m b i q u e ) . T h e s e include: M y l i u s
(1790), S a l t (1814), O ’N e i l l (1882), R a n k i n (1886), S o v e r a l (1887), C a b r a l (1924). To t h e s e may be a d d e d v o c a b u l a r i e s due to s c h o l a r s of C o m p a r a t i v e Bantu:
K o e l l e (1854), B l e e k (1856), L a s t (1889), W e r n e r (1901) and J o h n s t o n (1922). R e c e n t P o r t u g u e s e - E m a k h u w a d i c t i o n a r i e s ha v e b e e n w r i t t e n by P r a t a (1973) an d M a t o s (1974). E l e m e n t a r y g r a m m a r s (do S a c r a m e n t o (1904), M a u g h a m (1905), de C a s t r o (1933), and P r a t a (I960)) are m o s t l y i n a c c u r a t e for t h e y are b a s e d on c a t e g o r i e s d e r i v i n g e i t h e r f r o m P o r t u g u e s e or f r o m L a t i n g r a m m a r s . Th e T a n z a n i a n d i a l e c t s of E m a k h u w a , in the M a s a s i d i s t r i c t , out of the P o r t u g u e s e a s s i m i 1 a t i o n i s t s p h e r e , hav e r e c e i v e d m o r e s u b s t a n t i a l
d e s c r i p t i o n s (Maples (1879), r e v i s e d a nd e x t e n d e d by W o o d w a r d (1926)). M e i n h o f (1908) d e s c r i b e d f e a t u r e s of E m a k h u w a p h o n o l o g y and m o r p h o l o g y f r o m a c o m p a r a t i v e p o i n t of view, s u p p l e m e n t i n g d o c u m e n t a r y s o u r c e s such as M a p l e s (1879) w i t h an i n f o r m a n t fro m Masasi.
M o r e r e c e n t l y , the T a n z a n i a n d i a l e c t s of E m a k h u w a : I k o r o v e r e and I m i t h u p i hav e bee n the o b j e c t of more s e r i o u s l i n g u i s t i c s t u d i e s . C h e n g and K i s s e b e r t h in a s e r i e s of a r t i c l e s ( 1 9 7 9 - 8 1 ) r e v i e w e d f e a t u r e s of E m a k h u w a ( I k o r o v e r e ) t o n o l o g y . S t u c k y p r e s e n t e d a sho r t s t u d y on focus (1979), an a n a l y s i s of w o r d o r d e r v a r i a t i o n in M a k u a (198^ :) a nd a d o c t o r a l d i s s e r t a t i o n
o r d e r
on word/,var l a t i o n in M a k u a (1981 ).
P o s t - i n d e p e n d e n c e e f f o r t s to p r o m o t e the use of A f r i c a n l a n g u a g e s of M o z a m b i q u e (i.e., sin c e 1975) h a v e bee n u n d e r t a k e n . As a r e s u l t a r e s e a r c h u n i t has bee n c r e a t e d in the E d u a r d o M o n d l a n e U n i v e r s i t y of M ap u t o . F r o m t h i s u n i t a s t u d y of E m a k h u w a s e n t e n c e s t r u c t u r e was u n d e r t a k e n and p r e s e n t e d by K a t u p h a (1983) as an M .P h i l . d i s s e r t a t i o n in the U n i v e r s i t y of London.
1,1 Th e s t r u c t u r e of the m a i n l e x i c a l c a t e g o r i e s in E m a k h u w a - a p r e - t h e o r e t i c a l d e s c r i p t i o n
In o r d e r to c a p t u r e the m a i n f e a t u r e s of E m a k h u w a n o m i n a l and v e r b a l m o r p h o l o g y and to be able to f o l l o w the e x a m p l e s p r o v i d e d in our i n v e s t i g a t i o n we d e s c r i b e b e l o w the b a s i c forms of E m a k h u w a n o m i n a l cla s s s y s t e m and the main c o m p o n e n t m o r p h e m e s in the v e r b s t r u c t u r e .
1.1.1 The m o r p h o l o g y o f ^ n o u n class s y s t e m
The n o u n in E m a k h u w a is g e n e r a l l y m a d e of a p r e f i x and a n o m i n a l stem. N o u n s d i s p l a y i n g the same c o n c o r d p r e f i x are s a i d to b e l o n g to the same class. A c l a s s of n o u n s is i d e n t i f i a b l e no t s o l e l y by its p r e f i x , as n o u n s of d i f f e r e n t c l a s s e s ma y have the same p r e f i x in i s o l a t i o n . A n d b e s i d e s t h e r e are some n o u n s w h i c h are p r e f i x l e s s in i s o l a t i o n . Rather, a c l a s s c o n s i s t s of a g r o u p of n o u n s c o n t r o l l i n g a s i m i l a r p a t t e r n of a g r e e m e n t in s u c h d e p e n d e n t l e x i c a l i t e m s as a d j e c t i v e s , d e m o n s t r a t i v e s , etc. N o r m a l l y , c l a s s e s are o r g a n i z e d in pairs, one s i n g u l a r an d the o t h e r c o r r e s p o n d i n g to plur a l .
1 . 1 . 1 . 1 E m a k h u w a n o m i n a l p r e f i x e s and a l l o m o r p h s
L e a v i n g aside, for the mome n t , the s o - c a l l e d L o c a t i v e c l a s s e s , E m a k h u w a n o u n s d i s p l a y nine t y p e s of c o n c o r d p a t t e r n s only, i n c l u d i n g the cla s s of i n f i n i t i v e s as s h o w n in T a b l e (1,1). In this table, the p r i n c i p a l n o u n c l a s s p r e f i x m o r p h e m e s are g i v e n in the s e c o n d c o l u m n w i t h t h e i r p h o n o l o g i c a l l y c o n d i t i o n e d a l l o m o r p h s in the t h i r d column. The c l a s s e s are n u m b e r e d in the first column, u s i n g n u m b e r s th a t c o r r e s p o n d as c l o s e l y as p o s s i b l e to the r e c o n s t r u c t e d c l a s s - s y s t e m of P r o t o - B a n t u ( r e f e r r e d to in n o t e s in the f i n a l c ol u m n ) f o l l o w i n g the e s t a b l i s h e d p r a c t i c e in B a n t u s t u d i e s . In c a s e s w h e r e n o u n s c o n t r o l the sam e c o n c o r d s in d e p e n d e n t w o r d s but d i s p l a y w h o l l y d i f f e r e n t p r e f i x e s , w h i c h are l e x i c a l l y d e t e r m i n e d r a t h e r tha n p h o n o l o g i c a l l y c o n d i t i o n e d , we hav e u s e d the same c l a s s n u m b e r in the f ir s t column, but w i t h a d i s t i n g u i s h i n g a l p h a b e t i c s u f f i x , e.g., the s t a n d a r d p r e f i x {rau-}
w h i c h c o n t r o l s the same a g r e e m e n t s as s u b c l a s s [la]
w i t h zero p r e f i x [0-] and the d i m i n u t i v e s u b c l a s s [lb]
wit h the p r e f i x {mwa-},
Table (1.1) The noun class prefix
Class Morphemes Allomorphs
’Lexically 1Phonologically Selected' Selected’
Examples Gloss
!;/ c
mw/ V
•round
mo/
iJi-tchu ra-mOci
m w a - A n a mui-ini
mo-6pi mo-6thi
person
fellow clansman
child dancer
{drum) player liar
1! - C 3 1
mu/ mu-Ana
m u - u o i
sib of same sex moulder
la 0 -khile
-nak h u w o e v u c u
monkey maize
tortoise
2) includes nouns compounded with "na" and nouns with pseudo-prefix in sg .
lb mwa mwaA-m-muci little fellow clansman 3) diminutive prefix {see 4.2)
mwaA+nakhuwo small maike mwaA+m-kole small coconut tree
a/
o/
1 : 7
a-Ana a-muci
o-6pi o-6oi
children fellow clansmen
p l a y e r s moulders
4) CB 2 *ba-
e/ e-ani
e-4tti
cancers
friends sib dif. sex
e/
a/
A-4+wucu tortoises 4-4+khtmlu kind of antelopes
A-m+phuri A-n-kitci A-tthu A-khole
kind of birds kind of rats people monkeys
5) the prefix of this particular class differs from 2 in tone.
Nevertheless, it triggers the same concord pattern as that of 2.
Table (1.1) The noun class prefix (continued):
Class Morphemes Allooorphs
’Lexically 'Phonologically S e l ected’ Selected
Examoles Gloss
isi asi-muci
asi-nakhuwo a s i - m k o l e
6) pre-prefix expressing diminutive (4.2.)
K/ C
mw/
do/
-f V '1
l-rounoJ-[ • ]
n-k6ri m-mini
mwa-Ako mwi-isi
mo-6no mo-6ro
7) C3 3”mo-
mountarn smoke
arm f i r e
au/ nu-hku
tsu-Alu
worm muzzle
o-rivo o-ktme o-mupi o-v£ilu
honey dew clanship mushrooms
8) CB 1< 'bu
ll *cu- (skewed?)
ai/ ^
m y / -
f v 1
[-high rrontj
tai-k&ri mi-isi
tnya-iko myo-6no
beds smokes
mountains arms
9) CB4»mi-
o - p lln A p t in a o-viilu
grapes mushrooms kind of raushrooE
S
+ D e n t a l+Alveolar V n-tAt +Post-aiveol
J / — [ " ]
n-rAma n-limi n-tthatto
nu-fime nu-utta
hand cheek tongue mat
frog (kind) memory
lO) CB 5*i-/di-(skewed?)
n i / E lsewhere ni-kiitha knee
ni-ino tooth
Table (1,1) The noun class prefix (continued):
Class Morphemes Allomorphs Examples
‘Lexically 'Phonologically Selected1 Selected'
me/ 1 i r ne-Ano teeth 11) CB ca-
:rogs mo-6tta _ memories
ma/ Elsewhere ma-tita hands ma-rAma cheeks ma-limi tongues ma-tthAtto mats
e-pAri e-kuluwe e-khAcu e-h6pa e-hAce
goat pig
cashew frui fish j ealousy
12) CB 7 * ki-
n c m s formerly in class seem to have been reclassified into class 7.
11 and
14
i-puri i-kuluwe i-khacu i-hopa
goats pigs
cashew fruits fish
13) CB S * bi
classes 7/8 are conventionally orthographical!-/ distinguished by the opposition e/i, but e/i in position v appear to be in free verfaticn in speech, Nouns of class lO'N are re-classified into 8.
O/
w/ -[ ' ]
o-lima o-liva o-rAma
wa-Ala vi-ila
•wu-Ama
to cultivate to pay
to sow/plant to fall (night) to become dry
14) C3 15 * ku- di.seiner from 3b concord oattern.
Notes: 1 - following rules of vowel assimilation
1 . 1 . 1 , 2 A h i s t o r i c a l n o t e on the m o r p h o l o g i c a l
c o n v e r g e n c e of E m a k h u w a noun c l a s s p r e f i x e s
The r e f l e x e s of C o m m o n B a n t u are such t h a t the o r i g i n a l
*k a n d *b hav e b e c o m e 0 (zero) in E m a k h u w a , As a r e s u l t t h e r e is a c o n v e r g e n c e of m o r p h o l o g i c a l c o n f i g u r a t i o n s of c l a s s e s [ 1 4 , 1 5 , 1 7 ] . Thi s c o n v e r g e n c e h o w e v e r , is o n l y in s h a p e b e t w e e n c l a s s [14] on th e one hand, a nd [15,17] on the other. For the former has a d i f f e r e n t c o n c o r d p a t t e r n fr o m the l a t t e r group, i d e n t i c a l to t h a t of c l a s s [3 ] .
C l a s s [14] as w e l l as [11] hav e been r e - i n t e r p r e t e d and r e - c l a s s i f i e d as c l a s s [3a]. As for c l a s s e s [15,17]
t h e y s h a r e the same c o n c o r d p a t t e r n but d i f f e r in m e a n i n g . C l a s s [15] is o n l y for i n f i n i t i v e s a n d [17]
o n l y for l o c a t i v e s .
One ma y s i m i l a r l y a s s u m e tha t the c o n v e r g e n c e of *k and
*b into zero is r e s p o n s i b l e for the s i t u a t i o n in c l a s s e s [7/8] ( Co m m o n B a n t u [7* k i / 8 x bi]) w h e r e the p r e f i x e s are c o n v e n t i o n a l l y d i s t i n g u i s h e d in the o r t h o g r a p h y as E- for the s i n g u l a r and I- for the p l u r a l but o c c u r in fre e v a r i a t i o n in speech. The o n l y d i s t i n g u i s h i n g f a c t o r is the c o n c o r d p a t t e r n the y y i e l d ,
It a l s o s e e m s t h a t c l a s s e s [CB 9*N] and [CB 1 0 *N] have b e e n r e - i n t e r p r e t e d a nd r e - c l a s s i f i e d as [7/8], So far, no o t h e r c o n c o r d p a t t e r n s or class p r e f i x e s h a v e b e e n f o u n d an d t h e r e a p p e a r s to be no r e f l e x in E m a k h u w a of the C o m m o n B a n t u c l a s s e s [12,13],
1 . 1 . 1 . 3 G e n d e r s y s t e m s
The t e r m g e n d e r is c o n v e n i e n t l y a d o p t e d h e r e to mean the p a t t e r n of a g r e e m e n t or c o n c o r d t h a t a g i v e n c l a s s of n o u n s y i e l d s . This p a t t e r n m a y o f t e n hav e its s i n g u l a r an d p l u r a l form. H e n c e t h e r e are t w o - c l a s s g e n d e r s , i.e., h a v i n g c o n c o r d p a t t e r n s c o r r e s p o n d i n g to s i n g u l a r a nd p l u r a l , and o n e - c l a s s g e n d e r s , t h o s e n o u n s w h i c h o c c u r o n l y in one class ( e i t h e r s i n g u l a r or p l u r a l ).
The t a b l e (1,2) set s out the p r i m a r y or " l e x i c a l "
g e n d e r s , (bo t h t w o - c l a s s and o n e - c l a s s g e n d e r s ) , t h a t we have b e e n a b l e to e s t a b l i s h in E m a k h u w a .
