The two way relationship between an employee's job satisfaction and mental health
Master thesis, MscBA, specialization Human Resource Management University of Groningen, Faculty of Economics and Business
Abstract
This research examines the relationships between mental health and job satisfaction, in both directions. Up to this point, research has been unclear if both relationships exist and to indicate, that if both are present, which relationship is stronger. This study will attempt to specify the relationship between these variables. These relationships are made more clear by adding information about working conditions, which have been found to influence both mental health and job satisfaction. Using data provided by the LISSDATA base we examined this relationship by comparing data from either mental health or job satisfaction in the first year and the other in the second year. Results show that both relationships are present, but that neither prove to be of much greater influence on the other. Working conditions have been found to have a impact on both variables, most profoundly on job satisfaction.
Introduction
Evolution of the global market has been increasing the pressure on organizations to reform and increase their proficiency when handling their resources(Barnett & McKendrick, 2004). Human resources are a major asset to any organization and have been connected to the profitability and survivability of organizations. Available evidence states that the job satisfaction experienced by employees and their mental health are of influence on the organizational
performance(Lyubomirsky et al, 2005; Judge et al, 2001). According to research performed by the World Health Organization, almost twenty percent of all disability-adjusted life
years(DALY) is caused by mental health issues in the European continent and that it is a
reasons and cause more strain on the employees, lowering their experienced satisfaction and with it their overall performance(Oreg, 2006)
Research conducted in 1996 has indicated that the state of mental health can be
influenced by the levels of job satisfaction experienced by employees. It is possible to partially protect employees mental health by enhancing their job satisfaction(Ramirez et al, 1996). Another research states that the relationship between mental health and job satisfaction might also be working in the opposite direction. This research found that employees suffering from mental health issues reported lower levels of job satisfaction(Lee et al, 2009). Because of this the primary questions guiding this research are:
Which relationships are present between the job satisfaction experienced by employees and the mental health of employees and which of these relationships is more prudent.
There could be implications generated by this research, both theoretically and practically. Theory has so far not given an answer to whether the relationship is stronger between mental health and job satisfaction or job satisfaction and mental health. This paper will attempt to clarify which one is more prominent, adding to current literature. Practically this research could help organizations understand the relationships between mental health and job satisfaction and to determine which one they should focus on when using their financial resources.
The variables
to explicit rewards, does not yield a reward an employee will be unsatisfied. Another aspect of job satisfaction is the degree to which employees feel connected to their organization and co-workers. An employee that is able to have healthy relationships with employees and the organization will feel more satisfied(Faragher et al, 2005). A very important feature of job satisfaction is the congruence of the desires of an employee and what an employee actually receives. An employee that wishes to gain a certain reward but is unable to acquire this reward, he or she will be unsatisfied(Kalleberg, 1977). This shows that job satisfaction is an emotional reaction towards the job characteristics an employee experiences.
Mental health has been described as the social, psychological and emotional well-being of individuals in the tripartite model of mental well-being. Social well-being is influenced by the types of relationships individuals experience and the support gained from these relationships. Social well-being is also influenced by an individual's feeling of trust and belonging to other individuals, groups and organizations. The psychological side of mental health can be divided into resilience and self-esteem, life satisfaction, vitality and functioning in life. The last side of mental health is emotional well-being and this encompasses the positive feels and attitudes and absence of negative attitudes experienced, such as happiness (Keyes et al, 2010). People
suffering from low mental health have been found to be low on fatigue, high on stress, suffering from poor moods and eating disorders, low on self-esteem and depressed (Warr, 1990).
to working hours, freedom of action, over hours, lack of control, uncertainty, support and repetition(Kahya, 2007).
Theoretical framework Relationship between job satisfaction and mental health
Empirical research conducted in 2013 by Nadinloyi et al, concerning the relationship between job satisfaction and mental health has shown that it is possible that there is a connection between these two variables. The study used data used from 90 participants in a single wave and found correlations between the job satisfaction experienced by employees and the subsequent mental health present. The following section will explain why these correlations might exist.
A factor that greatly influences job satisfaction is the rewards received. Low job
satisfaction has been linked poor perceived rewards(Rusbult & Farrell, 1983). Employees work towards certain rewards and the incongruence between perceived rewards and expected rewards can have an impact emotionally. As soon as the rewards are perceived poor, employees might feel emotionally exhausted as they perceive their actions as unrewarding(Bosma et al, 2000). This feeling of injustice can be as distributive injustice, implying that rewards are not shared equally for the same amount of effort and performance(McFarlin & Sweeney, 1992). Or it could be in the form of not gaining the types of rewards envisioned, with for example a bonus being low(Janssen, 2001). Research has shown that emotional exhaustion is one of the main causes of a burnout, which is a form of mental illness(Maslach et al, 2001).
A poor working environment has been found to be a source of low satisfaction. The forming of cliques, favoritism by management and poor HR management are only a couple of examples that could lead to an employee being less satisfied with work(Weiss & Cropanzano, 1996). Employees that operate in such an environment might start to feel emotionally drained by their work as they receive little enjoyment out of it. They might also feel that they are not
& Croon, 2006). Both emotional drainage and poor perceived personal achievement are symptoms of a burnout (Maslack et al, 2001).
Low job satisfaction can be found within employees that perceive the relationships at work to be poor and the support they receive low. Employees might find themselves in tough spots at work, and requiring aid in order to perform their tasks(Wayne et al, 1997). When there is a lack of proper relationship other employees might not be willing to help you perform your tasks properly or at all. Also in times of emotional hardship employees might need someone to support them and talk to them or help in other ways(Settoon et al, 1996). With poor relationships and low support employees might get depressed at their job, which is a form of mental
illness(Brown et al, 1986).
Tension at work has been proven to be a source of low job satisfaction for employees, especially for those unable to cope with tension. A job that always has a short amount of time to perform its tasks(Linzer et al, 2000), uncertainty about existence and the possibility of being quickly laid off can cause low perceived job satisfaction(Sverke & Hellgren, 2002). These tensions can then lead to anxiety, which if continued for a long period of time might make a person more anxious in general. Anxiety has named as a type of mental illness(Spitzer et al, 2006).
Based on this we posit that:
Hypothesis 1. An employee high on job satisfaction will have a higher degree of mental health than an employee low on job satisfaction.
Relationship between mental health and job satisfaction
a small sample size. A different study found the opposite effect, that it was actually mental health influencing job satisfaction(Ruggiero, 2005).
A common state of bad mental health is depression(Goetzel et al, 2003), which is a psychological state of well-being. A depressed person will feel more negatively concerning daily activities. At work this can be enhanced by poor working conditions such as high job insecurity, lack of social support, imbalance between effort and reward, high job strain, long hours and low wage. All of these working conditions have been found to increase the depression of employees. A depressed individual will feel less certain about his or her abilities and performance. Their performance will decline as a result of for example being less careful and showing a reduced interest in work(Adler et al, 2006). They do not see rewards as justified and are unable to get satisfaction out of their actions. There is a feeling of being able to perform better and letting down others. They can feel they are letting down their co-workers and do not belong and will reduce their interactions(Haslam et al, 2005).
It is possible for individuals to have issues when having to connect with others, because of preferred types of social interaction. Certain types of individuals prefer to be alone, have not developed proper interaction norms or simply feel insecure while in the presence of others, a state of social well-being(Rook, 1984). Jobs most often require employees to interactive with others on a daily basis and to form relationships with them(Trevino et al, 2006). Individuals with a poor social orientation will not find this a pleasant form of work and be less satisfied with their experiences at work.
positively(Brotheridge & Grandey, 2002). Poor work conditions are able to enhance the likelihood of a burnout by making employees work long hours, putting them in stressful
turbulent situations and not providing proper emotional support(Demerouti et al, 2001). Burnouts generally cause the experiences at the job to be experienced more negatively, as employees are not able to put in the effort required to perform the job as required and are unable to find enjoyment and fulfillment (Schaufeli et al, 2009).
An individual's mood can be described as an emotional state that can scale from positive to negative. A person can be happy, sad or for example angry. Moods have been defined as states of mental well-being(Diener, 1994). At work an employee can be angry or sad when in a bad mood. This mood can be compounded by for example poor working conditions such as working over hours, performing the same routine every day or having to work long hours with little to no rest(Morris & Feldman, 1997). Previous research has indicated that an employee in a poor mood can experience the activities at work in a negative sense and will suffer from decreased job satisfaction as a result(Fisher, 2000).
The final state of mental health discussed, a psychological state, will be anxiety of employees. Employees might feel anxiety at work, partially because of working conditions such as a high degree of job insecurity or low wages. Both being able to disturb the work-life balance of the employee(Edwards & Rothbard, 1999). An employee living in fear at the job could experience feedback, performance indications and changes as negative and will show a decreased sense of satisfaction at work(Ashford et al, 1989).
Based on what has been pointed out about the connection between mental health and job satisfaction we posit:
Methodology Sample
The LISS panel is a representative sample of Dutch individuals who participate in monthly Internet surveys. The panel is based on a true probability sample of households drawn from the population register. Households that could not otherwise participate are provided with a
computer and Internet connection. A longitudinal survey is fielded in the panel every year, covering a large variety of domains including work, education, income, housing, time use, political views, values and personality. More information about the LISS panel can be found at: www.lissdata.nl. The data used for this research was gathered in waves 1(2008) and 2(2009) for the subject ‘work and schooling’ and waves 2(2008) and 3(2009) for the subject ‘health’,
To determine the amount of respondents’ data we can use we will look at the number of respondents that have filled in the survey of the indicated waves and the indicated; ‘health’ and ‘work and schooling’. From this total we will remove all the respondents that did not completely fill in the survey questions regarding the topics of interest. After this every respondent that is not of working age will be removed, because this research is about people that work. All
unemployed respondents will also be removed from the data. Out of the remaining list we will look at the amount of respondents that filled in the surveys of both topics and in both 2008 and 2009. For our first hypothesis we can use the data of 2757 respondents. For the second
hypothesis we can use the data of 2655 respondents. Variables
using a scale from 1 to 6, 1 being never and 6 being continuously. Of these questions two will be reverse coded; ch08b012, ch10b012 and ch08b015, ch10b015. To make sure all the questions can be used we have to determine the consistency of the questions by calculating the Cronbach’s Alpha(α). If the α is above 0.7 then the questions can be deemed consistent and no questions have to be left out. The internal consistency of these questions regarding health is α = 0.824 for the mental health data collected in 2008 and 0,846 for the mental health data collected in 2009. No questions will be left out as these ratings are above 0.7 .
To measure job satisfaction a set of five questions will be used. The questions are; ‘How satisfied are you with your working hours’(cw08a129, cw10a129), ‘How satisfied are you with the type of work that you do’(cw08a130, cw10a130), ‘How satisfied are you with the general atmosphere among your colleagues’(cw08a131, cw10a131), ‘How satisfied are you with your career so far’(cw08a132, cw10a132) and ‘How satisfied are you with your current
work’(cw08a133, cw10a133). These questions are self-rated and use scales ranging from 1 to 10, with 1 being ‘Not at all satisfied’ and 10 being ‘Fully satisfied’. The internal consistency of these questions regarding job satisfaction is α = 0.834 for job satisfaction data collected in 2008 and 0,848 for job satisfaction data collected in 2009. No questions will be left out as these ratings are above 0.7 .
effort and performance’ (cw08a433) ‘My prospects of career advancement/promotion in my job are poor’ (cw08a434), and ‘It is uncertain whether my job will continue to exist’ (cw08a435). All these questions are self-rated, with the first five using a scale ranging from 1 to 3, with 1 being often and 3 being never. The other questions use a scale ranging from 1 to 4, with 1 being disagree entirely and 4 being agree entirely.
Control variables
In order to control for other effects, control variables will be added to the analyses of this study. The control variables that will be added are: Age, gender and highest level of education. It is possible that these variables might have an influence on the independent and dependent variables. For example, age has been found to have an impact on both mental health and job satisfaction(Clark et al, 1996; Blanchflower & Oswald, 2008) and gender that has an effect on the job satisfaction experienced(Hodson, 1989). These control variables will be measured using one question. Age will be measured using the year of birth data. This research will use data from multiple years, across multiple years a person's age is not a constant variable, year of birthday does indicate a person's age and is a constant factor.
Method
control and independent on the dependent variable. Then the B coefficient will be used to determine how strong the effects are on the independent variable. After which it will be
examined if the relationship is significant, which should be at a level of P below 0.05. After both relationships have been analyzed we will compare the strength of both relationships and
determine if one is stronger or whether both are equal. Results Relationship between job satisfaction and mental health
This section will indicate the results of the linear regression performed on the data of the first wave responds to the questions about job satisfaction and working conditions and second data responds to mental health questions. The data of the control variables has also been incorporated. Results can be found in table I,II,III and IV.
Amongst the respondents were 1336 males and 1319 females, creating a group of almost equal ratio, 2655 respondents in total. The average year of birth of the respondents was 1966 and ranging between 1921 and 1992, making the oldest participant 87 at the time of the survey and the youngest 16. The SD was 12,4, implying most respondents were born between the years 1954 and 1978. The highest education variable has a MEAN of 15.6, indicating that the average
Main effect between job satisfaction and mental health.
The results, as shown in table II, indicate that job satisfaction has a significant, positive effect on mental health of employees. The relationship is significant with a P value of 0.00. The B
coefficient stands at 0,153, indicating that for every point increase of job satisfaction, the employees mental health increases by 0,153 points. This result indicate that the first hypothesis “An employee high on job satisfaction will have a higher degree of mental health than an employee low on job satisfaction”, has been confirmed. The R-Square value stands at 0.056, indicating that 5.6% of all the variance to mental health is caused by an employee's job satisfaction.
Influence of working conditions on effects of job satisfaction on mental health. Comparison of B coefficient and R-square results of table II and III show an effect of the
working conditions on the influence job satisfaction has on job mental health. Table II shows the B coefficient standing at 0,153 and the R-square at 0,056 for job satisfaction. Table III shows the B coefficient to be 0,131 and the R-square at 0,029. The B coefficient has dropped with 0,022 with the addition of working conditions and the R-square value has dropped by 0.028 with the addition of working conditions.
Effects of age, gender and education.
As indicated in table IV, of the three control variables used during analysis, the highest level of education has not shown a significant effect on the relationship between job satisfaction and mental health.
The “Year of birth” variable showed a significant influence on the relationship between job satisfaction and mental health, with a B coefficient of -0,026. This coefficient indicates that when the year of birth goes up by 1 point, mental health will be negatively affected by 0.55 points. The P value was 0.00.
Relationship between mental health and job satisfaction.
This section will indicate the results of the linear regression performed on the data of the first wave responds to the questions about mental health and working conditions and second data responds to job satisfaction questions. The data of the control variables has also been
incorporated. Results can be found in table V,VI,VII and VIII.
Amongst the respondents were 1369 males and 1388 females, creating a group of almost equal ratio, 2757 respondents in total. The average year of birth of the respondents was 1965 and ranging between 1921 and 1992, making the oldest participant 87 at the time of the surveys and the youngest 16. The SD was 11,6, indicating that most respondents were born between the years 1953 and 1977. The highest education variable has a MEAN of 15,8, indicating that the average highest level of education was an intermediate professional education. The SD was 5,7,
indicating most of the respondents enjoyed their highest level of education between
“VMBO”(preparatory intermediate vocational school) and “Conservatory and art academy”
Main effect between mental health and job satisfaction.
coefficient stands at 0,39, indicating that for every point increase of mental health, the employee’s job satisfaction increases by 0.39 points. This result shows that the second
hypothesis ,“An employee that is mentally healthy will have a higher amount of job satisfaction than an employee low on mental health”, has been confirmed. The R-Square value stands at 0.063, indicating that 6.3% of all the variance to job satisfaction of an employee is caused by their mental health state.
Influence of working conditions on effects of mental health on job satisfaction.
Comparison of B coefficient and R-square results of table VI and VII show an effect of the working conditions on the influence mental health has on job satisfaction. Table VI shows the B coefficient standing at 0,390 and the R-square at 0,063 for job satisfaction. Table VII shows the B coefficient to be 0,298 and the R-square at 0,035. The B coefficient has dropped with 0,092 with the addition of working conditions and the R-square value has dropped by 0.028 with the addition of working conditions.
Effects of age, gender and education.
As indicated in table VIII, out of the three control variables used during the analysis, “the highest level of education” variable does not a significant effect on the relationship between mental health and job satisfaction.
A person's gender was the control variable that showed the most influence on the relationship between job satisfaction and mental health, with a B coefficient of 0,592, which indicates that when the gender score goes up by 1 point, the relationship is positively affected by 0,592 points. Females were indicated by a score of 2, being female has a positive effect on an employee’s job satisfaction. This influence was significant with a P value of 0.004.
when the year of birth goes up by 1 point, job satisfaction will be negatively affected by 0.055 points. The P value was 0.00.
Conclusion and discussion
One of the research questions stated at the beginning of this study was to see if one of the
relationship was stronger or both were equal in strength. Looking at the results, it is apparent that both main effects are small. Mental health only causes 6.3% of all the variance in job satisfaction and job satisfaction only causes 5.6% of all the variance in mental health. Out of both the
relationships the one where mental health influences job satisfaction is barely the stronger one. Theory states that vicious cycles, cycles where effects constantly reinforce each other, can be present between factors(Malhotra & Kaufman, 2007). This study showed that both relationships between mental health and job satisfaction exists, making it possible that there is a constant enhancing effect between these factors. When mental health decreases job satisfaction, this lowered job satisfaction can decrease mental health and so on. Because the effects of both relationships are small, changes they cause will be small and the cycle will quickly weaken and disappear.
The results indicate that both hypotheses have been confirmed. Both relationships have been found to be significant but both found that the independent variable only had a small effect on the dependent variable. With 6.3% for mental health as independent and 5,6% for job
satisfaction as independent, there are factors that are of more influence. When trying to alter job satisfaction of employees, their mental health should not be the main source to which resources should flow and the same goes for the other way around. Research should focus on combining all the variables that can influence either mental health or job satisfaction and see which ones
The results show that with the addition of working conditions into the regression analysis, the effects of mental health on job satisfaction were reduced by 0,028. Instead of 6,3% of all variance caused by mental health, it now only caused 3.5% of all variance. These results imply that mental health outcomes were partially determined by the effects working conditions had mentally, on the job satisfaction of employees. Working conditions could cause certain emotions and feelings that mentally affected employees. This does cause implications, as it is now clear that there is still 2.9% of variance to job satisfaction that has not been fully explained by this research. The next steps would be to first of control for more working conditions and to see if they further reduce the influence of mental health without working conditions. The second thing that could be done would be to test for other specific parts of mental health that could influence job satisfaction, such as a specific test for depression.
Job satisfaction has been found to influence an employee's mental health, causing 5,6% of all variance. When controlling for working conditions, the variance caused by job satisfaction is reduced by 2,7%, with job satisfaction ending up causing only 2,9% of all variance. The working conditions controlled for have been found to cause around 5% of all variance to mental health. A part of the influence of working conditions on mental health happens at the expense of job satisfaction, implying that working conditions are a part of an employee's job satisfaction influence on mental health. It is now important to control for more working conditions and then to determine the remaining influence of experienced job satisfaction on mental health.
Limitations
This study contains several limitations that make the results less applicable to different settings. First of the data was gathered in the Netherlands, which is part of the European region. Research conducted in 2012 studied the determinants of job satisfaction across four cultural regions; Latin America, North America, Europe and Asia. This research found that while job satisfaction is experienced in all of these regions, the impact of certain determinants of job satisfaction differs across these regions(Andreassi et al, 2012). This implies that it is possible that the findings about mental health and certain working conditions influencing job satisfaction might not apply outside of the Netherlands or regions of Europe.
The data collected was not collected by the researchers of this study, but by a database. This database determined the timeframes in which the data was gathered. This limits the ability to determine in what timeframe to perform both waves of data gathering and amongst which portion of the population the surveys should be held.
Previous research has stated that questionnaires that are too long might impede respondents to fill in the questionnaire at all(Edwards et al, 2002) all questions with the same amount of focus and honesty. A questionnaire that is too long might frustrate them, taking up too much of their time and they might rush through some of the questions(Fanning, 2005). A smaller questionnaire, focusing only on the topics related to this study might be able to reduce this risk.
Another flaw of self-reported data is that there is the potential for telescoping, this is when individuals remember when a certain experience took place and can misconnect two experiences, creating a false image(Fadnes et al, 2009).
Another limitation of this study is the fact that there is not an even spread of respondents of different age groups. Most of the respondents are around the age of forty to fifty. The amount of data gathered, especially of young respondents, is low. This can distort the conclusions that can be drawn from the information provided by the control variables. Future research should spread the amount of respondents of age groups better or at least increase the amount of certain groups to make sure they statistically represent. The same amounts for the highest level of education enjoyed. The lowest and highest education levels are underrepresented, something future research should address.
Acknowledgements
References
Adler, D., A., McLaughlin, T., J., Rogers, W., H., Hong, C., Lapitsky, L., Lerner, D. (2006). Job performance deficits due to depression. American Journal of Psychiatry, 163(9): 1569-1576
Andreassi, J., K., Lawter, L., Brockerhoff, M., Rutigliano, P. (2012). Job satisfaction determinants: a study across 48 nations. Proceedings of 2012 Annual Meeting of the Academy of International Business-US north east chapter: Business without border Ashford, S., J., Lee, C., Bobko, P. (1989). Content, cause and consequences of job insecurity:
A theory-based measure and substantive test. Academy of Management Journal, 32(4): 803-829
Barnett, W., P., McKendrick, D., G. (2004). Why are some organizations more competitive than others? Evidence from a changing global market. Administrative Science Quaterly, 49(4): 535-571
Blanchflower, D., G., Oswald, A., J. (2008). Is well-being U-shaped over the life cycle? Social Science & Medicine, 66(8): 1733-1749
Brotheridge, C., M., Grandey, A., A. (2002). Emotional labor and burnout: Comparing two perspectives of “people work”. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 60(1): 17-39
Brown, G., W., Andrews, B., Harris, T., Adler, Z., Bridge, L. (1986). Social support, self-esteem and depression. Psychological Medicine, 16(4): 813-831
Clark, A., Oswald, A., Warr, P. (1996). Is job satisfaction U-shaped in age? Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 69(1): 57-81
Demerouti, E., Bakker, A., B., Nachreiner, F., Schaufeli, W., B. (2001). The job
demands-resources model of burnout. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86(3): 499-512 Diener, E. (1994). Assessing subjective well-being: progress and opportunities. Social
Durlak, J., A., Wells, A., M. (1997). Primary prevention mental health programs for children and adolescents: A meta-analytic review. American Journal of Community Psychology, 25(2): 115-152
Dwyer, D., J., Ganster, D., C. (1991). The effects of job demands and control on employee attendance and satisfaction. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 12(7): 595-608 Edwards, P., Roberts, I., Clarke, M., DiGuiseppi, C., Pratap, S., Wentz, R., Kwan, I. (200).
Increasing response rates to postal questionnaires: systematic review. British medical Journal, 324(7347): 1183-1185
Edwards, J., R., Rothbard, N., P. (1999). Work and family stress and well-being: an examination of person-environment fit in the work and family domains. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 77(2): 85-129
Fadnes, L., T., Taube, A., Tylleskar, T. (2009). How to identify information bias due to self-reporting in epidemiological research. The Internet Journal of Epidemiology, 7(2) Fanning, E. (2005). Formatting a Paper-based survey questionnaire: Best practices. Practical
Assessment, Research & Evaluation, 10(12)
Faragher, E., B., Cass, M., Cooper, C., L. (2005). The relationship between job satisfaction and health: a meta-analysis. Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 62(2): 105-112
Fisher, C., D. (2000). Mood and emotional while working: Missing pieces of job satisfaction? Journal of Organizational Behavior, 21(2): 185-202
Goetzel, R., Z., Hawkins, K., Ozminkowski, R., J., Wang, S., H. (2003). The health and productivity cost burden of the “top 10” physical and mental health conditions
affecting six large US employers in 1999. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 45(1): 5-15
the workplace: Effects on the individual and organization (a focus group investigation). Journal of Affective Disorders, 88(2): 209-2015
Hodson, R. (1989). Gender differences in job satisfaction. The Sociological Quarterly, 30(3), 385-399
Jackson, S., Schwab, R., Schuler, R. (1986). Toward an understanding of the burnout phenomenon. Journal of Applied Psychology, 71(4): 630-640
Janssen, O. (2001). Fairness perceptions as a moderator in the curvilinear relationships between job demands, and job performance and job satisfaction. Academy of Management Journal, 44(5): 1039-1050
Jonge, de., J., Bosma, H., Peter, R., Siegrist, J. (2000). Job strain, effort-reward imbalance and employee wellbeing: a large-scale cross-sectional study. Social Science & Medicine, 50(9): 1317-1327
Judge, T., A., Thoresen, C., J., Bono, J., E., Patton, G., K. (2001). The job satisfaction-job performance relationship: A qualitative and quantitative review. Psychological Bulletin, 127(3): 376-407
Kahya, E. (2007). The effects of job characteristics and working conditions on job performance. International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics, 37(6): 515-523 Kalleberg, A., L. (1977). Work values and job rewards: A theory of job satisfaction.
American Sociological Review, 42(1): 124-143
Keyes, C., L., M., Myers, J., M., Kendler, K., S. (2010). The structure of the genetic and environmental influences on mental well-being. American Public Health Association, 100(12): 2379-2384
Lee, M., S., M., Lee, M., B., Liao, S., C., Chiang, F., T. (2009). Relationship between
mental health and job satisfaction among employees in a medical center department of laboratory medicine. Journal of the Formosan Medical Association, 108(2): 146-154 Linzer, M., Konrad, T., R., Douglas, J., McMurray, J., E., Pathman, D., E., Williams, E., S., Schwartz, M., D., Gerrity, M., Scheckler, W., Bigby, J., Rhodes, E. (2000). Managed care, time pressure, and physician job satisfaction: results from the physician worklife study. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 15(7): 441-450
Locke, E. A., (1969). What is job satisfaction? Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 4(1): 309–336
Lyubomirsky, S., King, L., Diener, E. (2005). The benefits of frequent positive affect: Does happiness lead to success? Psychological Bulletin, 131(6): 803-855
Malhotra, J., D., Kaufman, R., J. (2007). Endoplasmic reticulum stress and oxidative stress: A vicious cycle or a double-edged sword? Antioxidants & Redox Signaling, 9(12): 2277-2293
Maslach, C., Schaufeli, W., B., Leiter, M., P. (2001). Job burnout. Annual Review of Psychology, 52(1): 397-422
McFarlin, D., B., Sweeney, P., D. (1992). Distributive and procedural justice as predictors of satisfaction with personal and organizational outcomes. Academy of Management Journal, 35(3): 626-637
Morris, A., J., Feldman, D., C. (1997). Managing emotions in the workplace. Journal of Managerial Issues, 9(3): 257-274
Nadinloyi, K., B., Sadeghi, H., Hajloo, N. (2013). Relationship between job satisfaction and employees mental health. Procedia - Social and behavioral sciences, 84: 293-297 Oreg, S. (2006). Personality, context and resistance to organizational change. European
Ramirez, A., J., Graham, J., Richards, M., A., Cull, A., Gregory, W, M. (1996). Mental health of hospital consultants: The effects of stress and satisfaction at work. The Lancet, 347(9003): 724-728
Rook, K., S. (1984). The negative side of social interaction: Impact on psychological well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46(5): 1097-1108
Ruggiero, J., S. (2005). Health, work variables, and job satisfaction among nurses. Journal of Nursing Administration, 35(5): 254-263
Rusbult, C., E., Farrell, D. (1983). A longitudinal test of the investment model - The impact on job-satisfaction, job commitment and turnover of variations in rewards, costs, alternatives and investments. Journal of Applied Psychology, 68(3): 429-438 Schappe, S., P. (1998). Understanding employee job satisfaction: The importance of
procedural and distributive justice. Journal of Business and Psychology, 12(4): 493-503
Schaufeli, W., B., Bakker, A., B., Rhenen, van, W. (2009). How changes in job demands and resources predict burnout, work engagement, and sickness absenteeism. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 30(7): 893-917
Schyns, B., Croon, M., A. (2006). A model of task demands, social structure, and leader-member exchange and their relationship to job satisfaction. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 17(4): 602-615
Settoon, R., P., Bennett, N., Liden, R., C. (1996). Social exchange in organizations: Perceived organizational support, leader-member exchange, and employee reciprocity. Journal of Applied Psychology, 81(3): 219-227
Spitzer, R., L., Kroenke, K., Williams, J., B., W., Lowe, B. (2006). A brief measure for assessing generalized anxiety disorder - The GAD-7. Archives of Internal Medicine, 166(10): 1092-1097
Stansfeld, S., Candy, B. (2006). Psychosocial work environment and mental-health - a meta-analytic review. Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment & Health, 32(6): 443-462
Sverke, M., Hellgren, J. (2002). The nature of job insecurity: Understanding employment uncertainty on the brink of the new millennium. Applied Psychology-An International Review, 51: 23-42
Trevino, L., K., Weaver, G., R., Reynolds, S., J. (2006). Behavioral ethics in organizations: A review. Journal of Management, 32(6): 951-990
Warr, P. (1990). The measurement of well-being and other aspects of mental health. Journal of Occupational Psychology, 63(3): 193-210
Wayne, S., J., Shore, L., M., Liden., R., C. (1997). Perceived organizational support and leader-member exchange: A social exchange perspective. Academy of Management Journal, 40: 82-111
