Cover Page The handle

Cover Page

The handle http://hdl.handle.net/1887/66320 holds various files of this Leiden University

dissertation.

Author: Ohajinwa, C.M.

Title: Environmental and health impacts of informal electronic waste recycling

Issue Date: 2018-10-23

1

Environmental and Health Impacts of Informal Electronic Waste Recycling

Chimere May Ohajinwa

Chimere May Ohajinwa (2018)

Environmental and Health Impacts of Informal Electronic Waste Recycling

This research project is funded by the Netherlands Fellowship Program of NUFFIC (Netherlands Universities Foundation for International Cooperation), research grant CF9420/2014 NFP-PhD.14/37.

The research was carried out at Institute of Environmental Sciences (CML) Leiden University, The Netherlands. Data for this research was collected in Nigeria.

ISBN:978-94-6332-416-8

Cover photo by Herra P Saefullah Chapter covers by Chimere May Ohajinwa Chapter 7 cover drawing by Ver Ikeseh

Printed by: GVO drukkers & vormgevers b.v., Ede, NL

1

Environmental and Health Impacts of Informal Electronic Waste Recycling

Chimere May Ohajinwa

Chimere May Ohajinwa (2018)

Environmental and Health Impacts of Informal Electronic Waste Recycling

This research project is funded by the Netherlands Fellowship Program of NUFFIC (Netherlands Universities Foundation for International Cooperation), research grant CF9420/2014 NFP-PhD.14/37.

The research was carried out at Institute of Environmental Sciences (CML) Leiden University, The Netherlands. Data for this research was collected in Nigeria.

ISBN:978-94-6332-416-8

Cover photo by Herra P Saefullah Chapter covers by Chimere May Ohajinwa Chapter 7 cover drawing by Ver Ikeseh

Coming together is a beginning,

Keeping together is a progress,

Working together is success.

-Henry Ford

Chimere May Ohajinwa (2018)

Environmental and Health Impacts of Informal Electronic Waste Recycling

This research project is funded by the Netherlands Fellowship Program of NUFFIC (Netherlands Universities Foundation for International Cooperation), research grant CF9420/2014 NFP-PhD.14/37.

The research was carried out at Institute of Environmental Sciences (CML) Leiden University, The Netherlands. Data for this research was collected in Nigeria.

ISBN:978-94-6332-416-8

Cover photo by Herra P Saefullah Chapter covers by Chimere May Ohajinwa Chapter 7 cover drawing by Ver Ikeseh

3 Environmental and Health Impacts of Informal Electronic Waste Recycling

PROEFSCHRIFT ter verkrijging van

de graad van Doctor aan de Universiteit Leiden, op gezag van Rector Magnificus Prof.mr. C.J.J.M. Stolker,

volgens besluit van het College voor Promoties te verdedigen op dinsdag 23 oktober 2018

klokke 11.15 uur

door

Chimere May Ohajinwa Geboren te Aba, Nigeria

in 1979

4 Promotiecommissie

Promotor: Prof. dr. Willie J.G.M. Peijnenburg ^1,2

Co-promoter: Prof. dr. ir. Peter M. van Bodegom¹ Prof. dr. ing. Martina G. Vijver¹

Overige leden: Prof.dr. J.J. Boersema¹ Prof.dr. H. Garelick³ Dr. M. Janssen² Prof. dr. A. van Wezel⁴ Dr. T. Bosker¹ Prof.dr. A. Tukker¹

1Leiden University, The Netherlands ²National Institute of Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), Center for Safety of Substances and Products, P.O. Box 1, Bilthoven, The Netherlands

3Middlesex University, London

4University of Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands

This research was funded by NUFFIC (Netherlands Universities Foundation for International Cooperation).

5 To my family on this PhD journey

4 Promotiecommissie

Promotor: Prof. dr. Willie J.G.M. Peijnenburg ^1,2

Co-promoter: Prof. dr. ir. Peter M. van Bodegom¹ Prof. dr. ing. Martina G. Vijver¹

Overige leden: Prof.dr. J.J. Boersema¹ Prof.dr. H. Garelick³ Dr. M. Janssen² Prof. dr. A. van Wezel⁴ Dr. T. Bosker¹ Prof.dr. A. Tukker¹

1Leiden University, The Netherlands ²National Institute of Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), Center for Safety of Substances and Products, P.O. Box 1, Bilthoven, The Netherlands

3Middlesex University, London

4University of Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands

This research was funded by NUFFIC (Netherlands Universities Foundation for International Cooperation).

5 To my family on this PhD journey

4 Promotiecommissie

Promotor: Prof. dr. Willie J.G.M. Peijnenburg ^1,2

Co-promoter: Prof. dr. ir. Peter M. van Bodegom¹ Prof. dr. ing. Martina G. Vijver¹

Overige leden: Prof.dr. J.J. Boersema¹ Prof.dr. H. Garelick³ Dr. M. Janssen² Prof. dr. A. van Wezel⁴ Dr. T. Bosker¹ Prof.dr. A. Tukker¹

1Leiden University, The Netherlands ²National Institute of Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), Center for Safety of Substances and Products, P.O. Box 1, Bilthoven, The Netherlands

3Middlesex University, London

4University of Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands

This research was funded by NUFFIC (Netherlands Universities Foundation for International Cooperation).

5 To my family on this PhD journey

4 Promotiecommissie

Promotor: Prof. dr. Willie J.G.M. Peijnenburg ^1,2

Co-promoter: Prof. dr. ir. Peter M. van Bodegom¹ Prof. dr. ing. Martina G. Vijver¹

Overige leden: Prof.dr. J.J. Boersema¹ Prof.dr. H. Garelick³ Dr. M. Janssen² Prof. dr. A. van Wezel⁴ Dr. T. Bosker¹ Prof.dr. A. Tukker¹

1Leiden University, The Netherlands ²National Institute of Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), Center for Safety of Substances and Products, P.O. Box 1, Bilthoven, The Netherlands

3Middlesex University, London

4University of Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands

This research was funded by NUFFIC (Netherlands Universities Foundation for International Cooperation).

5 To my family on this PhD journey

6 Table of Contents Pages

Table of Contents

Chapter 1 ... 8

General Introduction ... 8

1.1 Background ... 10

1.1.1 Legislative Responses to E-waste Management ... 13

1.1.2 Justification for the Study ... 14

1.1.3 Objectives ... 16

1.2 Methods ... 18

1.2.1 Study Location ... 18

1.2.2 Study Design ... 19

1.2.3 Study Sites... 20

1.2.4 Study Population... 22

1.2.5 Sample Size Determination for the Participants ... 22

1.2.6 Data Collection from Participants ... 24

1.2.7 Ethical Considerations ... 25

1.2.8 Environmental (Soil and Dust) Sampling ... 25

1.2.9 Sample size determination for soil and dust sampling ... 25

1.3 Thesis Outline ... 28

References ... 29

Chapter 2 ... 32

Health Risks Awareness of Electronic Waste Workers in the Informal Sector in Nigeria ... 32

2.1. Introduction ... 35

2.2. Methods ... 37

2.2.1. Study Location ... 37

2.2.2 Study Design ... 38

2.2.3. Data Collection ... 39

2.2.4. Data Analysis ... 39

2.2.5. Ethical Considerations ... 40

2.3. Results ... 41

2.3.1. Socio-Demographic and Occupational Characteristics of the Respondents ... 41

2.3.2. Assessment of Knowledge on Occupational Health Risk ... 42

2.3.3. Factors that Influence the Knowledge Scores of the Workers ... 43

2.3.4. Assessment of Attitude towards Health and Safety at Work ... 46

2.3.5. Assessment of Work Practices ... 48

2.4. Discussion ... 49

2.4.1. Social-Cultural Context of the Research Setting... 51

2.5. Conclusions ... 52

References ... 54

Chapter 3 ... 60

Prevalence and Injury Patterns Among Electronic Waste Workers In The Informal Sector In Nigeria ... 60

3.1 Introduction ... 63

3.2 Methods ... 64

3.2.1 Data Collection ... 66

3.2.2. Variable Description ... 67

3.2.3. Data Analysis ... 68

3.2.4. Ethical considerations ... 68

3.3. Results ... 69

7 3.3.1. Socio-demographic and Occupational Characteristics of the Respondents ... 69

3.3.2. Use of Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) ... 69

3.3.3. Occupational Injuries ... 71

3.4. Discussion ... 73

3.5. Conclusions ... 76

Chapter 4 ... 84

Impact of Informal Electronic Waste Recycling on Metal Concentrations in Soils and Dusts ... 84

4.2 Methods ... 88

4.3. Results ... 93

4. 3.3. Factors that influence the Metal Concentrations in the Environmental Media ... 94

4.4 Discussion ... 97

4.4.1 Extent of Pollution as a Result of Informal e-waste Recycling ... 99

4.4.2 Implications of High Metals Concentrations in the Environment ... 101

4.5. Conclusions ... 102

References ... 104

Chapter 5 ... 123

Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers (PBDEs) Concentrations in Soils and Dusts at Informal Electronic Waste Recycling sites... 123

5.1. Introduction ... 126

5.2. Methods ... 128

5.3. Results ... 134

5.3.2 PBDE Concentrations at the various Activity Sites ... 134

5.3.4 Patterns in PBDEs Contamination ... 140

5.4. Discussion ... 141

5.5 Conclusion ... 145

References ... 146

Chapter 6 ... 151

Health Risk of Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers and Metals at Informal Electronic Waste Recycling sites ... 151

6.1 Introduction ... 154

6.2 Methods ... 156

6.2.1 Study Locations and Designs ... 156

6.2.2 Description of Recycling Activities and likely Exposure Pathways ... 157

6.2.3 Health Risk Assessment ... 158

6.3 Results ... 162

6.3.1 Descriptive Statistics of the PBDE and Metals ... 162

6.3.2 Human Health Risk Assessment ... 162

6.4. Discussion ... 172

6.4.1 Health Risk Assessments ... 172

6.4.3 Conclusions ... 175

References ... 176

Chapter 7 ... 205

General Discussion ... 205

7.Revisiting Research Questions and Findings ... 207

7.2 Scientific Implications ... 213

7.3 Recommendations ... 214

References ... 216

General Summary ... 219

Samenvatting ... 225

Acknowledgement ... 229

Curriculum Vitae ... 230

6 Table of Contents Pages

Table of Contents

Chapter 1 ... 8

General Introduction ... 8

1.1 Background ... 10

1.1.1 Legislative Responses to E-waste Management ... 13

1.1.2 Justification for the Study ... 14

1.1.3 Objectives ... 16

1.2 Methods ... 18

1.2.1 Study Location ... 18

1.2.2 Study Design ... 19

1.2.3 Study Sites... 20

1.2.4 Study Population... 22

1.2.5 Sample Size Determination for the Participants ... 22

1.2.6 Data Collection from Participants ... 24

1.2.7 Ethical Considerations ... 25

1.2.8 Environmental (Soil and Dust) Sampling ... 25

1.2.9 Sample size determination for soil and dust sampling ... 25

1.3 Thesis Outline ... 28

References ... 29

Chapter 2 ... 32

Health Risks Awareness of Electronic Waste Workers in the Informal Sector in Nigeria ... 32

2.1. Introduction ... 35

2.2. Methods ... 37

2.2.1. Study Location ... 37

2.2.2 Study Design ... 38

2.2.3. Data Collection ... 39

2.2.4. Data Analysis ... 39

2.2.5. Ethical Considerations ... 40

2.3. Results ... 41

2.3.1. Socio-Demographic and Occupational Characteristics of the Respondents ... 41

2.3.2. Assessment of Knowledge on Occupational Health Risk ... 42

2.3.3. Factors that Influence the Knowledge Scores of the Workers ... 43

2.3.4. Assessment of Attitude towards Health and Safety at Work ... 46

2.3.5. Assessment of Work Practices ... 48

2.4. Discussion ... 49

2.4.1. Social-Cultural Context of the Research Setting... 51

2.5. Conclusions ... 52

References ... 54

Chapter 3 ... 60

Prevalence and Injury Patterns Among Electronic Waste Workers In The Informal Sector In Nigeria ... 60

3.1 Introduction ... 63

3.2 Methods ... 64

3.2.1 Data Collection ... 66

3.2.2. Variable Description ... 67

3.2.3. Data Analysis ... 68

3.2.4. Ethical considerations ... 68

3.3. Results ... 69

7 3.3.1. Socio-demographic and Occupational Characteristics of the Respondents ... 69

3.3.2. Use of Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) ... 69

3.3.3. Occupational Injuries ... 71

3.4. Discussion ... 73

3.5. Conclusions ... 76

Chapter 4 ... 84

Impact of Informal Electronic Waste Recycling on Metal Concentrations in Soils and Dusts ... 84

4.2 Methods ... 88

4.3. Results ... 93

4. 3.3. Factors that influence the Metal Concentrations in the Environmental Media ... 94

4.4 Discussion ... 97

4.4.1 Extent of Pollution as a Result of Informal e-waste Recycling ... 99

4.4.2 Implications of High Metals Concentrations in the Environment ... 101

4.5. Conclusions ... 102

References ... 104

Chapter 5 ... 123

Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers (PBDEs) Concentrations in Soils and Dusts at Informal Electronic Waste Recycling sites... 123

5.1. Introduction ... 126

5.2. Methods ... 128

5.3. Results ... 134

5.3.2 PBDE Concentrations at the various Activity Sites ... 134

5.3.4 Patterns in PBDEs Contamination ... 140

5.4. Discussion ... 141

5.5 Conclusion ... 145

References ... 146

Chapter 6 ... 151

Health Risk of Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers and Metals at Informal Electronic Waste Recycling sites ... 151

6.1 Introduction ... 154

6.2 Methods ... 156

6.2.1 Study Locations and Designs ... 156

6.2.2 Description of Recycling Activities and likely Exposure Pathways ... 157

6.2.3 Health Risk Assessment ... 158

6.3 Results ... 162

6.3.1 Descriptive Statistics of the PBDE and Metals ... 162

6.3.2 Human Health Risk Assessment ... 162

6.4. Discussion ... 172

6.4.1 Health Risk Assessments ... 172

6.4.3 Conclusions ... 175

References ... 176

Chapter 7 ... 205

General Discussion ... 205

7.Revisiting Research Questions and Findings ... 207

7.2 Scientific Implications ... 213

7.3 Recommendations ... 214

References ... 216

General Summary ... 219

Samenvatting ... 225

Acknowledgement ... 229

Curriculum Vitae ... 230

6 Table of Contents Pages

Table of Contents

Chapter 1 ... 8

General Introduction ... 8

1.1 Background ... 10

1.1.1 Legislative Responses to E-waste Management ... 13

1.1.2 Justification for the Study ... 14

1.1.3 Objectives ... 16

1.2 Methods ... 18

1.2.1 Study Location ... 18

1.2.2 Study Design ... 19

1.2.3 Study Sites... 20

1.2.4 Study Population... 22

1.2.5 Sample Size Determination for the Participants ... 22

1.2.6 Data Collection from Participants ... 24

1.2.7 Ethical Considerations ... 25

1.2.8 Environmental (Soil and Dust) Sampling ... 25

1.2.9 Sample size determination for soil and dust sampling ... 25

1.3 Thesis Outline ... 28

References ... 29

Chapter 2 ... 32

Health Risks Awareness of Electronic Waste Workers in the Informal Sector in Nigeria ... 32

2.1. Introduction ... 35

2.2. Methods ... 37

2.2.1. Study Location ... 37

2.2.2 Study Design ... 38

2.2.3. Data Collection ... 39

2.2.4. Data Analysis ... 39

2.2.5. Ethical Considerations ... 40

2.3. Results ... 41

2.3.1. Socio-Demographic and Occupational Characteristics of the Respondents ... 41

2.3.2. Assessment of Knowledge on Occupational Health Risk ... 42

2.3.3. Factors that Influence the Knowledge Scores of the Workers ... 43

2.3.4. Assessment of Attitude towards Health and Safety at Work ... 46

2.3.5. Assessment of Work Practices ... 48

2.4. Discussion ... 49

2.4.1. Social-Cultural Context of the Research Setting... 51

2.5. Conclusions ... 52

References ... 54

Chapter 3 ... 60

Prevalence and Injury Patterns Among Electronic Waste Workers In The Informal Sector In Nigeria ... 60

3.1 Introduction ... 63

3.2 Methods ... 64

3.2.1 Data Collection ... 66

3.2.2. Variable Description ... 67

3.2.3. Data Analysis ... 68

3.2.4. Ethical considerations ... 68

3.3. Results ... 69

7 3.3.1. Socio-demographic and Occupational Characteristics of the Respondents ... 69

3.3.2. Use of Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) ... 69

3.3.3. Occupational Injuries ... 71

3.4. Discussion ... 73

3.5. Conclusions ... 76

Chapter 4 ... 84

Impact of Informal Electronic Waste Recycling on Metal Concentrations in Soils and Dusts ... 84

4.2 Methods ... 88

4.3. Results ... 93

4. 3.3. Factors that influence the Metal Concentrations in the Environmental Media ... 94

4.4 Discussion ... 97

4.4.1 Extent of Pollution as a Result of Informal e-waste Recycling ... 99

4.4.2 Implications of High Metals Concentrations in the Environment ... 101

4.5. Conclusions ... 102

References ... 104

Chapter 5 ... 123

Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers (PBDEs) Concentrations in Soils and Dusts at Informal Electronic Waste Recycling sites... 123

5.1. Introduction ... 126

5.2. Methods ... 128

5.3. Results ... 134

5.3.2 PBDE Concentrations at the various Activity Sites ... 134

5.3.4 Patterns in PBDEs Contamination ... 140

5.4. Discussion ... 141

5.5 Conclusion ... 145

References ... 146

Chapter 6 ... 151

Health Risk of Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers and Metals at Informal Electronic Waste Recycling sites ... 151

6.1 Introduction ... 154

6.2 Methods ... 156

6.2.1 Study Locations and Designs ... 156

6.2.2 Description of Recycling Activities and likely Exposure Pathways ... 157

6.2.3 Health Risk Assessment ... 158

6.3 Results ... 162

6.3.1 Descriptive Statistics of the PBDE and Metals ... 162

6.3.2 Human Health Risk Assessment ... 162

6.4. Discussion ... 172

6.4.1 Health Risk Assessments ... 172

6.4.3 Conclusions ... 175

References ... 176

Chapter 7 ... 205

General Discussion ... 205

7.Revisiting Research Questions and Findings ... 207

7.2 Scientific Implications ... 213

7.3 Recommendations ... 214

References ... 216

General Summary ... 219

Samenvatting ... 225

Acknowledgement ... 229

Curriculum Vitae ... 230

6 Table of Contents Pages

Table of Contents

Chapter 1 ... 8

General Introduction ... 8

1.1 Background ... 10

1.1.1 Legislative Responses to E-waste Management ... 13

1.1.2 Justification for the Study ... 14

1.1.3 Objectives ... 16

1.2 Methods ... 18

1.2.1 Study Location ... 18

1.2.2 Study Design ... 19

1.2.3 Study Sites... 20

1.2.4 Study Population... 22

1.2.5 Sample Size Determination for the Participants ... 22

1.2.6 Data Collection from Participants ... 24

1.2.7 Ethical Considerations ... 25

1.2.8 Environmental (Soil and Dust) Sampling ... 25

1.2.9 Sample size determination for soil and dust sampling ... 25

1.3 Thesis Outline ... 28

References ... 29

Chapter 2 ... 32

Health Risks Awareness of Electronic Waste Workers in the Informal Sector in Nigeria ... 32

2.1. Introduction ... 35

2.2. Methods ... 37

2.2.1. Study Location ... 37

2.2.2 Study Design ... 38

2.2.3. Data Collection ... 39

2.2.4. Data Analysis ... 39

2.2.5. Ethical Considerations ... 40

2.3. Results ... 41

2.3.1. Socio-Demographic and Occupational Characteristics of the Respondents ... 41

2.3.2. Assessment of Knowledge on Occupational Health Risk ... 42

2.3.3. Factors that Influence the Knowledge Scores of the Workers ... 43

2.3.4. Assessment of Attitude towards Health and Safety at Work ... 46

2.3.5. Assessment of Work Practices ... 48

2.4. Discussion ... 49

2.4.1. Social-Cultural Context of the Research Setting... 51

2.5. Conclusions ... 52

References ... 54

Chapter 3 ... 60

Prevalence and Injury Patterns Among Electronic Waste Workers In The Informal Sector In Nigeria ... 60

3.1 Introduction ... 63

3.2 Methods ... 64

3.2.1 Data Collection ... 66

3.2.2. Variable Description ... 67

3.2.3. Data Analysis ... 68

3.2.4. Ethical considerations ... 68

3.3. Results ... 69

7 3.3.1. Socio-demographic and Occupational Characteristics of the Respondents ... 69

3.3.2. Use of Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) ... 69

3.3.3. Occupational Injuries ... 71

3.4. Discussion ... 73

3.5. Conclusions ... 76

Chapter 4 ... 84

Impact of Informal Electronic Waste Recycling on Metal Concentrations in Soils and Dusts ... 84

4.2 Methods ... 88

4.3. Results ... 93

4. 3.3. Factors that influence the Metal Concentrations in the Environmental Media ... 94

4.4 Discussion ... 97

4.4.1 Extent of Pollution as a Result of Informal e-waste Recycling ... 99

4.4.2 Implications of High Metals Concentrations in the Environment ... 101

4.5. Conclusions ... 102

References ... 104

Chapter 5 ... 123

Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers (PBDEs) Concentrations in Soils and Dusts at Informal Electronic Waste Recycling sites... 123

5.1. Introduction ... 126

5.2. Methods ... 128

5.3. Results ... 134

5.3.2 PBDE Concentrations at the various Activity Sites ... 134

5.3.4 Patterns in PBDEs Contamination ... 140

5.4. Discussion ... 141

5.5 Conclusion ... 145

References ... 146

Chapter 6 ... 151

Health Risk of Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers and Metals at Informal Electronic Waste Recycling sites ... 151

6.1 Introduction ... 154

6.2 Methods ... 156

6.2.1 Study Locations and Designs ... 156

6.2.2 Description of Recycling Activities and likely Exposure Pathways ... 157

6.2.3 Health Risk Assessment ... 158

6.3 Results ... 162

6.3.1 Descriptive Statistics of the PBDE and Metals ... 162

6.3.2 Human Health Risk Assessment ... 162

6.4. Discussion ... 172

6.4.1 Health Risk Assessments ... 172

6.4.3 Conclusions ... 175

References ... 176

Chapter 7 ... 205

General Discussion ... 205

7.Revisiting Research Questions and Findings ... 207

7.2 Scientific Implications ... 213

7.3 Recommendations ... 214

References ... 216

General Summary ... 219

Samenvatting ... 225

Acknowledgement ... 229

Curriculum Vitae ... 230