THE APPLICATION OF NEUROMARKETING BY MICRO ENTERPRISES

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THE APPLICATION OF NEUROMARKETING

BY MICRO ENTERPRISES

Master Thesis

MSc in Business Administration, Small Business and Entrepreneurship University of Groningen, Faculty of Economics and Business

June 20, 2016

Author: Jarno Robbert Mollema Student number: 1727370

Pieter Stuyvesantweg 46 8478 HE Sonnega Tel.: +31(0)6 28 17 96 40 E-mail: Jarnomollema@gmail.com

Supervisor: Prof. dr. P.S. Zwart Co-assessor: dr. C.H.M. Lutz

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2 ABSTRACT

Neuromarketing has been rapidly gaining attention in business. While it seems complicated material at first sight, it is now slowly gaining awareness and understanding among the general public as well. Large companies have been exploring its possibilities already for quite a while. Now it seems that the time has come for small and medium enterprises to do the same. This paper contributes to existing literature by investigating if micro enterprises should apply neuromarketing in their business. The research was conducted by holding case studies amongst four Escape Rooms. Escape Rooms were picked as research subject out of a personal interest of the researcher. The results of the study show that micro enterprises in the Escape Room industry observe numerous advantages for neuromarketing application which outweigh the obstacles and it should therefore be applied in their business. To what extent will depend on several factors which will be discussed in-depth. Future research should be directed at the use of a combination of neuromarketing techniques. At the same time extra attention should be given to the application of neuromarketing in the design process.

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4. Results 26 4.1 Introduction 26 4.2 Within-case analyses 26 4.3 Cross-case analysis 26 5. Discussion 30 5.1 Findings 30 5.1.1 Current situation 30 5.1.2 Opportunities 30 5.1.3 Obstacles 30 5.1.4 Application factors 31 5.1.5 Future plans 31 5.1.6 Conceptual model 31 5.2 Conclusion 32 5.2.1 Escape Rooms 32 5.2.2 General 32

5.2.3 Theoretical and managerial implications 33

5.2.4 Research limitations and future research 33

6. References 34

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1. INTRODUCTION

For decades, researchers assumed that consumers only use the rational mind in their decision-making (Camerer and Fehr, 2006). The development of technologies and the growing collaboration between business and science changed this assumption. Methods and insights from the field of neuroscience have received great interest and attention in the field of marketing and consumer research. As result a hybrid has emerged from the two: neuromarketing, which bridges the study of consumer behavior with neuroscience. A simplified definition; neuromarketing can be defined as any marketing or market research activity, which uses methods, techniques or insights from the field of neuroscience (Genco et al. 2013). Neuromarketing revealed that the rational part of the brain only acts as an ‘advisor’ in decision-making (Fugate, 2007). The main factor in stead are emotions. Emotions have the final say when it comes to preferences and making decisions. Ariely and Berns (2010) acknowledge the fact that neuromarketing could influence the behavior of consumers. With that, neuroimaging costs could be outweighed by the benefits of an increase in sales and improved product design. In this study the focus lies on this product design stage. Neuromarketeers believe that neuromarketing can be implemented even before a product exists and with that it could be an advantageous research method. It could lead to early testing of concepts and with that approval (or disapproval) faster than usual. Only products that are promising would eventually be realized (Ariely & Berns, 2010).

Controversial when it first emerged in 2002, the field is gaining rapid credibility and adoption among advertising and marketing professionals (Morin, 2011). Large enterprises have been the subject (as well as initiator) of the majority of the neuromarketing research (Dooley, 2011). Amongst the small and medium sized enterprises (SMEs) as well as the consumer, the term mainly raised questions, let alone recognition of its possibilities. In The Netherlands, 99% of the enterprises can be categorized as SMEs, which can be divided into 68.7% freelancers/independent contractors, 26,2% enterprises with 2>9 employees, 4.4% with 10>49 employees, 0.4% consist of 50>99 employees, and 0,3% with 100>249 employees. Micro enterprises (<10 employees) therefore make up for 95.8% of all Dutch enterprises (MKB Servicedesk, 2016). This shows that micro enterprises are of great importance for The Netherlands.

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6 The purpose of this study is to refine our current understanding of neuromarketing and to discover the potential of neuromarketing application for micro enterprises overall. Neuromarketing will be discussed from a theoretical perspective in order to arrive at a better understanding of the practice. In addition case studies were conducted within the industry of Escape Rooms. This particular segment was chosen out of personal interest of the researcher, since he is co-owner of two Escape Rooms. Special attention will be given to the application of neuromarketing techniques in the design stage of a product. In the case of Escape Rooms it would provide great benefits for Escape Room creators if Escape Room concepts could be tested during the design phase and with that way before actual realization of a room. If consumer preferences can already be revealed during this design process, a more efficient allocation of resources can take place and most importantly: it will decrease the amount of insecurity considering the outcome, since only promising Escape Rooms will be realized. Finally, the findings of this study might be useful for micro enterprises in other industries as well.

1.1 RESEARCH QUESTIONS

To gain a better understanding about these phenomena the following research questions have been developed:

Sub research questions:

 What is neuromarketing?

 What are opportunities and obstacles of neuromarketing for micro enterprises?  What neuromarketing application methods are available for market research? Which leads to the following main research question:

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7 2. BACKGROUND

This section consists of a review of the leading literature available on neuromarketing. It will open with the subject of the case studies that will be performed; Escape Rooms, which therefore will be explained in detail. Furthermore the main subject will be explained, which is neuromarketing, next its opportunities and obstacles will be reviewed, followed by the available neuromarketing technologies. Defining these variables will ultimately lead to sufficient information to answer the main research question.

2.1 ESCAPE ROOMS

Escape rooms are live-action team-based games where players discover clues, solve puzzles, and accomplish tasks in one or more rooms in order to accomplish a specific goal (usually escaping from the room) in a limited amount of time, whereby one hour is the most common time limit (Nicholson, 2015). To lock yourself up in an Escape Room is a concept that originated in Japan. It then spread to Eastern Europe and now it has become extremely popular in Western Europe and the United States as well. The builder of the Escape Room usually picks a theme like a crime scene, a terrorist threat, an abandoned psychiatric institution, etc. In 2013 the first Escape Room opened in The Netherlands. In 2014 the Dutch TV-show ‘De Wereld Draait Door’ gave the concept attention and since then it has boomed. In the last period the concept gained even more popularity leading to a current number of 378 Escape Rooms (All Escaperooms, 2016). Escape rooms tap into that desire for a combination of physical and social interaction, while also providing intellectual stimulation plus a thrilling experience. Some rooms try to make the experience even scary, to add to the rush of the time limit (Contrera, 2015).

2.2 NEUROMARKETING

In order to explain the concept of neuromarketing we need to go back to its origins. Neuromarketing is considered a cutting-edge science, resulting out of a mixture of (mainly) three research fields. The first one is neuroscience, which is aimed at our nervous system and mostly at the human brain. The second one is marketing, aimed at product development, consumer satisfaction, and enterprise profitability. The third one is cognitive psychology, which connects behavior of humans to their brains (Zara and Tuta, 2013).

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8 our survival functions and it is where final decisions are made. It uses information from the Neocortex and the Limbic System to formulate decisions (Renvoisé and Morin, 2007).

According to Lindstrom (2009), 85% of our brain, and with that a majority of our (buying) decisions, are the result of the unconscious part of our brain. One can therefor state that the unconscious is evident in the process of building preferences and decision making, hence it forms the main research subject of this study. Researching solely the unconscious part of the brain and its emotional functions, provides researchers with more accurate details about why consumers buy certain products or services or how preferences for brands, products, and services are developed (Zara & Tuta, 2013).

2.3 OPPORTUNITIES AND OBSTACLES OF NEUROMARKETING

Neuromarketing provides various opportunities, but also comes with several obstacles for enterprises. Here both will be discussed.

2.3.1 OPPORTUNITIES

‘Consumers will never, ever tell the truth . . . It’s not because they’re lying – because they’re not – they’re just unaware’ (Tsai 2010: 19). Thanks to neuromarketing, retailers can now directly see the essential facts revealed by the brain (Andrejevic, 2012). The biggest opportunity of neuromarketing is that it can give the marketing sector a tool that helps enterprises to distinguish what the consumer desires, wants and needs, but most importantly; the opportunity to discover what service or product they will really buy (Marcel et al., 2009; Ariely & Berns, 2010; Eser et al., 2011). According to Schneider and Woolgar (2012) it is the newest marketing technique available to understand the behavior of the consumer. With that, it could provide an accurate marketing research method that can be implemented even before a product exists (Ariel and Berns, 2010).

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9 social campaigns can be build (Orzán et al., 2012). Specifically, neuromarketing could provide a ‘full package’, hence be beneficiary to all sorts of enterprises, as well as the consumer in meeting their preferences.

2.3.1.1 EDGE OVER OTHER MARKETING TECHNIQUES

Compared to other, more traditional marketing techniques, neuromarketing already has an edge in some fields. Most striking and often mentioned is the fact that neuromarketing can access and evaluate vital info beyond the level of human consciousness. While the buying process is stated to occur subconsciously or to an extent even unconsciously, this gives neuromarketing a serious edge (Hubert and Kenning, 2008; Fugate, 2008; Morin, 2011). Another issue that is often mentioned is that of the limitations of individuals when it comes to self-assessment, willingness to cooperate, transmitting information correctly, and expressing their feelings. Neuromarketing overcomes these obstacles, since it addresses the unconscious part of the brain and with that the part that the subject has no influence on (Fugate, 2007; Hubert and Kenning, 2008; Lee et al., 2007). Although neuromarketing has an edge over traditional marketing techniques on certain elements, it should still be used in combination with other techniques, since neuromarketing is still developing as a research fields and the aid of other techniques provides better insights.

2.3.2 OBSTACLES

Neuromarketing definitely helps marketeers in providing techniques that can increase the amount of customers, but on the downside it also comes with risks and misconceptions (Green & Holbert, 2012). One of the first obstacles that comes to surface is the lack of transparency given to consumers (Fischer, Chin & Klitzman, 2010). Related to this, numerous authorities mentioned that some groups need some sort of protection against neuromarketing, think of children and minorities, as well as ill and disabled people. This means that studies about marketing activity are basically not allowed for these groups (Javor et al., 2013). As a result, it can be assumed that products connected to these groups will have a smaller percentage of sales increase expectance.

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10 and Holbert, 2012). One of the more obvious obstacles in an emerging field of research like that of neuromarketing is the cost challenge that it brings along. The currently available technologies have high costs (Eser et al., 2011; Fisher et al., 2010; Ariely and Berns, 2010; Šola, 2014). For the application of Neuromarketing, marketeers use technologies. The most widely adopted technique to generate neurological images is functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI), according to Moore (2005), and Camerer et al. (2004). It scans the brain in neuromarketing using powerful magnetic and radio waves to create perfect images of the brain. The downsides of using a tool or research technique like fMRI are that it is unwieldy, it has high operation costs, it is obtrusive to the subject and also; the results are open to non-objective interpretation (Fugate, 2007). To give an example; the machines used can cost up to $ 1 million, per hour (Barkin, 2013). But, on a more positive note, while these machines have a lot of disadvantages now, our computers showed the same disadvantages 40 years ago. It is said that these machines will keep improving and eventually will be small and portable (Wilson et al., 2008). The biggest obstacles for neuromarketing arise in the Business-To-Consumer (B2C) area. Neuromarketing comes with controversy. Although it has a lot of benefits, it can also be considered as harmful to society. According to Fisher et al. (2010), this is because marketeers can use it to boost the sales of products that are harmful in the eyes of society (junk food, cigarettes, alcohol, etc.). Additionally this brings up issues in validity, because this stigma of being harmful can result in losing the trust of the society when it comes neuromarketing, or even science itself (Murphy et al., 2008; Arussy, 2009). These ethical issues seem to be the main reason why adaptation and acceptance of neuromarketing progresses slowly. Therefore zooming in on the ethical issues that cause so much controversy could provide valuable insights and a clearer picture.

2.3.2.1 ETHICAL ISSUES

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OPPORTUNITIES DESCRIPTION OBSTACLES DESCRIPTION Technical opportunities Access and evaluation

of vital info beyond human consciousness

Technological obstacles

7% of subjects worldwide are not suitable for testing Overcoming the obstacles of individuals in self-assessment, willingness to cooperate, transmission of correct information, and expression of feelings

Outdated and noisy machines can result in subjects quitting research prematurely

Subjects could ‘provide’ wrong answers due to fear Machines are large, unwieldy, and costly Medical supervision required Limited time, finance and number of subjects General opportunities To discover what

service or product consumer will really buy

General obstacles Behavior of consumers cannot be studied retroactively in research location Discover the ‘why’ in

the purchase process

Prior consent required in order to study brain activity The probability of a buying decision Ethical issues Contribution to defining marketing, branding, positioning, and pricing strategies

Brain activity measured has limited accuracy To identify particular

advertising ingredients that stimulate positive feelings amongst consumers

Lack of transparency to consumers

Aid in selecting appropriate visual, and sound characteristics,

Timing and selection of suitable media Providing an accurate research method that can be implemented before a product exists

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13 2.4 NEUROMARKETING TECHNOLOGIES

There are self-assessment methods which are subjective and therefore not suitable for widespread implementation. The goal of the technologies that are available within the field of neuromarketing is to understand the interconnectedness between activities in the field of marketing and the response upon these activities by the consumer (Kumlehn, 2011). When one understands this interconnection, brain activity can be assessed objectively (Hubert and Kenning, 2008). Postma (2013) developed a clear division of neuromarketing techniques which he divided into three subcategories, namely internal reflexes, input/output models, and external reflexes. The internal reflexes can subsequently be subdivided into the recording of metabolic activity in the brain, and the recording of electric activity in the brain (Calvert et al., 2004). The techniques in these subcategories will be supplemented by neuromarketing techniques that were mentioned in other studies.

2.4.1 EXTERNAL REFLEXES

The techniques considered with external reflexes can be translated to customer reaction patterns on marketing stimuli. While one would think that neuromarketing only considers what happens inside the brain, the contrary is true. External reflexes deal with what happens on the outside of people and do not look into the brain. But, and this is where the connection of neuromarketing to the brain comes from: these external reflexes originate in the brain.

2.4.1.1 FACIAL CODING

In 2006 a patent was granted to Daniel Hill, the inventor of facial coding. In short the method enables assessing consumer reactios to a marketing stimuli with the help of a scoring system by which one can determine the extent to which a consumer is impacted by this marketing stimuli. Next to that, it reveals if this impact was positive or negative. It follows a few steps. First, exposing a sample to the marketing stimuli, followed immediately afterwards by an interview, at the same time facial expressions will be videotaped, as well as verbal expressions of the sample. Then the tape will be reviewed to check for 24 combinations of muscle movement, connected to seven emotions (Hill, 2006).

2.4.1.2 EYE TRACKING

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14 2.4.1.3 GALVANIC SKIN RESPONSE (GSR)

GSR is concerned with changes in the electricity of a subject’s skin. Human skin is a great conductor of electricity. With GSR a subject is attached to a GSR device and a voltage is utilized. The electro dermal responses resulting from this application of electricity can be tracked and visualized. The changes in electricity in a subject’s skin can be the result of external events, as well as the physical and psychological state of the subject (Ohme et al., 2009).

2.4.1.4 EMPATHIC DESIGN

Leonard & Rayport (1997) mentioned the studying of people in their own environment while they use a product. The subjects are aware of being studied, but they need to use the product in the same situation as in which they would use it without being studied. No equipment is used.

2.4.1.5 BODY LANGUAGE

Body language is the non-verbal behavior of human beings. They send, receive, consciously or unconsciously, non-verbal signals (Korte, 1997). These signals often originate in the Old Brain and are therefore very interesting for the field of neuromarketing. Although it partly contradicts in theory, body language is also expressed by voice, because one can also detect and read certain emotions by the sound and tone of someone’s voice.

2.4.1.6 IMPLICIT ASSOCIATION TEST (IAT)

The Implicit Association Test measures individual behavior and experience, according to Houwer & Bruycker (2007). It measures underlying evaluations of the persons that are studied. This by checking the response time on two different aspects, which are the speed in which they can connect two independent subjects with two independent attributes. The response time gives researchers insight into the complexity of the stimuli to the study subject and how the subject reacts.

2.4.1.7 MEASURING PHYSIOLOGICAL RESPONSES

Physiological responses are for example heart rate, skin conductance, blood pressure, etc. Researchers can connect this to the emotional state of the subject at the moment of observance (Zurawicki, 2010).

2.4.1.8 FACIAL ELECTROMYOGRAPHY

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15 2.4.2 INPUT/OUTPUT MODELS

Input/output models are not concerned with internal or external reflexes and the analyses of these reflexes. Input/output models are concerned with establishing the result in a systematic way, once again connected to stimuli. Postma (2013) mentioned an example in order to create a better understanding, you do not look at the motor (which is the brain), but when one steps on the pedal (which is the input), it records that an increase in speed takes place (which is the output). So, what happens in between, what happens inside the motor is unclear, but it is very clear that actions lead to reactions.

2.4.3 INTERNAL REFLEXES

The internal reflexes are connected to looking inside the brain and once again connected to customer reaction patterns on marketing stimuli.

2.4.3.1 METABOLIC BRAIN ACTIVITY

Metabolic brain activity measurement technology looks at ‘a whole brain at work’. It covers technologies elucidating brain functions related to human behavior (González-Lima et al., 2012). 2.4.3.1.1 POSITRON EMISSION TOMOGRAPHY (PET)

PET is a very costly method with which one can obtain physiologic images. It records radiation from the release of positrons from the radioactive chemicals which are released in the subject’s blood stream. It helps to quantify underlying psychological processes in the brain (Disselhorst, 2011).

2.4.3.1.2 FUNCTIONAL MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING (fMRI)

fMRI is the most widely adopted neuromarketing technology. Basically it researchers brain function with the help of a MRI-scanning machine in which the subject (one at a time) takes place. It catches an enormous variety of intel and does so in very specific and small parts of the human brain. The machine works with magnets and measures the blood oxygen level from which a lot of information can be retrieved. In particular, brain activity in a specific region of the brain. Regular MRI is like a photograph, once the ‘f’ is added to MRI (fMRI), it develops into ‘functional’ which means that it catches a process instead of one moment (Vecchiato et al., 2011). fMRI is mainly used for marketing research and is very popular due to the fact that it can isolate neurons, which are linked to particular brain functions (Wilson et al., 2008).

2.4.3.2 ELECTRIC BRAIN ACTIVITY

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16 2.4.3.2.1 STEADY STATE TOPOGRAPHY (SST)

SST is a technology by which fast changes can be detected, next to that brain activity can be measured (Silberstein et al., 1990). One of the most promising features of this technology is the ability to measure variations in the delay between the stimuli and the Steady State Visually Evoked Potential response (which is a specific electrical response) over extended periods of time. It is connected to neural processing speed.

2.4.3.2.2 TRANSCRANIAL MAGNETIC STIMULATION (TMS)

TMS uses a center consisting out of iron with which a powerful magnetic field is created. With that electric currents from the underlying neurons can be derived when the device is placed on a person’s head. It is specifically useful to research the causal role of certain areas of the brain, as they perform specific tasks. This is done by the occurrence of downtime, taking the subject temporarily ‘offline’. (Kobayashi & Pascual-Leone, 2003).

2.4.3.2.3 ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAPHY (EEG)

The technology which is called electroencephalogram is reducing the cost of measuring brain activity, it is furthermore suitable for larger samples, which benefits reliability. With EEG, patterns can be revealed which show how different brain areas process information. With EEG one can furthermore see which brain areas ‘light up’ when test subjects use their sense organs (Rothschild et al., 1988).

2.4.3.2.4 MAGNETOENCEPHALOGRAPHY (MEG)

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17 Summarizing all currently available neuromarketing techniques and technologies, it is possible to create an overview and with that a classification according to the distinctions as provided by Postma (2012), Zurawicki (2010), and Calvert et al. (2004).

Figure 1 Classification of Neuromarketing techniques

Neuromarketing techniques

Internal reflexes

Recording metabolic activity in the brain

Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)

Positron Emission Tomography (PET)

Recording electric activity in the brain

Steady State Topography (SST) Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) Electroencephalography (EEG) Magnetoencephalography (MEG) External reflexes

Without recording brain activity

Body language

Empathic design

Facial coding

Implicit Association Test (IAT)

Galvanic Skin Response (GSR)

Eye tracking

Facial Electromyography (FE)

Measuring physiological responses

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18 2.5 CONCEPTUAL MODEL: NEUROMARKETING APPLICATION

A respective amount of researchers have evaluated the application of neuromarketing in-depth (Krajnović, Sikirić, & Jašić, 2012; Ulman, Cakar, & Yildiz, 2015; de Oliveira et al., 2015; Šola, 2004; Ariely & Berns, 2010). Numerous technologies, techniques and models are available, each with its own advantages and disadvantages, and they are applicable in different steps of the marketing process. Postma (2013) provided a great overview of some of the most applied neuromarketing techniques, and the association with the step(s) of the marketing process in which they could be applied, a detailed overview is given below.

STEP IN THE MARKETING PROCESS NEUROMARKETING APPLICATION Development product/market combination Market approach: - Advertising - Publicity Market approach: - Transactions - Orders Customer Relations Management External reflexes - Body language X - X X - Empathic design X - - - - Eye tracking X X - - - Facial coding X X - - Input/output model - - X X Internal reflexes - EEG X X - - - fMRI X X - -

Table 2 Neuromarketing application possibilities

fMRI is the most advanced brain scanning technology available today (Lindstrom, 2009). Together with the previously mentioned and supported assumption that its main disadvantage, the costs due to the use of large expensive machines, will eventually drop because the machines will keep improving and in the end will they be small and portable (Wilson et al., 2008), this leads us to choosing this neuromarketing technique for the remainder of this study.

2.5.1 fMRI

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19 To refresh the mind, further advantages of fMRI are already numerous. It does not use radiation like X-rays, Computed Tomography (CT) and Positron Emission Tomography (PET) scans. If done correctly, fMRI has no real risks. It can evaluate brain function safely, noninvasively and effectively. Moreover fMRI is easy to use, and it produces very high resolution images. Also, compared to the traditional questionnaire methods of psychological evaluation, fMRI is far more objective (Watson, 2008). Next, fMRI permits interpretation of brain processes as they are taking place, it enables measurement of nonconscious activity, it allows localization and differentiation of constructs, and it makes it possible to measure simultaneously occurring, but contradicting, activity (Reimann et al., 2011). These are four methodological advantages of fMRI. Neuromarketers can apply them in consumer research in order to identify brain regions that attract greater blood flow when strong associations are triggered, and with that lead to the revealing of new insights.

Micro enterprises could in potential, with the proper research and application of fMRI, enlarge their customer base. This potential enlargement of customer base can be approached from two sides according to Ariely & Berns (2010). Huge steps could be made on the product design side, on the other hand the post-design phase offers potential as well, mainly on the subject of advertisement.

Ariely and Berns (2010) developed a model for neuromarketing application of fMRI.

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20 To provide better insights, in this study the model is split up in two parts, since fMRI is applied differently in either parts. These two parts will be named the design phase and the post design phase.

Part 1 (light blue area), design phase. This model starts with the concept, a new idea for product development, which comes alongside a market feasibility study. One can put fMRI into practice as part of the design process. Neural responses could reveal the subject’s preferences regarding the concept. Adjustments can be made according the revelations resulting from the neural responses. This improves the development and prototyping stages during the design phase. It is assumed that fMRI data would give a more accurate indication of underlying preferences then data resulting from standard, traditional, market research. It also removes known biases (Ariely and Berns, 2010). Implementing fMRI during the design stage, could help to speed up the process while quality would be maintained or even improved. The timeline towards the testing stage would be shortened. Once arrived at the testing phase, unpromising concepts can be eliminated ahead of time. This would result in a better allocation of resources (which reduces costs) and eventually the development and release of solely promising products.

Part 2 (grey area), post-design phase. After the product is released, one notices the obvious stages of delivery, support, and feedback connected to the product and/or service. But, fMRI once again comes to surface in this post-design phase. The use of fMRI here has the intention of increasing sales. In the figure it is connected to advertising and this is because fMRI could be used to evaluate the responses of consumers to the enterprises’ advertisements (not to the actual experience or consumption of the product or service which is released). Since the aim of this study is to discover how micro enterprises should implement neuromarketing in their business, this model provides a possibility for application. It is also important to what extent micro enterprises experience the advantages and disadvantages of neuromarketing in order to find out if they are willing and ready for application, now or in the future.

2.5.2 NEUROANATOMICAL FRAMEWORK: READING THE BRAIN

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21 experience the Escape Room due to Virtual Reality and it then provides the desired data. In order to analyze this data, a framework for doing so would be welcome.

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NUMBER # BRAIN AREA

1. Putamen

2. Caudate Nucleus 3. Nucleus Accumbens 4. Right Anterior Insula

5. Anterior Cingulate Cortex (ACC) 6. Orbitofrontal Cortex (OFC)

7. Ventromedical Prefrontal Cortex (VMPFC) 8. Medical Prefrontal Cortex (MPFC)

9. Ventral Tegmental Area (VTA) 10. Amygdala

11. Hippocampus

Table 2 Associated brain areas in consumer neuroscience research (Reimann et al., 2011)

Figure 3 A visual representation of the eleven brain areas identified in previous consumer neuroscience research (Reimann et al., 2011)

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GENERAL AREA FOCAL TOPIC BRAIN AREA STUDY

Advertisement Product memory 10, 11 Weis et al. (2006)

Product memory 11 Klucharev, Smidts, &

Fernandez (2008)

Product Reward through

status, attitude towards product

5, 6 Erk et al. (2002)

Taste perception, reward effects for preferred brands

7, 11 McClure et al. (2004)

Packaging design 3, 7 Reimann et al. (201)

Price Purchases 3, 4, 8 Knutson et al. (2007)

Willingness to pay 8 Plassmann O’Doherty,

& Rangel (2008) Pricing and experienced pleasantness 8 Plassmann et al. (2008)

Brand Brand preference 5, 8 Paulus & Frank (2003)

Information processing, reward effects for preferred brands

5, 7 Deppe et al. (2005b)

Brand credibility 8 Deppe et al. (2005a)

Brand choice 8 Schaefer et al. (2006)

Brand personality 8 Yoon et al. (2006)

Sales Interpersonal

mentalizing between salespeople and customers

8 Dietvorst et al. (2009)

Choice Trading off decisions between choices, attraction effect

5, 8, 10 Hedgcock & Rao

(2009)

Table 3 Summarizing table general areas, focal topics, brain areas, from which studies derived (Reimann et al., 2011)

The brain areas 1, 2, and 9 did not come forward in the studies mentioned, therefore these need more investigation (table 3). On the long term micro enterprises could use this data and underlying meanings, dependent of the field they are active in, to research the preferences of their (potential) customers and act on these preferences accordingly. For instance by following the next steps for the application of fMRI in consumer research as provided by the research of Reimann et al (2011). These ideas will be implemented in the interviews.

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24 3. METHODOLOGY

This section will sketch the research approach that was followed during this research and with that its focus and sample. Following, the data collection methods will be described and how the data was analyzed. Furthermore the section will end with a part concerned with the validity and reliability of the research.

3.1 RESEARCH APPROACH

The research conducted is part of a theory development study. The currently available literature on neuromarketing is principally focused on large enterprises, for instance Coke, Pepsi, Google, Paypal, and Visa (Zara and Tuta, 2013). Little attention is given to SMEs, let alone micro enterprise separately. In this study the subject of micro enterprises was specifically chosen due to this lack of attention, together with a personal interest of the researcher in Escape Rooms. Main goal of this research was to define to what extent micro enterprises should embrace the application of neuromarketing. According to European Union Law micro enterprises are enterprises with up to 9 employees and with an annual turnover (the amount of money taken in a particular period) or balance sheet (a statement of a company's assets and liabilities) below €2 million (The European Commission of the European Communities, 2003). Due to the huge possible differences between, for example, the larger SMEs and micro enterprises with only one or a few employees, it was wise to treat micro enterprises as a specific research group. Therefore this study was built on several case studies.

3.2 DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

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25 was satisfactory (B1-B2). Next the opportunities and obstacles of neuromarketing which they could come up with were discussed (C1-C2), followed by in-depth factual questions regarding these opportunities and obstacles (C3-C6). Furthermore the interviewee mentioned if the enterprise already applied fMRI and if they were satisfied (D1-D2). After that they stated their thoughts on possible opportunities and obstacles of the use of fMRI (E1-E2). Finally their considerations and future plans regarding the application of neuromarketing were considered (F1-F2). The interviews were conducted at the locations of the Escape Rooms and they were recorded in order to be transcribed later on in the process. The transcripts were processed within-case and after that they were placed in tables and were coded in coherence with the interview guide. To add to the generalizability of the study, a cross-case analysis was performed as well (Miles, Huberman, & Saldana, 2014). The four interviews with the owners of the Escape Rooms took approximately 30 to 45 minutes and were held at the actual Escape Room locations.

3.3 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY

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26 4. RESULTS

Chapter four will show the results originating from the case studies performed at the four enterprises. This chapter will start with a brief introduction of the enterprises. The following paragraph will be elaborate on the within-case analyses and will go into detail on the outcomes of the questions asked to the interviewees. Lastly the cross-case analysis will take place in order to provide a comparison amongst the four cases.

4.1 INTRODUCTION

All of the four enterprises are located in the northern part of The Netherlands. Three of them are in the province of Friesland, and one of them in Overijssel. Enterprise I is an Escape Room located in a small touristic village known for its water sports facilities. The enterprise has one fulltime employee and is the youngest enterprise of the sample. Enterprise II has two fulltime employees, several part-timers plus a (young) volunteer. They offer a range of activities (fitness, lunchroom, specialty store, etc.), of which the Escape Room is one. Enterprise III has four owners and is located in once again a small village with a lot of tourist activity in the area. Enterprise IV is the only enterprise which is located in a city, it has five owners plus three student employees. It is the largest one of the sample. After this brief introduction, the study will continue with the within-case analyses.

4.2 WITHIN-CASE ANALYSES

The recordings and notes from the interview were analyzed and connected to each other. After that, an analysis was performed according to the interview guide connected to the literature review. The four within-case analyses are located in Appendix B. The interview questions were placed before them, in Appendix A.

4.3 CROSS-CASE ANALYSIS

This cross-case analysis connects the results of the within-case analyses with each other and provides a cross-comparison in order to find differences and similarities. Again the interview guide was used.

A Introduction

A1 Enterprise description

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27 B1-B2 Current situation

B1 Neuromarketing usage

None of the four subjects already apply neuromarketing, although one of the interviewees pointed out the use of Google Analytics.

B2 Satisfaction

Does not apply to current application of neuromarketing, since none of the enterprises uses neuromarketing. Enterprise IV mentioned ‘not yet’ and with that its future interest in neuromarketing application.

C1-C6 Opportunities and obstacles neuromarketing

C1 Pre-conceived opportunities

Enterprises I, II, and IV state that they see its opportunity and that they would like to understand the consumer better. Enterprise II and III mention the desire to improve marketing activities. Enterprise III furthermore mentions that he read about it and will read about it more due to the possession of a book about neuromarketing.

C2 Pre-conceived obstacles

Enterprise 1 and II mention the presumed high costs, enterprise III acknowledges this as well, but was up to date about the availability of cheaper options. Enterprise IV goes into the small sample size and difficult interpretation of the results. Enterprise II furthermore needed more information about neuromarketing, and specifically the way the brain responses will be studied.

C3 Early application

From ‘great idea’, to ‘it will make all the difference’, to ‘huge advantage’, all four enterprises seem very enthusiastic about this possibility. The prevention of trial and error, improving the Escape Room, the decrease in building costs, and smoother development due to less arguments were mentioned in this order, from enterprise I to IV.

C4 Underlying thoughts

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28

C5 Advertisement

Enterprise I is currently not active with advertising, but mentions the possible future benefit. Enterprise II and IV are the furthest in their efforts. They both have promotion videos already and have plans for the nearby future. They would both like to test the idea on current and future videos/advertisements. Enterprise III has plans concerned with a professional YouTube video and a radio commercial and like the idea of testing as well.

C6 Ethical issues

The subject with probably the most dissimilar answers. Enterprise I is neutral in the matter, needs more time to think about it. Enterprise II came across as the most resilient, almost scared about the idea of harming someone or something. Enterprise III basically does not see any issues at all, they have a commercial way of thinking and would like to benefit to the maximum extent. Enterprise IV starts with the same approach, but later on adjusts slightly by mentioning that none can occur at the cost of the consumer (experience).

D1-2 Application technology

D1 fMRI usage

All four enterprises do not make use of fMRI application yet.

D2 fMRI satisfaction

Does not apply since none of the enterprises have already applied fMRI.

E1-2 Opportunities and obstacles fMRI

E1 Opportunities

Enterprise I, II, III, and IV all acknowledge the potential of fMRI use. Enterprises I and II are excited and would like to test their ideas, puzzles, games, etc. They think it would benefit them a lot. Enterprises III and IV go even further. Both state to be aware of the high costs, but as it seems, these two rooms are the most profitable and are willing to spend money on the application of fMRI. Enterprises II talks about future profit expectations, enterprise IV about current income.

E2 Obstacles

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29 F1-2 Future

F1 Application factors

Enterprise I mentions ‘potential’ and would like to know more about the possibilities. Enterprise II mentions the overall benefit, together with the possibility of adjusting during the development process, enterprise III mentions the overall benefit as well, alongside their ‘drive’ to strive for the best. Enterprise IV is the third one that really states the overall benefit. Is next to that the only enterprise that mentions the possibility of higher profits in the long run.

F2 Future neuromarketing plans

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30 5. DISCUSSION

This study focused on finding out to if micro enterprises should apply neuromarketing in their business. The findings will be discussed which will lead to the conclusion. Theoretical as well as managerial limitations will be mentioned, followed by the general limitations of this study as well as directions for future research.

5.1 FINDINGS

In the upcoming section the findings of the study will be discussed.

5.1.1 CURRENT SITUATION

All four of the companies have not applied neuromarketing techniques so far. Two of them have become interested, the other two were already playing with the idea and carefully exploring the possibilities. As a result of the interviews the application of neuromarketing techniques could get momentum, especially in the case of the two companies that were already exploring the possibilities.

5.1.2 OPPORTUNITIES

When the interviewees were asked about the pre-conceived advantages, they could all not provide clear examples alongside the fact that they all did like the idea of improved marketing activities and getting to know the consumers preferences together with the underlying thoughts, which is in accordance with the current literature (Renvoisé & Morin, 2007). Deeper into the interview they obviously came with more comprehensive answers due to a better understanding of the matter alongside more in-depth questions. All four companies once again mentioned potential, this time the potential of fMRI neuromarketing application. They see great opportunities in testing their ideas beforehand or at least well before realization. Two of the enterprises talked about high profits (note: although spread over more locations), off-record they mentioned figures which they both did not want to appear in the study (despite the anonymity), since it is a small market in the north of The Netherlands. After mentioning the presumed costs that come with the application of fMRI, they did not abandon its use. One of the owners was slightly reserved, but still interested. The other one questioned the researcher even more about locations, durations, and so on. Therefore application within micro enterprises, even with the current high costs of fMRI, seems possible already.

5.1.3 OBSTACLES

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31 2007). One of the enterprises was really explicit about their standing when it comes to the ethical issues. Another took a neutral position and the two remaining ones more or less pledged for commercial benefits despite the ethical issues. This is also backed by the literature, since controversy on the ethical issues that arise together with the application of neuromarketing, is widespread (McClure et al., 2004).

5.1.4 APPLICATION FACTORS

When we look at the application factors, the most important factor for application were the benefits that arise when neuromarketing and fMRI in particular are applied in the early development stages (design phase), since this could result in better knowledge of the consumers, their underlying thoughts, a better end product due to interim adjustments (and with that reduced overall costs), as well as the provision of a product which meets the preferences of the consumers better than while following the traditional method. Also, but perceived as less important, it is assumed that in the post-design phase, the application of fMRI on advertisements, could be beneficial as well.

5.1.5 FUTURE PLANS

The future plans of all four enterprises remain to some extent uncertain. Although they all expressed their interest and some even talked in detail about application, further research into the possibilities seemed necessary. None of them seemed to have a plan outlined.

5.1.6 CONCEPTUAL MODEL

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32 5.2 CONCLUSION

In order to answer the main research question, three sub question were developed. All three are answered extensively earlier in this study in order to eventually be able to answer the main research question. The first sub question was concerned with the essentials of neuromarketing. The second question asked for its opportunities and its obstacles, especially for micro enterprises. The third question dealt with all the neuromarketing application methods available for research. The main purpose of the research was to find out if micro enterprises should apply neuromarketing in their business. Therefore the following research question was formulated: “Should micro enterprises apply

neuromarketing in their business?”. The answer to this question should be split in two. One answer is

appointed at Escape Rooms in particular, the other answer more general and with that applicable to (possibly) all micro enterprises.

5.2.1 ESCAPE ROOMS

This study has provided several reasons why Escape Rooms should apply neuromarketing in their business. Most of them already came to surface in the paragraph concerned with the application factors, but will be summarized and repeated here once more. Why Escape Rooms should apply neuromarketing in their business is because of the benefits that arise when neuromarketing and fMRI in particular are applied. Especially in the early development stages (design phase), since this could result in better knowledge of the consumers, their underlying thoughts, a better end product due to interim adjustments (and with that reduced overall costs), as well as the provision of a product which meets the preferences of the consumers better than while following the traditional method. Also, but as mentioned perceived as less important, it is assumed that in the post-design phase, the application of fMRI on advertisements, could be beneficial for the Escape Room as well. If the budget is sufficient, what seems to be the case in one or two of the researched objects, then it definitely is worth considering.

5.2.2 GENERAL

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33 technique. Therefor it could be advisable to look at alternatives, or a combination of alternatives. Not only to find cheaper alternatives and with that reduce costs, but even more importantly due to the fact that a combination of neuromarketing tools, in other words a simultaneous use, could enable to answer new questions, which could not be answered when both tools are used separately, or when either one of the two tools is used (Kable, 2011).

5.2.3 THEORETICAL AND MANAGERIAL IMPLICATIONS

This research found that although one of the disadvantages of neuromarketing seemed to be significant and perhaps even a deal breaker, this did not seem to influence the subjects’ opinions concerned with neuromarketing application, to a huge extent. Within a relatively small sample of four enterprises, two of them kept sticking to the opportunities instead of backing off as the result of one disadvantage, despite of its weight. A theoretical implication is that for micro enterprises there is no literature available concerned with neuromarketing application factors. The implementation of such factors could have enriched the conceptual model. Furthermore the findings are largely consistent with existent literature. For the owners of micro enterprises this study provides a number of interesting insights. Hopefully it serves as an eye-opener to the concept of neuromarketing and its implication and it might even pave the way for future research. Also, enterprise owners could educate themselves on the topic and with that improve their chances of proper application. Finally, it has become clear that although the results are partly generalizable for micro enterprises, the enterprise and industry characteristics, play an important. Not all enterprises are suited for neuromarketing application.

5.2.4 RESEARCH LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE RESEARCH

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42 7. APPENDICES

APPENDIX A. INTERVIEW GUIDE A. Introductie

1. Kunt u uw bedrijf kort omschrijven?

B. Huidige situatie

Neuromarketing: Het doel van neuromarketing is het beter begrijpen van de klant en de reactie op marketingstimuli, door de processen in de hersenen direct te meten en in de theorievorming en stimuli-ontwikkeling te betrekken. Uiteindelijk dient het ook bij te dragen aan het ontwerpen van effectievere marketing stimuli. Daarnaast kan het continuele processen ondersteunen. Neuromarketing is kort gezegd gericht op het vergroten van de effectiviteit van marketingactiviteiten door het bestuderen van hersenreacties.

1. Gebruikt u reeds neuromarketing? a. Ja? Op welke manier?

b. Nee? Door naar C.

2. Bent u hier tevreden over?

C. Kansen en obstakels neuromarketing

1. Welke kansen ziet u in het gebruik van Neuromarketing en hoe heeft dit meegewogen in uw beslissing neuromarketing (niet) toe te passen?

2. Welke obstakels ziet u in het gebruik van Neuromarketing en hoe heeft dit meegewogen in uw beslissing neuromarketing (niet) te gebruiken?

Kansen neuromarketing

3. In hoeverre is een nauwkeurige technologie die tijdens de concept- en designfase de voorkeuren van de consument wat betreft invulling van een Escape Room kan identificeren een kans voor uw bedrijf? 4. In hoeverre is het ontdekken van het ‘waarom’ achter de voorkeuren van de consument wat betreft invulling van een Escape Room een kans voor uw bedrijf?

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43 Obstakels neuromarketing

Ethische vraagstukken: de bescherming van de verschillende partijen die schade kunnen lijden door het onderzoek, of door de marketing van het neuro-onderzoek, en (b) de bescherming van de autonomie van de consument, in het geval dat neuromarketing een bepaald niveau van effectiviteit haalt.

6. In hoeverre zijn de ethische vraagstukken van neuromarketing een obstakel voor uw bedrijf?

D. Toepassing technologie

Functionele Magnetische Resonantie Imaging (fMRI): Bij fMRI onderzoek gaat men via functionele MRI hersenscans na hoe de hersenen van proefpersonen reageren op bepaalde stimuli (welke delen van de hersenen oplichten en met welke emotie deze correspondeert).

1. Maakt u reeds gebruik van fMRI? a. Ja? Op welke manier?

b. Nee? Door naar C.

2. Bent u hier tevreden over?

E. Kansen en obstakels fMRI

1. Welke kansen ziet u in het gebruik van fMRI en hoe heeft dit meegewogen in uw beslissing fMRI (niet) toe te passen?

2. Welke obstakels ziet u in het gebruik van fMRI en hoe heeft dit meegewogen in uw beslissing fMRI (niet) te gebruiken?

F. Toekomst

1. Wat zijn de factoren die u doen overwegen om neuromarketing (niet) toe te passen in uw bedrijf?

2. Bent u van plan neuromarketing toe te passen in uw bedrijf? a. Zo ja, tot in welke mate wilt u dit doen en waarom?

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44 APPENDIX B. WITHIN-CASE ANALYSES.

WITHIN-CASE ANALYSIS CASE I A. Introduction

Code Subject Results

A1 Enterprise description The enterprise has recently opened its doors

and the owner runs it on her own. She started it after visiting several other Escape Rooms which stoke up her enthusiasm. People are slowly beginning to find their way to her enterprise.

B. Current situation

B1 Neuromarketing usage No

B2 Satisfaction Does not apply

C. Opportunities and obstacles neuromarketing

C1 Pre-conceived opportunities The owner thinks that understanding the

customer’s wishes better could aid in developing her enterprise.

C2 Pre-conceived obstacles The owner believes this might be costly and

therefore out of her reach.

C3 Early application This would help tremendously, because when

the owner started the enterprise she created everything based on her own experience and expectations. It would also prevent a lot of trial and error.

C4 Underlying thoughts This would definitely aid, since the ‘why’ often

tells more than the preference itself.

C5 Advertisement Currently the owner does not yet advertise at

all. A website is being build, for now only a Facebook page exists. She will give it more attention, but did not have the time yet. In the future this might be beneficial.

C6 Ethical issues The owner sees this as a difficult question

which would need a lot more thought. Neutral opinion for now.

D. Application technology

D1 fMRI usage No

D2 fMRI satisfaction Does not apply

E. Opportunities and obstacles fMRI

E1 Opportunities The owner states that if this truly works, it

would be very interesting to test ideas for her Escape Rooms. It would be fantastic to see which puzzles/games/etc. thrill the consumer, before it is even actually build.

E2 Obstacles Knowing that normal MRI scans come with

costly hospital visits, she believes it would not be different in this case.

F. Future

F1 Application factors Potential. According to the owner it sounds

THE APPLICATION OF NEUROMARKETING BY MICRO ENTERPRISES