A study about the moderating effect of internal mobility on the relationship between the length of employer tenure and the height of employee absenteeism
Master thesis, MSc Human Resource Management University of Groningen, Faculty of Economics and Business
January 25, 2010
KARIN BOONSTRA Studentnumber: 1760831
Bezettingslaan 46 9728 EJ Groningen
Telephone number: + 31 634 082 394 E-mail: k.h.boonstra@student.rug.nl
Supervisor / university Dr. K.S. Prins University of Groningen
Supervisor / field of study C. van der Lee
NOVO
A study about the moderating effect of internal mobility on the relationship between the length of employer tenure and the height of employee absenteeism
Abstract
The objective of this scientific study is to investigate the relationship between the
length of employer tenure and the height of employee absenteeism and the possible influence
of internal mobility on this relationship. The study is accomplished in a sample of 290
employees of NOVO, a foundation which provides services for people with a mental
disability. The methods used are non-parametric tests and regression analyses. The results
were remarkable in the sense that the expected relationships were not found. The main
relationship between length of tenure and absence was not significant, even though one was
controlled for region and type of contract. Also in the moderation analysis no significant
effects were found. We can conclude that, besides the recommendations for influencing the
absence norm, increasing affective commitment and creating interactional justice, further
research would be preferable since some results were near the acceptable .05 significance.
Master thesis Karin Boonstra 1760831
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
ABSTRACT 5
1. INTRODUCTION 6
1.1. Facts and objective 6
General facts 6
Objective 6
1.2. The organization 7
NOVO in general 7
Values of NOVO 7
Structure of NOVO 8
1.3. The assignment 8
Background information 8
Absence rates 8
Made interventions 8
Research question 9
2. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 10
2.1 Absenteeism 10
Definition 10
Gender 10
Age 11
Employment contract 12
Conclusions 12
2.2. Employer tenure 13
Definition 13
Tenure and absenteeism 13
Conclusions 14
2.3. Internal labour mobility 14
Definition 14
Mobility in general 14
Conclusions 16
2.4. Employer tenure and mobility 16
Conclusions 18
Master thesis Karin Boonstra 1760831
2.5. Theoretical conclusion and conceptual model 18
3. METHODOLOGY 20
3.1. Population and sample size 20
3.2. Data collection 21
3.3. Measures 21
3.4. Analyses 22
4. RESULTS 24
4.1. Relationship length of employer tenure and absenteeism 24
4.2. Moderation effects 24
4.3. Conclusions 25
5. DISCUSSION 27
5.1. Results 27
5.2. Control variables 29
5.3. Possible biases or limitations 30
5.4. Clarification of the results 31
Clarifying interviews 31
Clarifying theories 33
5.5. Recommendations 34
5.6. Implications for further research 38
REFERENCES 39
APPENDIX 45
APPENDIX 1: Chart of NOVO 46
APPENDIX 2: Absence rates 2000-2008 47
APPENDIX 3: Representation of regios 48
APPENDIX 4: Outcomes non-parametric tests 49
APPENDIX 5: Outcomes length of tenure and absence 50
APPENDIX 6: Summary results moderation analyses 51
APPENDIX 7: Means, standard deviations and correlations of dependent variables 59
Master thesis Karin Boonstra 1760831
ABSTRACT
The objective of this scientific study is to investigate the relationship between the length of employer tenure and the height of employee absenteeism and the possible influence of internal mobility on this relationship. Absenteeism is defined by mean duration, frequency, rate and total days absent. Internal mobility is defined by the number of positional-, geographical-, positional- as well as geographical mobility in the same time and total internal mobility moves.
The study is accomplished in a sample of 290 employees of NOVO, which is a foundation that provides services for people with a mental disability. The methods we use for analysis of the control variables, gender, age, type of contract and region include non- parametric tests. Furthermore we use linear regression analyses to investigate the relationships between the length of tenure and absenteeism and the possible moderating effect of internal mobility.
The results were remarkable in the sense that the expected relationships were not found. The main relationship between length of tenure and absence was not significant, even though one was controlled for region and type of contract. Also in the moderation analysis no significant effects were found. However, some results were near significance, like with geographical mobility, which explains 1.2 percent in the variance of the absence frequency. In addition, total mobility moves explains 1.3 percent in the variance of the absence rate and explains 1.2 percent in the variance in the total days absent.
We can conclude that length of tenure is not causing higher absence within NOVO. In addition, mobility in itself is not influencing the relationship between length of tenure and absence. Knowing these results, other causes and solutions of absence can be investigated.
The clarifying interviews and theories resulted in three core recommendations, namely:
changing the absence norm, increasing affective commitment and creating interactional justice.
Furthermore, scienctists have to be carefull in stating that mobility can lower absence,
caused by a long tenure. We must be careful not to overestimate the effects of mobility, but
since the results were near the acceptble .05 significance further research would be preferable.
Master thesis Karin Boonstra 1760831
1. INTRODUCTION
This section will start with general facts about absence and the objective of the study.
Thereafter a description of the organization follows, were we discuss NOVO in general, and the values and structure of NOVO. Finally, the assignment will come up. In order to understand the context of the study, we will provide background information, absence rates, made interventions and the research question.
1.1. Facts and objective
General facts. According to data of the Central Office of Statistics (2009), Dutch employees in the year 2008 had a mean absence rate of 4.3 percent. In the health care sector and welfare sector the mean absence rate in that year was about 5.3 percent, which is even a percent point higher. Large organizations with a hundred or more employees had a mean absence rate of 5.0 percent (Central office of Statistics, 2009).
NOVO is such a large organization and is operating in the health care and welfare sector, this are two factors which can cause extra absence. Considering the fact that 27 percent of the Dutch employees reported having missed one or more working days during the past twelve months because of work-related health problems (Paoli, 1997), we can imagine that absenteeism is an important subject for NOVO.
Objective. Although NOVO is near the national average of absence, the originator is convinced that the absence rate can be dropped. The ultimate goal is to decrease the absence rate to three percent. This goal must be reasonable, because sixty percent of employee turnover is avoidable. This proportion of employees who call in sick are not actually ill (Dalton & Mesch, 1991).
To accomplish that, NOVO must become more aware of the possibilities they have in reducing absence, so they can handle more on the preventive basis instead of on the reactive side of absenteeism. Through investigation of a cause and effect model, NOVO would like to have a better view on possible interventions.
With a decrease of the absence rate NOVO want to accomplish economical benefits. If
employees are less absent, then NOVO can save a lot of money. Furthermore, NOVO can
improve the service and reliability to clients if the absence is lowered, because a high absence
rate has negative effects on service and image.
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1.2. The organization
NOVO in general. NOVO is a foundation which delivers services for people with a mental disability. There are working around 1600 employees at NOVO in many different jobs, like mentors (in dutch: begeleiders), assistent mentors, nursing assistents (in dutch:
verzorgingsassistenten) and behaviour therapists. The clients of NOVO are approximately 1900 mentally disabled children and adults divided over more than 80 locations in Groningen and Drenthe.
NOVO wants to deliver services to people with a high mental disability to people with a low mental disability, from people with no physical disabilities to people with extra physical disabilities. In short, NOVO provides services from young to old, a lifetime long. To accomplish this mission the locations of NOVO provide the following facilities (www.novo.nl):
- home and treatment for children - children day centre
- home and service centre for adults
- centre for daycare ( in Dutch: dagbesteding) - a guesthouse (in Dutch: logeerhuis)
- family support - ambulatory service
Values of NOVO. The vision of NOVO is that every client has unique possibilities.
Every client deserves suitable service on the territory of home and work and must get correct support and care. This happens in an atmosphere of openness and involvement. Furthermore NOVO wants to be innovating and strives for improvement. NOVO can be characterised as:
friendly, reliable and efficient (www.novo.nl).
Furthermore NOVO operates under five core values, which are clarified in the
brochure ‘NOVO op menselijke maat’. These five values are: respect, individuality,
solidarity, responsibility and professionality. NOVO is respecting the client and takes this
serious. Employees are reliable and committed. NOVO sees the client as an individual with
his own will, needs, possibilities and history. NOVO strives for an equal care relationship
with the vulnerable and dependent client, and offers care which the client want and can
accept. The employees are displaying understanding and deep insights in the clients world of
experience. In this manner the clients can hold themselves standing in the community.
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Structure of NOVO. NOVO is divided by the regions City, North, Middle, South-East and Upper Regional Youth Care. In these regions there are several units like housing, working and ambulatory service. Besides the five regions, there are also six staff departments called:
Personnel and organization service, Economic administrative service, Facility business service, NOVO consult, Quality, policy and communication services and Secretariat placement commission. NOVO is a certified foundation and is operating under the supervision of a supervisory board. NOVO has a central client board, several regional client boards, a central family board, a management board and a works council. See appendix 1:
Chart of NOVO (www.novo.nl).
1.3. The assignment
Background information. Structure and reliability are very important for the clients of NOVO. They need a safe atmosphere to function well in the community. Regulating the workforce plays an important role here. There must always be an employee to help the clients.
If an employee is getting sick, there must be someone else to come over to stand in, because clients simply cannot be alone. Clients can get confused by this situation, because they are used to a specific structure.
The fact that NOVO is a health service for mentally disabled clients, means that the work of employees is psychological as well as physical very demanding. Employees become committed to their clients, because they often work for many years together with them. The average absence rate is on average higher in the health care than in other branches, because of the above mentioned work characteristics.
Absence rates. In 2000 the absence rate of NOVO was near ten percent, which is very high. In the years thereafter NOVO has sharpen its absence procedures. This resulted in a decrease of the absence rate, except for the years 2005 and 2008, were there was a little increase. The last three years it stays between 5.3 and 5.0 percent (see appendix 2: Absence rates 2000-2008).
Made interventions. Next to sharpening the procedures, another intervention that has
been done is implementing a workshop about work pressure. Management received signals
from the workforce about a high work pressure and therefore the department personnel and
organization service has developed a workshop. Teams can subscribe themselves for this two
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days during workshop. The workshop is based on the topic workload from the NIA-model (Dutch Institute for Labour circumstances. In Dutch: Nederlands Instituut voor Arbeidsomstandigheden). This model is focused on a better organization of work tasks, individual as well as team-based. This workshop is not evaluated yet, because it is still running.
Next to this workshop and the internal procedures, NOVO complies with the national legislation of employee absenteeism. NOVO has a contract with a safety, health and welfare service (in Dutch: Arbodienst), called Achmea Vitale. Furthermore, NOVO applies RI&E (risk inventory and evaluation) to the work locations and has a special employee for labour-, absence- and reintegration. Furthermore, there is also a labour expert. NOVO shows that it is very active in making interventions to reduce absenteeism.
Research question. The goal of NOVO, to drop the absence rate to three percent, is way too abstract. To decide what to investigate exactly, we did a preliminary investigation
1. The most important conclusion that came out was that a lot of employees work for a very long time within NOVO, at the same location and in the same team. Furthermore, respondents signalled low internal mobility. Employees are working for a long time in the same job and on the same location. In addition, the respondents mentioned that there are little possibilities to make a promotion. This can be a possible cause of absence according to the respondents.
NOVO has no mobility policy, so this is an interesting subject to investigate and resulted in the following research question:
1 We did several orienting interviews with people inside different hierarchical levels and regions of NOVO. We interviewed two region managers, a unit head, a labour expert (in Dutch: arbeidsdeskundige) and a labour-, absence- and reintegration expert (In Dutch: arbeids-, verzuim- en reintegratiedeskundige). Furthermore we talked to employees in the operating processes, because we have worked on three different locations in some shifts and we attended around eight other locations.
‘What is the relationship between the length of employer tenure and the height of employee absenteeism and in which way has internal labour mobility a
moderating role in this relationship?‘
Master thesis Karin Boonstra 1760831
2. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
This section will provide us with the theoretical framework necessary to get insight into absenteeism, tenure and mobility. Furthermore, the relationships between these subject will be discussed. Finally, the conceptual model shall be developed.
2.1. Absenteeism
Definition. Despite the great amount of research on absenteeism in the past forty years, an agreed upon definition or set of definitions does not exist. In this research absenteeism is defined by the absence metric. Absence metric refers to the manner is which absences are aggregated over time (Kohler & Mattiheu, 1993). Time lost index, the total number of working days lost in a year for any reason (excluding strikes, layoffs, holidays, and additional rest days) and frequency index, the total number of absence spells in a year regardless of duration, are the two most commonly used metrics (Nicholson, Brown &
Chadwick-Jones, 1976). From this point, the time lost index shall be called absence rate and is linked to the full time equivalent (fte) somebody is working. The frequency index will be called absence frequency. Furthermore, absence is also measured by the mean duration of an absence and by total days lost in a year.
The fact that there is not an agreed upon definition makes clear that absenteeism is a very complicated topic (Kohler & Matthieu, 1993). Absenteeism is influenced by many factors, like for example by job situation and personal factors (Steers & Rhodes, 1978).
Gender and age are factors that are returning in many studies about absenteeism. Also the type of contract can have an influence on absence. Research discovered that over 82 percent of the employees working in the healthcare branch are female, the mean age of employees is 39 years and the mean fte is 0.63 (Van der Kwartel, Van der Velde & Van der Windt, 2008).
Therefore the possible influence of these characteristics on absenteeism will be discussed next.
Gender. Does absenteeism differ for males and females? We could not find any evidence that males are more or less absent than females, because of physical explanations.
But in the Netherlands, females have a higher work disability risk than males. Furthermore,
the work disability risk due to mental disorders is relatively high among females (Geurts,
Kompier, & Gründemann, 2000). Females experience also higher levels of stressors than male
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employees, according to several recent studies (Rodriguez, Bravo, Peiro & Schuafeli, 2001;
Vagg, Spielberger, Wasala, 2002). This result is explained by the different working conditions of males and females.
As stated before, over 82 percent of the employees working in the healthcare branch are female (Van der Kwartel et al., 2008). This branch produces about 25 percent of the work disability recipients. Although in this branch the risk for females is four times as high as it is for males, this difference disappears when males and females have similar working conditions. In addition, females work more often than males in professions that are characterized by few career opportunities, little autonomy in the job setting and unhealthy work pressure.
The higher work disability risk does not seem to be explained by care giving responsibilities. Results from Cuelenaere (1997) showed that care giving responsibilities did not impede work resumption among females, and that females were more inclined to adapt their home responsibilities to their paid work than the other way around (Geurts et al., 2000).
Besides care giving responsibilities, there are more events and responsibilities that are connected with the life cycle and thus with the age of employees. It is proved that when employees get older, they have a higher change to get various illnesses or physical complaints (Nauta, De Bruin & Cremer, 2004). Also their life circumstances changes, but does this mean that older employees have a higher absence rate?
Age. Data revealed linear relationships between age and absence that were negative for non-certified absence and positive for certified absence (Thomson, Griffiths & Davison, 2000). Age has usually shown a negative relationship with absence frequency, with older employees having fewer spells of absence. (Chadwick-Jones, Nicholson & Brown, 1982;
Hackett, 1990; Leigh, 1986; Martocchio, 1989; Nicholson, Brown & Chadwick-Jones, 1977;
Watson,1981). It is commonly accepted that absence frequency reflects voluntary or non- certified absence. A similar picture emerges for absence duration, for which positive relationships with age are often found (Baumgartel & Sobol, 1959; Cooper & Payne, 1965) but less consistently. Absence duration tends to reflect involuntary or certified absence.
Nicholson et al., (1977) found evidence for a curvilinear relationship between absence duration and age, revealing that the absence of employees under 36 and over 56 years of age was higher than for those between 46 and 55 years of age (Thomson et al., 2000).
The decrement theory of aging argues that certain physical and cognitive changes may
occur with age (Giniger, Dispenzieri & Eisenberg, 1983). These changes may negatively
Master thesis Karin Boonstra 1760831
affect a employee his health and coping resources and can therefore possibly lead to a higher absence (Shirom, Gilboa, Fries & Cooper, 2008).
Employment contract. In the healthcare branche a lot of part time contracts exist.
Does this influence the height of absenteeism? In a Dutch study, temporary employees seeking full time employment were less likely to be absent and had shorter absences than permanent employees. The study found that absence was generally higher for those in permanent employment (Tompa, Scott-Marshall & Fang, 2008).
Furthermore, in a case study of Cassidy and Sutherland (2008) about absence and quiting in a call centre, those employees with a full time contract were 33 percent more likely to have an absence than their colleagues with different kinds of part time contracts.
The study of Caudhury and Ng (1992) is in line with the conclusion of Cassidy and Sutherland (2008). They state that firms with more part time employees, are experiencing lower absence levels than firms with more full time employees. The work schedule of part time employees is more flexible because of their shift work, so they move a shift and work their hours in a later time if they want to do non-market activities (Chaudhury & Ng, 1992).
Conclusions.
- In this study, absence is measured by the absence rate, the absence frequency, the absence duration and total days absent (Kohler & Matthieu, 1993);
- females have a higher work disability risk than males (Geurts et al., 2000), and experience higher levels of stressors (Rodriguez et al., 2001; Vagg et al., 2002), but this difference disappears when the working conditions of males and females are similar (Van der Kwartel et al., 2008);
- different relationships are found between age and absence, but age has usually shown a negative relationship with absence frequency (Chadwick-Jones et al., 1982; Hackett, 1990; Leigh, 1986; Martocchio, 1989; Nicholson et al., 1977; Watson,1981) and a positive relationship with absence duration (Baumgartel & Sobol, 1959; Cooper &
Payne, 1965);
- full time employees are more likely to have an absence than part time employees
(Chaudhury & Ng, 1992; Cassidy and Sutherland, 2008).
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2.2. Employer tenure
Definition. Before measuring tenure it must be defined first. Carey (1990) differentiates between two types of tenure. The first one is employer tenure which he describes as the length of time a employee had been with the same employer. The second type of tenure is occupational tenure which refers to the length of time a employee has spent in an occupation. This study will focus on employer tenure, because respondents of the orienting interviews mentioned the length of employer tenure as a factor which can possibly cause absenteeism. From this point we aim at length of employer tenure as we talk about tenure.
Tenure and absenteeism. A positive relationship between tenure and total days absent is explained by Gellaty (1995). He states that employees with a longer tenure, on average, were older, perceived a higher absence norm, and were because of that absent more often than employees with a shorter tenure.
Quispel (2000) states that older employees are less frequent absent than younger ones, but if they are absent it is for a longer time period. Besides this statement, she analysed absence patrons and discovered that differences in absence between various age groups can be largely clarified by differences in job tenure (the length of time an employee has spend in a job). She states that one must focus at length of job tenure, because a forty year old employee is in the first years of a new job just as likely to have an absence as a twenty year old employee who just start working (Quispel, 2000).
Also Tompa, Scott-Marshall and Fang (2008) see a relationship between length of tenure and absenteeism. They state that individuals with a job tenure of four to six months were 64 percent less likely to have an absence than individuals with longer tenures. A short tenure is negatively related to the probability of work related sickness absence. Job tenure and employer tenure are associated with job specific knowledge and firm specific knowledge and also with seniority, which can bear on the ability to take an absence without a negative reprisal from the employer.
This finding is consistent with studies that show that employees with longer tenures are more likely to have a sickness absence (Tompa, Scott-Marshall, & Fang, 2008).
Next to the studies of Tompa, Scott-Marshal and Fang (2008), it is also consistent with the
research of Gellatly (1995) mentioned earlier.
Master thesis Karin Boonstra 1760831
Conclusions.
- This study will focus on employer tenure, which is the length of time an employee stays with the same employer (Carey, 1990);
- research shows a positive relationship between tenure and absence (Gellaty, 1995), were longer tenured employees can bear on the ability to take an absence without a negative reprisal from the employer (Tompa, Scott-Marshall, & Fang, 2008).
2.3. Internal labour mobility
Definition. There are a lot of definitions of mobility, but Van der Zwaan (1991) refers to two types of mobility. He differentiates between geographical mobility and positional mobility. Geographical mobility refers tot the movement of an individual to another physical location than the current area (Bolweg, 1996). Positional mobility can be horizontal as well as vertical. Were horizontal mobility is the personnel flow on the same hierarchical level and were vertical mobility is the rise to a higher or lower position in the organizational hierarchy.
Carey (1990) states that mobility is a rate that can be measured. Mobility can be counted by the number of moves in a given time period (Glaser, 1968; Anderson, Milkovich & Tsui , 1981).
Mobility in general. The core idea of mobility is being that employees continually develop their skills to retain their attractiveness in the labour market. It can function as a response to problems facing the employment relationship, because of flatter structures, periodic unemployment as a normal work experience, more frequent skills obsolescence, and fewer career opportunities (Hallier, 2009). Put simply, mobility has come to the fore as a solution to the dilemma of what can be offered to employees in the face of shrinking career opportunities and the passing of stable employment (Barley, 1996. In: Hallier, 2009).
Self-development in a broad range of needed skill areas is seen as the remedy for overspecialization and inevitable obsolescence (Van der Heijden, 2002. In: Hallier 2009). But while the initiative lies with employees to develop themselves, organizations too are expected to provide the resources, experiences and context for this to happen (Hallier, 2009). Mobility of personnel among firms, or different jobs or locations within one firm, provides a way of spreading information (Marx, Strumsky & Fleming, 2009).
The importance of mobility to the individual as well as the organization has been
increasingly recognized in the field of career development. Promotions, demotions, and
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transfers may be used by the organization as rewards or punishments due to job performance or seniority. Therefore, the control of intra-organizational mobility has importance not only because of the consequences associated with the allocation of human resources but also indirectly through its influence on the attitudes and behaviour of employees (Anderson et al., 1981). In sum, employees’ mobility can be an important channel for knowledge transfer to the extent that knowledge is largely tacit and is embodied in individuals (Lenzi , 2007).
Furthermore it can prevent employees from leaving when they are not happy any more in their current job. It can provide a way to escape from an unacceptable situation.
Researchers (Gupta & Jenkins, 1991; Mitra, Jenkins, Douglas & Gupta, 1992) suggest that most people agree that absenteeism and turnover are sometimes alternatives to each other.
People who feel not happy in their current work situation do not always leave the organization for another job, but they can choose to call in sick.
Other researchers see relationships between absenteeism and intra-organizational transfer opportunities (Anderson et al., 1981; Dalton & Todor, 1993), which can be a solution for employees who are working in an unsatisfying situation. Internal mobility may also be a source of increased satisfaction and commitment, which can lead to a reduction in the intention to leave the organization or to absence itself (Brett, 1982; Grusky, 1966; Pruden, 1973; Pfeffer & Cohen, 1984), because employees have the opportunity to leave if they experience their current work situation as uncomfortable. Mobility can function here as a moderating factor.
Dalton and Todor (1993) state that an individual with the ability to withdraw from an otherwise unacceptable situation would prefer to move within the organization (transfer) than leave it entirely (quit). When employees choose to transfer rather than quit many of the costs associated with turnover, like training, separation pay and replacement (Cascio, 1991; Dalton
& Todor, 1993) are saved. Hence, it may be profitable for the organization to provide a employee-initiated transfer policy. Employees could be encouraged to change from jobs, from locations, or both within the organization. Organizations could actively design and promote such programs (Dalton & Todor, 1993).
There are enough examples that demonstrate that organizational policies can lead to gross reductions in the absence rate (See Dalton & Mesch, 1991; Dalton & Perry, 1981;
Leigh, 1986; Wilson & Peel, 1991; Winkler, 1980). Employees who are able to transfer
between jobs and locations may be able to mitigate problems (for example with child care, a
long daily travel time or conflicts brought about by dual careers) which could otherwise lead
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to higher levels of absence (Dalton & Todor, 1993). Mobility can play a moderating role in such cases.
Internal mobility is very important for employees as well as the organization, if we may believe the literature that is written about this subject, but Prof. Dr. Annelies van Vianen states in an interview that the actual internal mobility in organizations is low. She states that sixty percent of all employees is never been situated elsewhere in the organization, while 75 percent would wanted to and is open for it (Bisseling, 2009). Hence, if mobility indeed can accomplish so much positive effects, there is much to win for organizations by promoting it.
Conclusions.
- This study shall focus of the internal mobility rate, which is the mobility rate of the number of moves inside the organization (Glaser, 1968; Anderson et al., 1981). The study shall focus on geographical and positional mobility, both horizontal as well as vertical (Van der Zwaan, 1991; Bolweg 1996);
- mobility provides a way of spreading information (Marx et al., 2009), has indirect influence on the attitudes and behaviour of employees (Anderson et al., 1981);
- mobility opportunities can prevent employees from leaving the organisation if they are in an unsatisfying situation (Gupta & Jenkins, 1991; Mitra et al., 1992; Dalton &
Todor, 1993) and can be a solution to employees that experience problems that would otherwise lead to a higher level of absence (Dalton & Todor, 1993);
- research indicated that 75 percent of the employees are open for mobility, but that actual mobility in organizations is low (Bisseling, 2009).
2.4. Employer tenure and mobility
The relationship between the length of employer tenure, absenteeism and the
moderating effect of internal mobility is not investigated yet by researchers. There are just a
few examples were mobility fullfills a moderating role, as discussed by Anderson et al.,
(1981) and Dalton and Todor (1993). There is little literature available about tenure and
mobility if they are linked to each other, but individual life cycle come to the fore as having
the most important effect on mobility in that more experienced, and long tenured employees
are less likely to change jobs (Lenzi, 2007). Marx et al., (2009) and Lenzi (2007) are
reinforcing this statement in their reasoning that when individuals remain in an organization
for a long time, their firm specific skills increases and these individuals can be better
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exploited within the firm rather than elsewhere. This fact plays an important role in deciding to change jobs
Besides the individual life cycle, researches have found that other employee characteristics, like gender and age, have also effects on mobility. Lenzi (2007) states that females are more likely to be responsible for children and home, which are factors associated with a lower propensity to change jobs. Therefore, being male increases the probability of mobility. Anderson et al., (1981) support this statement by stating that the results of sex differences and intra-organizational mobility are consistent. They show that males experience greater mobility than females. Much of females recent job mobility may be the consequence of pull factors, which involve for example, better pay and more appealing work (Sehgal, 2001).
The effect of age (which is also related to the length of tenure and the individual life cycle) is statistically significant and consistent with Lenzi’s (2007) expectations. When experience is limited (as with young people and new entrants in the labour market), the hazard of changing jobs is higher. The high level of mobility among young employees is a result of several factors.
After young people have completed their education, they may change frequently to different jobs, because they are trying to find what best suits them. Younger employees have less invested in their jobs and their organizations and often have less attachment to their geographic residence and lifestyle, compared to older employees. Generally, they are at the lower end of the earnings scale and therefore have less to lose in switching jobs (Sehgal, 2001).
In contrast, many older employees have become attached to a particular employer and a specific job, and thus are far less mobile. When experience is higher, labour positions become more stable. Employees with a long attachment to their job usually take advantage of wage increases, greater employment security and pension rights (Sehgal, 2001).
In short, as employees get older, their tenure increases while their mobility decreases.
The pattern holds among all groups regardless of demographic or educational characteristics.
Sehgal (2001) makes this statement clear by his research under employees of different age groups. The result was that employees between 16 and 24 had a mobility rate that was 15 percentage point higher than the rate of employees between the age of 35 to 44.
To conclude, expectations about mobility have been found to decrease with age and to
be lower for females than for males (Anderson et al., 1981). The longer the attachment with
an employer, the less likely the employee is to change jobs, youth are far more likely to be
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occupationally mobile and to shift employers than are adult employees (Sehgal, 2001). The moderating role of internal mobility, were this study is about, remained unclear after literature study.
Conclusions.
- Longer tenured employees are less mobile than shorter tenured employees (Lenzi, 2007; Marx et al., 2009; Sehgal, 2001);
- mobility tend to decrease with age (Anderson et al., 1981; Sehgal, 2001);
- Males experience greater mobility than females (Lenzi, 2007; Anderson et al., 1981).
2.5. Theoretical conclusion and conceptual model
The theory describes a positive relationship between the length of employer tenure and absence. There is also a positive relationship between the absence norm and tenure according to Gellatly (1995). The longer the tenure, the more an absence norm shall develop. This norm influences the actual days absent. Therefore, the expectation is that a positive relationship exist between length of tenure and the height of absence.
There was no specific theory about the possible moderating effect of the internal mobility rate, so we must do some sound reasoning with the theories in our back mind. If the theory is right in stating that there is a positive relationship between employer tenure and absence, internal mobility can possibly play some role. This is also a common way of thinking of employees, as we experienced in the orienting interviews.
They stated that mobility can prevent absence caused by a long employer tenure and can be a solution to this problem. Quispel (2000) supports this statement. She states with her theory about the focus on lenght of job tenure, that absence can be lowered by mobility. If she is right in stating that job tenure determines the height of absence, then mobility can be a valuable hr-instrument to reduce absence caused by a long employer tenure. Mobility lowers the lenght of job tenure and thus plays a moderating role in the relationship between employer tenure and absence, it can weaken this relationship.
We shall use control variables which may influence the relationship between the
length of employer tenure, the height of absence and the internal mobility rate. Possible
factors, which are explained in the literature, are gender, age and kind of contract (full time
versus part time). The fourth control variable is region. This has no theoretical support, but is
used because people in different regions can have different characteristics as regards to
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personality, life circumstances et cetera. Putting all the literature together the following conceptual model appears:
Conceptual model of this study
Length of employer tenure (independent variable)
Internal mobility rate (moderator)
Absenteeism
(dependent variable)
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3. METHODOLOGY
This methodology section will provide insights into the population and sample size.
Furthermore, we shall discuss the manner of data collection. Thereafter we shall explain how the subjects were measured. Lastly, the type of analysis shall be declared.
3.1. Population and sample size
NOVO is a large organization with a lot of employees. Because of the research question that we had to answer, the population had to be as homogeneous as it could be.
Therefore we have chosen not to include NOVO as a whole, but only the five regions.
The target population were employees who were at December 31th 2008 under contract and working in one of the five regions North, City, Middle, South-East and Upper regional Youth care (Cooper & Schindler, 2008). In these five regions the jobs of employees are quite similar to each other in the sense that no office jobs are included and employees in different jobs all have contact with clients, which maked comparison more reliable.
The target population of the five regions was counted on 930 employees. The population existed out of 153 males and 777 females. The males represented 16.45 percent of the total population and the females represented 83.55 percent of the total population. Age ranges between 20 and 67 years. The mean age was 42.66 (SD = 11.041) years. The mean length of tenure was 10.11 years (SD = 8.92070). Ranging from 0.04 to 42.98 years.
The sample size necessary for a reliability level of 95 percent was 273. The list of the target population was classified by the length of employer tenure. So the sample was a good representation of the total population. 930 was hard to divide by 273, so we made the sample size a bit bigger and counted 930 divided by 290. This also because of possible errors or missing data. In this manner, 1 of 3.2 from the list fell into the sample. This systematical sample design has a random start, therefore the reliability is preserved.
(http://habe.hogent.be/stat/survey/steekproef.html).
The sample existed out of 50 males and 240 females. The males represented 17.24 percent of the sample and the females represented 82.76 percent of the sample. The age ranges between 21 and 67 years. The mean age was 43.44 years (SD = 11.380) and the mean length of tenure was 10.3338 (SD = 9.08509). Ranging from 0.04 to 39.22 years.
We calculated the representation of the regions in the population and in the sample,
because a discrepancy between these two could appear, since the sample was selected on the
basis of length of tenure, which was the core of this study. Given this selection, some regions
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were underrepresented and others were overrepresented, as we can conclude if we look to the table in appendix 3: representation of regions.
3.2. Data collection
In the personnel database of NOVO almost all data could be collected. The only limitation of this system was that it has no mobility data of employees who came before January 1
st1997 under contract with NOVO. This was about 322 employees of the population. From these 322 employees, 100 employees fellt into the sample. To overcome this limitation, 250 randomly selected employees have received a questionnaire to collect the necessary data and 133 respondents returned it within the selected date. 100 randomly selected respondents are taken into the sample.
The questionnaire consisted out of three questions. One to rate the positional internal mobility, one to rate the geographical internal mobility and one to rate positional- as well as geographical internal mobility at the same time. These are all quantitative questions (Huizingh, 1998). It caused about five minutes to complete the questionnaire and employees could return it by an answer envelope, by e-mail or by filling in an online questionnaire. We choose for these three methods to accomplish a high response.
3.3. Measures
The length of employer tenure was calculated by comparing the ‘start date’ of the employee with the employer with December 31th of the year 2008. This ‘end date’ was determined because this maked comparison with the other data, like absence and internal mobility, possible.
Absence was calculated in four manners. We looked at the year 2008, because this was the most recent year were all data was present. The total days absent, absence frequency, average duration of absence and the absence rate were collected. The total days absent was simply to find in the personnel database. The absence frequency was calculated to count the amount of absence requests in the year 2008. If this was known, the average duration could be calculated by dividing the total days absent by the absence frequency. The absence rate was determined using the formula below (Profijt van Arbobeleid, Arboconvenant gehandicaptenzorg, 2003):
Absence rate = number of days absent * the part time factor * 100%
Total working days in a year
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Internal mobility was rated. Both positional internal mobility as well as geographical internal mobility are rated. Furthermore we have rated the number of times were positional as well as geographical internal mobility occured at the same time. The rating tooke place simply to count the number of times someone was switched from job, location or both at the same time. The total amount of times a person has experienced internal mobility was rated by counting the three types of mobility in total.
The control variables gender (males versus females) and type of contract (full time versus part time) were easily to find. The personnel database provided information about gender. Furthermore it provided information about the type of contract because the part time factor of a person was known. If the part time factor was below 1 fte, the contract was part time. If the part time factor was 1 fte (or higher), then the contract was full time. Age was calculated by the personnel database, by the use of the birth date of an employee.
3.4. Analyses
The analyses are done with a statistic software program called Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS). First, we did analyses of variance (ANOVA) to discover the relationships between the variables gender, region and contract with absence. We did ANOVA’s because these variables were categorical. Furthermore, we did a correlation analysis to investigate the relationship between age and absence, because age was a continuous variable. However, during the execution of these analyses we saw that the ANOVA as well as the correlation assumptions of homogeneity were broken. Therefore, we had to switch over to non-parametric tests.
To analyse gender and contract we used the Mann-Whitney U Test, because this test could compare two different groups. Region exists out of five groups and to analyse this we had to make use of the Kruskal Wallis Test. To correlate age and the four types of absence, we first did a Pearson correlation test, but because the assumptions were broken, we did thereafter a Spearman Correlation test. The outcomes of all these tests are summarised in appendix 4: Outcomes of the non-parametric tests.
We did linear regression analyses to analyse the relationships between length of
employer tenure and the four types of absence. To explore the possible moderating effect of
internal mobility on the relationship between the length of employer tenure and absence, also
a linear regression analysis is been done. Before we operated this analysis we have centered
the variables to limit the level of multicollinearity between the interaction term on the one
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hand and the moderator variable and the independent variable on the other hand. Furthermore, it makes the interpretation of the regression coefficients less complicated (De Vries &
Huisman).
Due to this analysis we could see the moderating effect of internal mobility. We have
investigated the moderation effect by filling in values in the regression formula. In this
manner, we could determine the course of the moderation effect.
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4. RESULTS
The results of the different analyses shall be presented in this section. We shall start with the results of the regression analyses between the length of employer tenure and absence.
Thereafter we shall focus on the moderation effect of the various types of internal mobility.
We finish this section with conclusions.
4.1. Relationship length of employer tenure and absenteeism
We can conclude out of the regression analyses that there is no significant relationship between length of employer tenure and one of the four types of absenteeism (see appendix 5:
Outcomes length of tenure and absence). We found for absence rate, total days absent, absence duration and absence frequency respectively significance values of .798, .979, .543 and .179. However, because type of contract and region correlated significantly with absence frequency (see appendix 4: Outcomes non-parametric tests), we implemented these in the regression analysis of length of tenure and absence frequency, but no significant results were found (p = .461).
Knowing these results we can answer the first part of the research question: ‘what is the relationship between the length of employer tenure and the height of employee absenteeism?’ No significant relationship exists between the length of employer tenure and the height of employee absenteeism within NOVO. It is however possible that mobility can moderate this relationship. We shall analyse this in the next subsection.
4.2. Moderation effects
In appendix 6, the results of the moderation analyses are summarised. No control variables were implemented in the moderation analyses, because these control variables did not have enough influence on the core relationship between length of employer tenure and absence as discussed in the previous subsection. We found no significant moderation effects, but three effects are almost significant. Therefore, they deserve it to be mentioned.
Geographical mobility explains 1.2 percent of the variance in the absence frequency
and the relationship is almost significant (F(1.96) = 3.6; p = .059)). Therefore we conclude
that geographical mobility might play a moderating role in the relationship between tenure
and absence frequency. The course of this moderating effect is negative. This means that if
the effect was significant, it weakens the relationship between length of tenure and absence
frequency.
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Furthermore, total mobility can have a possible influence on the relationship between tenure and total days absent as well as absence rate. The results of the linear regression analysis make clear that 1.3 percent of the variance is explained by the interaction term of tenure and total internal mobility moves. Furthermore, the relationship is almost significant (F(1.96) = 3.7; p = .054)). This can indicate a possible relationship between total internal mobility moves and the absence rate.
The same conclusion can be accepted if we look at total days absent. Were 1.2 percent of the variance is explained by the model and were the relationship is also almost significant (F(1.96) = 3.5; p = .061)). The course of these moderating effects is negative. This means that if the effects were significant, it weakens the relationship between length of tenure and the absence rate as well as the total days absent. The reason why, in the case of total mobility moves, both total days absent and absence rate have almost significant relationships is because these two are highly correlated (correlation of .955 with p<.01). See appendix 7:
Means, standard deviations and correlations of the dependent variables.
Finally, there are no significant moderation effects found if we look at positional mobility and positional as well as geographical mobility. A summary of the results of these analyses can be found in appendix 6: summary results moderation analyses.
We now can answer the second part of the research question: ‘in which way has internal mobility a moderating role in the relationship between lenght of employer tenure and the height of employee absenteeism?’ Internal mobility does not does play a significant moderating role in the relationship between the length of employer tenure and employee absenteeism.
Because we found no significant relationships or moderating effects, we did also moderation analyses with the mean duration of a job, on a location, both and total, because Quispel (2000) states one must look at job tenure in stead of employer tenure if one wants to make a linkage with absence. To calculate this, we divided the length of tenure by the concerning mobility moves. But this was resulting in the same conclusion, namely no acceptable significant values were found.
4.3. Conclusions
No significant results were found. Due to this result we can conclude that tenure has
no relationship with any type of absence in the context of NOVO. It does not matter in
absence if you are twenty years with NOVO or five years and is does also not matter if you
have experienced any kind of internal mobility. There are no differences in the height of the
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absence between someone who has a tenure of twenty years and was working for the same twenty years on the same location and in the same job, and someone who has a tenure of five years and who experienced twice job or location switches.
An important remark with this conclusion is that the results are not that firm as stated in the example above, because they approach significance. The prove of the existence of a relationship between tenure, absence and a moderating effect of mobility is not been provided.
But, the prove that no relationship exists between these factors is also not provided, because
they approach significance. In the context of this study the results are correct, but this does
not have to be the case in copied studies in other organizations.
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5. DISCUSSION
The results of the analyses will be discussed in the first subsection. Secondly, the control variables will be explained. Subsequently, possible biases and limitations of the research will be commented. Because we have done a post investigation, by using a combination of clarifying interview and theories, this will be discussed fourthly. Finally, recommendations on basis of the post investigation and implications for further research will be brought up.
5.1. Results
In the orienting interviews respondents indicated a relationship between length of tenure and absence, furthermore they expected internal mobility to influence this relationship.
Because of these interviews and compliance with the literature, we were surprised that this relationship was not been significantly found.
A discrepancy between the literature and our study came up, because no relationship was found with neither type of absence. The literature is quite contradictory, which might be an explanation for this result. Hackett (1990), for example, found that age but not tenure was inversely related with avoidable absenteeism. Furthermore, Breslin et al. (2008) state that short tenured employees have more chance to get work injuries and as a consequence can experience absence. These two theories are examples of some opposing theories in comparison to what we expected to find, but the result of no significant relationship does not have to mean that internal mobility cannot play a moderating role, so we analysed this to.
We expected to find a moderation effect of internal mobility, but this was not the case.
No significant effects were found at all. This was striking, because several researchers (Gupta
& Jenkins, 1991; Mitra et al., 1992) suggest that mobility opportunities can give employees an escape out of an unsatisfying work situation, which can lead to a reduction in the intention to leave the organization and to absence itself (Brett, 1982; Grusky, 1966; Pruden, 1973; Pfeffer
& Cohen, 1984). In this case, our findings are not in accordance with the literature discussed before.
Even though we did not find any significant effects, we did find some relationships
that were almost significant. But why do we find, if we analyse geographical mobility, an
almost significant moderating effect on the relationship between tenure and absence
frequency? And if we analyse total mobility moves, why do we find an almost significant
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moderating effect on the relationship between tenure and absence rate as well as total days absent?
The possible moderating effect of geographical mobility on the relationship between tenure and absence frequency can be explained by the interconnection with the absence norm, because absence frequency often reflects voluntary absence (Cooper & Payne, 1965;
Baumgartel & Sobol, 1959). This is in accordance with what we heard during the orienting interviews, were on some locations the absence norm is to loose. If we correlate absence frequency to another type of absence, we can conclude that these are not significantly correlated. This supports our statement that absence frequency can reflect another cause of absence (see appendix 7: Means, standard deviations and correlations of the dependent variables). The reason why just geographical mobility can have a possible effect is because the absence norm differs between locations/teams and not between positions within a team.
But if we do some sound reasoning we can state that on some locations the absence norm is to loose, which results in a high average absence frequency and on other locations the absence norm is very strict and the average absence frequency is very low. Single employees who are being geographical mobility cannot influence these team absence norms, but shall adapt themselves to it. Therefore the influence of geographical mobility is being balanced, which results in a non significant relationship.
The explanation of the possible moderating effect of total mobility moves on the relationship between tenure and absence rate as well as total days absent is as follows. The absence rate and total days absent are highly interconnected (correlation of .955 with p<.01), which is the reason why we find for both a possible moderating effect. But why is this effect found with total mobility moves and not with another type of mobility?
This might be explained by the cause of absence that these metrics reflect. Employees with a high absence rate or a great amount of absence days, are often really sick. They can have chronic illnesses, medical surgeries, or other explanations for their absence. Furthermore the absence rate and total days absent are highly correlated to absence duration, which often reflects involuntary absence (.851 and .909 respectively, with a p<.01) according to the literature. It is simply not fun to stay at home for a couple of months, while you are actually not ill. It pays more to call in sick now and then, and enjoy a day at home while you are actually healthy.
The reason why just total mobility has a possible effect is not known. We cannot give
a proved explanation, but we think that a balanced amount of total mobility moves can lower
the height of absence, because change seems to be good for employees according to the
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literature (Marx et al., 2009; Hallier, 2009; Lenzi, 2007; Anderson et al., 1981). Often the exact kind of change is not mentioned, so this does not seems to matter. This is in compliance with what we heard in the orienting interviews were the respondents experience change, in general, as positive.
In the orienting interviews mobility is seen as a direct influencing factor in the relationship between tenure and absenteeism. According to the result of the study, this cannot be stated in this manner, but we might explain these association by stating that mobility can accomplish a lot of positive effects like: improved productivity, knowledge transfer, improved motivation and satisfaction, positive influence on job attitudes and behaviour. We did not find any negative aspects of mobility in the literature at all. The positive effects might, if brought together, lower absence. In contrary, mobility in itself has not enough power to influence the relationship between tenure and absence.
5.2. Control variables
As stated before, we implemented control variables into the moderation analyses. We first did correlation analyses to make grounded choices for which control variables to implement. We therefore have analysed the correlations of the following possible control variables: region, type of contract (full time versus part time), gender and age. Region and type of contract do both have significant correlations with absence frequency. See appendix 4, outcomes non-parametric tests, for the results.
The significant value for type of contract means that the median of absence frequency of employees with a full time contract significantly differs compared to employees with a part time contract. We expected to find this correlation, because Caudhury and Ng (1992) state that part time employees have less scheduled working hours and therefore have enough leisure time to do non-market activities while full time employees have less leisure time to spend. Therefore full time employees are more absent, to create extra leisure time.
In addition, the correlation with region and absence was not predicted. There are no
insights of the absence frequency in the different regions, because the formula in the
personnel system is incorrect. The difference in absence rate is known and between the region
with the highest and the region with the lowest absence rate in 2008 is 2.6 percent (6.3 percent
in South-East and 3.7 percent in North). However, our sample is made upon basis of length of
tenure, so besides differences in absence frequency, no other significant differences between
region and type of absence are found.
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