THE ROLE OF DARK TRIAD TRAITS ON THE GROWTH MOTIVATIONS OF AN ENTREPRENEUR: A MULTIPLE CASE STUDY
Master Thesis, MScBA, specialization Small Business and Entrepreneurship University of Groningen, Faculty of Economics and Business
19 June 2015 CSUTORA, BALÁZS Student number: s2788179 Kornoeljestraat 2E22 9741 JB, Groningen tel.: +36-30-7691459 e-mail: csutora.b@gmail.com
First Supervisor / University:
prof. dr. P.S. Zwart / Rijksuniversiteit Groningen Co-assessor / University:
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THE ROLE OF DARK TRIAD TRAITS ON THE GROWTH MOTIVATIONS OF AN ENTREPRENEUR: A MULTIPLE CASE STUDY
ABSTRACT
This research examines the role Dark Triad (DT) traits have on the growth motivations of entrepreneurs, specifically their perceived need, ability and opportunity to grow. Findings of a qualitative approach namely a multiple case study research are showcased, by investigating data collected through questionnaires and interviews with three entrepreneurs, owners of separate Hungarian construction companies. These qualitative findings give way to the propositions that a low extent of callous affect contributes to an increased perceived need to grow, and that a strong belief in their leadership skills contribute to an entrepreneur with and increased ability to grow. However, when taken as one fundamental construct, DT traits show no influence on growth motivations. This research contributes to the new popular stream of DT research connecting it to the world of entrepreneurship, as well as opening the black box of growth motivation utilizing a previously untouched approach.
Keywords: Dark Triad (DT) traits, growth motivation, entrepreneurs
2 Table of Contents 1. Introduction ... 4 1.1 Research Question ... 6 1.2 Methodology ... 6 1.3 Chapter Introduction ... 7 2. Theoretical Framework ... 8 2.1 Growth Motivation ... 8
2.1.1 Antecedents of Growth Motivation ... 8
2.1.2 Outcomes of Growth Motivation ... 9
2.1.3 Determinants of Growth Motivation ... 10
2.1.4 Definition Applied ... 11
2.2 The Dark Triad Traits ... 11
2.2.3 Narcissism ... 11
2.2.2 Machiavellianism ... 12
2.2.3 Psychopathy ... 12
2.2.4 Facets of Dark Triad in Measurement ... 13
2.3 Dark Triad and Growth Motivation ... 15
3. Research Design ... 18 3.1 Case Selection ... 18 3.2 Case Descriptions ... 19 3.2.1 Ép Platz Kft ... 19 3.2.2 Bordás Bútoripari Kft ... 19 3.2.3 Hunnia Farm Kft ... 20 3.3 Data Sources ... 20 3.3.1 Questionnaires ... 20 3.3.2 Semi-structured interviews ... 21 3.3.3 Secondary Data ... 22 3.4 Data Analysis ... 22
3.5 Controllability, reliability and validity ... 23
4. Results ... 25
4.1 Case of Ép Platz Kft ... 25
4.2 Case of Bordás Bútoripari Kft ... 29
4.3 Case of Hunnia Farm Kft ... 33
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4.4.1 DT traits and growth motivation ... 40
5. Discussion ... 42
5.1 Theoretical and Managerial Implications ... 43
5.2 Limitations and Future Research ... 44
References ... 46
Appendices ... 55
Appendix A: Case Study Protocol ... 55
Appendix B: SD3 Questionnaire ... 57
Appendix C: Interview Protocol ... 58
Appendix D: Transcript of Interview Case 1 ... 59
Appendix E: Transcript of Interview Case 2 ... 63
Appendix F: Transcript of Interview Case 3 ... 68
Appendix G: Quotes derived from interviews for growth motivation ... 74
Appendix H: Document Summary Form Template ... 75
List of Tables 1. Table: SD3 Constructs ... 14
2. Table: Case 1 - SD3 Scores ... 26
3. Table: Case 1 Interview Results - Narcissism ... 27
4. Table: Case 1 Interview Results – Machiavellianism ... 28
5. Table: Case 1 Interview Results – Psychopathy ... 29
6. Table: Case 2 - SD3 Scores ... 30
7. Table: Case 2 Interview Results – Narcissism ... 31
8. Table: Case 2 Interview Results – Machiavellianism ... 32
9. Table: Case 2 Interview Results – Psychopathy ... 33
10. Table: Case 3 - SD3 Scores ... 34
11. Table: Case 3 Interview Results – Narcissism ... 35
12. Table: Case 3 Interview Results – Machiavellianism ... 36
13. Table: Case 3 Interview Results – Psychopathy ... 37
14. Table: Cross Case SD3 Scores ... 38
15. Table: Cross Case - Interview Results ... 39
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1. Introduction
Entrepreneurship holds a special significance in today’s dynamic world, as it benefits economic development, contributes to enhanced GDP levels and creates employment opportunities (Schumpeter 1934; Wennekers and Thurik 1999; Baumol 2002; Van Stel et al. 2005). Entrepreneurs are widely recognized for their creative and innovative ways to transform and progress markets, revitalizing economies across the globe (Acs & Szerb, 2007; Audretsch, 2007; Kirzner, 2009). Most of the significant inventions throughout history would have been impossible to be conceived without successful entrepreneurs. Seeing the multitude of beneficial outcomes it creates, both policy makers and academics have been encouraging in the promotion of entrepreneurship (Orhan and Scott, 2001). Growth is one of the most widely viewed indicators of successful entrepreneurial efforts (Venkataraman, 1997) but while previous research placed much focus on the growth of small firms (Davidsson et al., 1994; Kirchhoff, 1994; Reynolds & White, 1997), most firms start small and remain small (Birch, 1987; Kolvereid, 1992). Various theories and academic research tend to take growth aspirations for granted, deeming growth as a naturally occurring phenomenon (Kolvereid, 1992). On the contrary, many small business owners show reluctance to pursue growth or expand their business (Davidsson, 1989; Delmar, 1996; Gundry & Welsch, 2001; Storey, 1994). Since the decision to start a firm is that of the entrepreneur, it is only natural to assume that the decision to grow the business also belongs to them (Ginn & Sexton, 1989).
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Wiklund, 2008). Naturally, the research in this area is highly dominated by personal characteristics and factors that can influence the ambitions of individuals. Among other things, growth motivation has been positively linked to achievement motivation (Kolvereid, 1992), to a means to challenge one-self, earn a higher income, and establish a legacy (Stephan et al., 2014). While research about possible outcomes, determinants and antecedents for growth motivation is not lacking, I propose another stream of theory.
With such a heavy emphasis placed on the behavior, intentions and motivations of the individual entrepreneur which all contribute to assessing their subsequent growth motivation, darker personality traits remain an untouched area in relation. While recent studies have investigated and identified more negative traits in the work place (O`Boyle et al. 2012; Spain et al. 2013;), the literature connecting these darker characteristics to entrepreneurs remains quite lackadaisical with the exception of much older works (Miller, 2014). A few negatively labeled behavioral traits such as psychiatric symptoms (Verheul et. al, 2015), subclinical psychopathy (Akhtar et al., 2013) or negative extremes (Miller, 2014) have been investigated, but the most promising new research stream, derived from psychological research, utilizes the concept of Dark Triad of Personality (DT) – encompassing of narcissism, psychopathy and Machiavellianism (Paulhus & Williams, 2002). These traits have been regarded as detrimental and unbeneficial to individuals, and have been linked with a variety of negative characteristics such as aggressiveness (Jones & Paulhus, 2010) or dishonesty (Lee & Ashton, 2005). However when correlated with entrepreneurship, specifically new venture creation, entrepreneurs with high DT propensities have seen success (Kramer et al, 2011; Hmeileski & Lerner, 2013). Individuals possessing a high level of DT characteristics are argued to have a high need for triumph and achievement, an extreme amount of self-glorification and grandiosity, and are driven by financial success and a thrill-seeking behavior (Morf & Rhodewalt, 2001; Jones & Paulhus, 2010; Jonason et al., 2009). These traits show a keen resemblance with previously identified determinants of growth motivation – such as needs for achievement, legacy, high income or a challenge. Although DT traits have only been investigated in relation to venture creation, I propose that there is a possibility for theory building regarding the link between an entrepreneur’s DT levels and their subsequent growth motivation.
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entrepreneurship. By doing so it aims to add insight into the developing theory stream of dark entrepreneurial traits, a promising new area of research. Second, my study seeks to possibly provide a clearer understanding on the conflicting nature of DT seen as unbeneficial traits in an individual (Jones & Paulhus, 2010; Lee & Ashton, 2005) or productive in different circumstances (Kramer et al., 2011, Hmeileski & Lerner, 2013). Third, it aims to contribute to the area of growth motivation, by investigating a new breed of possible antecedents. While growth motivation has been researched quite extensively, this take on the individual’s possible motives articulates a completely untouched area of research.
The managerial implications of this paper hope to provide a tool to entrepreneurs and business leaders in understanding their own motives better. To grow or not grow is always a hard decision to be made by the entrepreneur, and while achieving the full growth potential of their respective firms is an important goal, the choice might not always be clear-cut. Perhaps understanding their true motives behind their orientation towards their personal growth motivation can shed a new perspective to be applied.
1.1 Research Question
This research focuses on opening the black box of growth motivation, and potentially investigating whether DT traits have links or perhaps even relationships with the phenomenon. Thus the research question central to this paper is:
“How do Dark Triad traits of an entrepreneur play a role on their growth motivation?” In order to deepen the main research questions, sub-question are also put forward. These include:
Which Dark Triad traits have impact on the entrepreneur’s growth motivation?
What is the role of the level of Dark Triad traits on growth motivation?
What influence do the Dark Triad traits have on the different dimensions of growth motivation?
1.2 Methodology
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1994). As Hakim (2000) notes, qualitative research is very useful to investigate an individual’s own perception of their attitudes and motivations. It offers a detailed depiction of the person’s feelings, views and behavior and connects them with attitudes by analyzing the underlying motivations. While growth motivations have been researched in the past, there is no consensus as to exactly which dimensions the concept specifically entails reputing quantitative research. Similarly, the recent advancements in DT literature have seen measurement tools criticized of either being too long and involving too many factors (Jones & Paulhus, 2014; Jonason & Webster, 2010) or being too short with not enough variables (Lee et al., 2013; Miller et al., 2012). The general newness of DT research and the dearth of studies connecting them to entrepreneurship further warrant qualitative methods.
This research utilizes a multiple-case study research which is advantageous because it creates novel and testable theory, and is most applicable as it is best used in the early stages of research on a specific topic or to provide a fresh new perspective to already researched areas (Esienhardt, 1989). This case study collects data in the form of questionnaires, semi-structured interviews and other documents from three different entrepreneurs of Hungarian construction companies1.
1.3 Chapter Introduction
This research paper begins by examining the theoretical framework behind the study. In the first chapter, the theoretical background is presented for both growth motivation and the DT traits in the form of a literature review. It is then followed by the research design, explaining how the study is kept controllable, valid and reliable as well as introducing the data collection and analysis methods applied. The next section depicts the results, first within cases, then across cases. Lastly, discussion and conclusions follow interpreting the results and giving suggestions for future research as well as explaining the limitation of the research.
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2. Theoretical Framework
In order to investigate potential connections between growth motivation and DT traits, a detailed understanding of these concepts first needs to be established. The following literature review gives thorough explanation on the theoretically relevant concepts discussed in this study. First the definitions and background of growth motivation and DT traits are explained and last their interaction and potential relationship is discussed.
2.1 Growth Motivation
While growth is an important factor for any entrepreneurial firm, not all entrepreneurs start and guide their businesses with the aspirations to grow (Henrekson, 2005). One of the reasons for this difference in goals and direction is the motivation of the business owner (Wiklund & Shepherd, 2003). For an entrepreneurial firm to actually realize growth, in most cases one of the necessary factors is for the entrepreneur to possess growth motivation (Stam et al., 2007). This concept is defined by Davidsson (1989) as the perceived ability, opportunity and need for growth. It is important to note, that while actual growth can be influenced by a lot of independent factors, the motivational aspect behind the concept lies in the individual’s own perceptions (Stam et al., 2007). In the extant literature, a few other labels exist for this phenomenon. Kolvereid & Bullvag (1996) refer to it as growth orientation, it has been called as growth aspiration (Wiklund & Shepherd, 2003) and Wiklund et al (2003) speak of attitude towards growth. While these differ in words used, they refer to the same occurrence (Delmar & Wiklund, 2008). Put in more practical terms, growth motivation affects the individual’s choice to enlarge their business, their commitment to this choice over time and the level of effort they are willing to put forth (Ajzen, 1991; Delmar & Wiklund, 2008).
2.1.1 Antecedents of Growth Motivation
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intrinsically sought out and rewarding driving goal (Davidsson, 1989). Another theory that has been related to growth motivation is the Expectancy Theory (Vroom, 1964). The underlying logic of this theory is that people act a certain way based on their expectations that said act will lead to certain outcomes, and how those outcomes relate to their goals. Thus, the propensity to act with growth as a goal can be described as the sum of the expected outcomes of growth to the individual (Davidsson, 1989). Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory (1966) has also been linked to growth motivation. Using the logic of this theory, it is argued that certain factors may bring forth motivation towards growth if that is expected to lead to a positive change, but negative expectations of the same factor may have close to zero influence on the actual motivation. This works conversely also, as some factors expected to bring positive changes maybe not have any influence, but negative expectations associated with said factor can easily decrease the individual’s motivation (Davidsson, 1989). Another approach, the Achievement Motivation Theory (McClelland, 1961) suggests that individuals with a high need for achievement require achievement satisfaction via seeing success through challenging tasks. Hence, individuals with a high inner drive for achievements will see an elevated growth motivation (Davidsson, 1989). Lastly, the Theory of Planned Behavior (Ajzen, 1977) has been used to prescribe growth motivation. This theory argues there are three factors influencing the intentions of a person: their perceived behavioral control, social norm and their attitude towards the action (Ajzen, 1977). In relation to growth motivation, behavioral control denotes the confidence of the individual in their ability to successfully carry out growth, and social norms signify the social relevance perceived by the person (Autere & Autio; 2000).
2.1.2 Outcomes of Growth Motivation
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industry characteristics and the level of dynamism of the environment (Wiklund & Shepherd, 2003; Davidsson, 1989; Wiklund, 1998). Furthermore, this relationship is also heavily influenced by the availability of resources and opportunities the entrepreneur has access to (Stam et al., 2007).
2.1.3 Determinants of Growth Motivation
Numerous efforts have been made to study what factors actually influence the growth motivation of the individual. Different outcomes such as resulting employee satisfaction, effected personal control of the firm and the changing freedom of the entrepreneur have been identified as impactful aspects (Davidsson, 1989). One of the polarizing influential factors is improved financial gain as some found no association with increased growth motivation ( Davidsson, 1989) while others deemed it as something that increases it (Stephan et al., 2014). Previous growth experience has been found to encourage growth motivation as it elevates the positive expectations regarding subsequent growth outcomes and gives the individual belief in their control and ability to successfully grow (Davidsson, 1989; Davidsson, 1992; Kolvereid, 1992). Proving the logic behind some of the motivational theories discussed before, positive anticipated outcomes and the perceived feasibility of growth (Arenius, 1999; Orser et al., 1998) have also been shown to positively affect growth motivation. Individual characteristics of the entrepreneur have shown to influence their growth motivation (Davidsson, 1989), with risk taking propensity (Cassar, 2007) or need for achievement (Lau & Busenitz, 2001) serving as example. A more recent study by (Stephan et al., 2014) has found that individual growth expectations were driven by three other factors – pursuing and accomplishing a challenge, building a successful family business and legacy, and improved financial success.
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In summary, there are many different understandings of growth motivation. As explained, growth motivation has been referred to as growth orientation (Kolvereid & Bullvag, 1996), as growth aspirations (Wiklund & Shepherd, 2003) and attitude towards growth (Wiklund et al., 2003). Similarly, numerous motivational theories have also been related to this concept, such as Expectancy Theory (Vroom, 1964) or Achievement Motivation Theory (1961) for example. As growth motivation is mainly a product of the person’s own underlying motives and behavior (Stam et al., 2008), the definition that best depicts this phenomenon is Davidsson’s (1989) description, which consists of the person’s perceived need to grow, perceived ability to grow and perceived opportunity to grow. In the later chapters of this research, this definition of growth motivation is applied.
2.2 The Dark Triad Traits
One of the most popular modern research streams focuses on three dark personality traits collectively called the Dark Triad (DT) (Spain et al., 2014). Conventionally, the DT is composed of three independent traits with some overlay (Paulhus & Williams, 2002). These three concepts are narcissism, Machiavellianism and psychopathy (Paulhus & Williams, 2002). However, the latest theoretical stream of research has deemed enough confirmation to treat them as different measures of the same fundamental construct (Jonason & Webster, 2010). DT traits have been regarded with heavy negative connotation, deeming them unattractive and interpersonally problematic (Kramer et al, 2011), maladaptive (Kowalski, 2001) and have been linked to detrimental societal results (Andershed et al., 2002; Morf & Rhodewalt, 2001). People with a high combination of DT characteristics radiate a selfish and coldblooded personality (O`Boyle et al., 2012) with motives toward self-elevation at the expense of others (Spain et al., 2014; Paulhus & Williams, 2002).
2.2.3 Narcissism
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element of them all (Miller & Campbell, 2008). Grandiosity drives narcissistic people on an ever-lasting pursuit of ego-reinforcement (Morf & Rhodewalt, 2001) manifesting in their need for admiration, control, attention and triumph (Kernberg, 1989; Morf & Rhodewalt, 2001; House & Howell, 1992; Raskin & Hall, 1979). Narcissism in an individual also tends to originate dominance, supremacy and often and exploitative behavior (Lee & Ashton, 2005). The perception of a narcissistic person often comes across as arrogant or aggressive (Buffardi & Campbell, 2008) as they have a tendency to exaggerate their accomplishments accompanied by a lack of willingness to compromise and the rebuttal of criticism (Campbell, 1999; Resick et al., 2009). A person high in narcissism also shows tendencies to inflate their abilities and competences (Paulhus & Williams, 2002).
2.2.2 Machiavellianism
The concept of Machiavellianism was developed by Christie & Geis (1970) basing their concept on the principles of Machiavelli’s work. They collected statements from his books and by demonstrating the differences of respondents’ agreement with them, drew up a personality measure (O’Boyle et al., 2012). A Machiavellian personality is regarded as emotionless and manipulative (Christie & Geis, 1970; Paulhus & Williams, 2002). Machiavellian people are characterized by their affirmed belief in their own manipulative skills, their cynical perspective of the human behavior, and their tendency to value practicality and convenience over moral principles (O’Boyle et al., 2012). A person high in Machiavellianism is more likely to carry out ethically questionable acts (Kish-Gephart et al., 2010), is driven by deception (Jakobwitz & Egan, 2006), control, competition and money (Jones & Paulhus, 2010), shows a low level of empathy and a cold approach to others (Hunter et al., 1982). They are more likely to exploit others, cheat and lie (Jones & Paulhus, 2010) as a result of being only concerned about their own personal needs (Wu & LeBreton, 2011). Machiavellianism also enhances a person’s need to maintain the reputation through strategically planning, building alliances and refraining from possible acts that can harm their image (Jones & Paulhus, 2011).
2.2.3 Psychopathy
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problematic interpersonal and behavioral characteristics (Cooke et al., 2006), yet it is often viewed as charismatic, charming and intelligent – making for a good first impression (McCormick & Burch, 2005; Hare, 1999; O’Boyle et al., 2012). Psychopathy centers around two key concepts, a lack of concern of affect and self-control (Jones & Paulhus, 2014) The most prominent traits of a psychopathic personality are that of high impulsivity, a thrill-seeking tendency, low empathy and lack of anxiety or fear (Babiak & Hare, 2006; Skeem et al., 2011; Jonason et al., 2009). Psychopaths have an inordinate sense of self-worth and superiority as well as a propensity for self-glorification (LeBreton et al., 2006; Hare, 1999; Lynam & Widiger, 2007). They feel attraction to authority, control and prestige (Hercz, 2001; Deutschman, 2005), hardly experience guilt, stress or embarrassment (Cleckley, 1976), are callous, cold and unwilling to show infatuation to other people (Lilienfeld & Widows, 2005). 2.2.4 Facets of Dark Triad in Measurement
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psychopathy based on literature review and statistical testing when compared to the traditional individual measurements of Mach-IV, SRP-III and NPI (Furnham et al., 2013). Their determinants tap the areas of grandiosity and egocentricity for narcissism, manipulation tactics and cynical view for Machiavellianism, and impulsivity, callous manipulation and antisocial manners for psychopathy (Jones & Paulhus, 2014), resulting in a 27-item scale2. The table below illustrates the facets developed for each construct.
1. Table: SD3 Constructs
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15 2.3 Dark Triad and Growth Motivation
As discussed before, the individual’s motivation to grow is controlled by their own perceptions (Stam et al., 2007). Furthermore, the individual characteristics of the entrepreneur have been shown to influence their growth motivation (Daviddson, 1989; Delmar, 1996; Wiklund, 1998). While there have been efforts to study what traits contribute to a higher growth motivation, the DT aspects remain to be completely untouched. What follows is the explanation of potential linkages I suggest between DT traits and growth motivation. The pillars of growth motivation are based on Davidsson’s (1989) definition of the concept: perceived ability, perceived need, perceived opportunity and the 4 different motivational theories discussed in the previous sections.
Perceived Ability to Grow
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Based on the theoretical logic above I foresee the potential to identify links between a person’s perceived ability to grow and the believed confidence and grander skills that higher extents of DT traits innately provide.
Perceived Need to Grow
DT traits also contribute to high levels of need for achievement, need for applause and acknowledgement, (Wallace & Baumeister, 2002; De Paulo, 2010; Yang & Raine, 2008), being driven by financial gain (Jones & Paulhus, 2010) and impulsivity leading to higher risk taking propensities (Babiak & Hare, 2006; Skeem et al., 2011; Jonason et al., 2009). Individuals with high DT traits are not satisfied with status quos but favor the challenging and bold actions to move forward (Wallace & Baumeister, 2002; Chatterjee & Hambrick, 2007). These qualities make it unlikely for a person high in DT qualities to simply stand idle and not have growing aspirations regarding their business. In fact, traits such as need for achievement and risk taking propensity have already been shown to have a positive relationship with growth motivation (Lau & Busenitz, 2001; Cassar, 2007; Bager & Schott, 2004). Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory gives further base for this linkage because the aforementioned DT characteristics can influence the person to be intrinsically motivated to pursue growth instead of staying idle which would not satisfy their wants and conflict with their innate higher level needs. Furthermore, these DT characteristics can be linked to the Achievement Motivation Theory as well which specifies a higher growth motivation when linked with the high achievement satisfaction of the individual.
Therefore I argue that the perceived need for growth in an individual has ample ammunition to derive from the aspiring and dynamic direction of DT traits, making for potential linkages to possibly identify.
Perceived Opportunity to Grow
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undertaking actions that are seen as unbeneficial or not feasible by others (Shapira, 1995; Sanders, 2001; Chatterjee & Hambrick, 2007). Furthermore, a leader with highly positive self-assessment is argued to discover and exploit opportunities easier (Bass & Stogdill, 1990; Keegan, 1987). As discussed before, the self-assessment resulting from high DT traits is that of extreme entitlement, superiority and grandiosity – a very positive one. DT traits have additionally been associated with faster decisions making - due to impulsivity and confidence (Jones & Paulhus, 2010; Dickman, 1985) - which creates an advantage in situations with much uncertainty, where opportunities are likely to appear (Busenitz & Barney, 1997). This creates potential advantages for individuals high on DT traits, which could likely influence their perceived opportunities to grow. Lastly, DT traits include social influence tactics, such as manipulation, charm, seduction or hardball (Jonason & Webster, 2012), which are beneficial in negotiation scenarios (Jonason et al., 2012), in the creation of networks (Markman et al, 2000; Barringer & Greening, 1998) or obtaining favorable conditions from clients (O’Boyle et al., 2012) – all contributing to more opportunities to grow.
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3. Research Design
This paper utilizes a theory refinement approach to explore the previously stated research question. As described, qualitative research allows for a more thorough understanding of phenomena in the natural context, with the potential of theory building and identifying possible relationships (Miles & Huberman, 1994). Furthermore, qualitative research allows the investigators to delve deeper into the nuances of the particular area, resulting in deeper and more detailed information (Currall & Towler, 2003), and is especially useful to investigate individual perceptions and motives (Hakim, 2000). The qualitative research method this paper uses is that of case-study research. Case study research refers to a tool used to understand the dynamics which manifest within a single setting (Eisenhardt, 1989). It facilitates the investigation of a particular phenomenon inside its own context and thus it provides the possibility of creating novel and testable theory (Benbasat et al., 1987; Eiesenhardt, 1989). Furthermore, case studies allow for multiple levels of analysis (Yin, 2003) and combined data collection methods (Eisenhardt, 1989). They are very advantageous when used in early stages of researching a particular concept (Eisenhardt, 1989).
While there are different types of case study research, this paper utilizes a multiple-case study approach. Multiple cases enable the researcher to acquire even deeper insights of the underlying dynamics and outcomes within the case, as well as a thorough understanding of causalities present in their context (Miles & Huberman, 1994). Additionally, this approach allows for the exploration of differences within and between the particular cases in order to potentially replicate findings across them (Baxter & Jack, 2008). With the adoption of ‘soft-positivism’ the data analysis of such case study research is aided with the possibility of drawing expectations based on prior theory and literature (Madill & Jordan, 2000). Consequently, this allows for some unexpected results, the prediction of similarities across cases or contradictions based on theories constituting in overall reliable and robust evidence (Yin, 2003). To increase the reliability of this research, a case study protocol is designed based on Yin (2003) which is in accordance to the ‘soft-positivism’ research approach. This paper investigates three cases which will be described in the following sections.
3.1 Case Selection
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characteristics, the previous level of education and previous experience of the entrepreneur, and the size and age of the business moderate growth motivation (Wiklund & Shepherd, 2003; Davidsson, 1989; Delmar, 1996; Wiklund, 1998) – these were kept constant. All three companies are between 4-6 years old, within the construction industry. The previous education of all three entrepreneurs is that of a high-school diploma, they all have around 20 years of working experience and their companies have between 20-25 employees. All three cases are companies whose entrepreneurs described themselves to have a high growth motivation.
3.2 Case Descriptions 3.2.1 Ép Platz Kft
Ép Platz is a Hungarian construction company established in 2008 and has 22 employees. The company’s profile includes designing the exterior environment of houses and to a lesser degree the interior as well. Its owner has worked in this industry for 15 years and his company delivers upon project requests of individual customers as well as any that come from ties to municipalities mainly in two smaller cities located close to the capital, Budapest.
Their owner describes he has a high growth motivation:
“I established this company to be financially independent and provide for my children. I have a high motivation to grow at this stage because I believe the market is set up with many possible opportunities, we have done many projects recently … I believe my company has the necessary tools to aim higher and increase its profile”.
3.2.2 Bordás Bútoripari Kft
Bordás Bútoripari is a Hungarian company, having stepped into the construction market in 2011 and has 24 employees. The main profile of the firm is interior design, where they construct the interior of construction sights, and occasionally they also part-take in outside building. Its owner is an entrepreneur whose previous company mostly worked with the creation of separate furniture which forms most of his previous experience. His company deals with individual customers, designing the holistic interior structure upon request.
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“Around 2011 many of the big players in the market fell out. To this day it’s an even race. Lots of opportunities you can take. I want to be more successful and make more money – the possibilities are there … I believe you have to constantly develop and improve in this market to maintain advantages.”
3.2.3 Hunnia Farm Kft
Hunnia Farm is a Hungarian company, whose profile focuses around the construction of exterior and interior of construction sites and houses. Their owner is an entrepreneur, having brought the new concept of aqua design into the houses as well. The company has 15 employees and has been established in 2009. The owner has worked in the construction industry for 16 years and his company works with individual customers in multiple cities. The owner’s thoughts about his high growth motivation:
“We have found a really nice niche for ourselves. But I believe to be more successful you have to put in the work. I want my company to develop more projects but for this we need to grow in numbers … I don’t want the company to stagnate, I want to keep going … to provide better conditions for my family.”
3.3 Data Sources
The unit of analysis in the context of this research is that of individual entrepreneurs. Multiple sources of evidence are collected to account for construct validity by employing triangulation (Yin, 2003). The data sources used are questionnaires, semi-structured interviews and secondary data in the form of personal background profiles.
3.3.1 Questionnaires
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utilizing a 5-point Likert scale. Their measure reported a .68, .77 and .81 convergent correlation with the traditional measures of DT (NPI, Mach-IV, SRP-III).
In order to assess the growth motivation on an individual, typical measurements include measuring whether a 25% increase in the number of employees in 5 years would be regarded as positive or negative, the ideal number of employees in 5 years time, or the ideal number of sales in 5 years time. The most common measurement however, is measuring whether a 100% increase in the number of employees is regarded as positive or negative (Wiklund et al., 2003; Wiklund & Shepherd, 2003; Delmar & Wiklund, 2008). (I.e.: How do you regard a 100% increase in the number of employees in your company in 5 years time?) Using Wiklund et al., (2003) method, the respondent is then asked to rate how they feel about the outcome with a 7 point Likert scale (somewhat – strongly negative/positive). This question is asked to provide an initial gauge of the individual’s strength of growth motivation.
3.3.2 Semi-structured interviews
The semi-structured interviews were conducted separately with all three entrepreneurs. The entrepreneurs were all owners of entrepreneurial companies in the construction industry. The interviewees were carefully selected to account for moderating factors on growth motivation. After the initial gauging with questionnaires, these semi-structured interviews followed. These forms of interviews arrange for a stable framework with the possibility for further probing and flexibility, were unexpected outcomes can arise (Cooper & Schindler, 2008) and they enable researchers to focus on the area of study directly within the case (Yin, 2003). The interviews used open ended questions to fully grasp the perceptions of the respondents and leave room for on the fly improvisation. An interview protocol was designed to account for the reliability of validity of the research3. Questions were based on a priori theoretical research. Specifically, questions about DT traits were based on the constructs of Jones & Paulhus (2014), and questions about growth motivation were based on the pillars defined by Davidsson (1989) – namely perceived ability to grow, perceived need to grow and perceived opportunity to grow.
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The interview protocol was refined along the process providing opportunity to include questions that appeared rewarding during the interview. While a priori constructs were integrated, the purpose of the interview remained to focus on the entrepreneur’s own perceptions regarding what are important aspects, therefore limiting the reliance on previous theory. Each interview, conducted through Skype, lasted roughly 30 minutes to 1 hour and was recorded, following which transcripts were developed and later translated into English. The introduced ‘friendly stranger’ (described in later chapters) was conducted multiple times along the process, during both the theoretical design and subsequent analysis.
3.3.3 Secondary Data
Secondary data sources include the profile of the entrepreneur – with regards to information about their company’s age, size, their previous experience and their educational background. This information is collected to account for any deviances in the profiles of the entrepreneurs and for better context. Moreover, these documents were transcribed into a document summary form, to explain their relevance and context and provide a short summary (Miles & Huberman, 1994).
3.4 Data Analysis
The first step of analysis begun with setting up initial theory based codes with the possibility of adding or dropping any of them and their refinement (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). The main tool this research uses for analysis is thematic analysis. Braun and Clarke (2006) define 6 phases to this method which allow for a thorough identification, analysis and reporting of patterns in a qualitative data set to enhance internal validity. Due to their nature, case studies cannot provide statistically generalizable conclusions (Yin, 2003), but that in itself is not the goal of this research. The aim of this study is to deliver interesting insight into the research topic through analytical generalization and to possibly formulate propositions based on the potential links identified for future development.
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engulfed the grouping of codes into central themes and subthemes with the help of mind-maps. These themes were refined to account for internal homogeneity and external heterogeneity (Patton, 1990) by reviewing the coded data itself simultaneously with the overall data set (Braun & Clarke, 2006). Another reviewing of data is called for in the next step of the analysis in order to assure that no important aspects are missed. The main themes identified were Dark Triad traits and growth motivation, with respective sub-themes introduced in the results section of this paper. After the first case was analyzed, the analysis moved on to the second case and after that the third case. This was done to utilize sequential analysis which creates augmentation and theoretical replication (Yin, 2003). Lastly, the cross case analysis followed to investigate for more robustness.
3.5 Controllability, reliability and validity
For a research to be reliable and valid, controllability is of high importance (van Aken et al., 2012). Controllability is accounted for regarding this research by providing a detailed description of the methodology. This way there is a framework to follow allowing for objective transparency.
Regarding the validity of the research, construct, external and internal validity play a key role (van Aken et al., 2012). Construct validity is ensured by obtaining the concepts through previous literature research, guaranteeing a thorough theoretical backing. Additionally, construct validly is further strengthened by using multiple sources of evidence during data collection, the constant refinement of constructs during the process, and by outsider reviewing of the case study report draft (Yin, 2003). The internal validity is accounted for by using a systematic analysis – thematic analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2006). Furthermore, using the replication logic during the multiple case analysis ensures external validity and allows for some generalizability of interesting insight and detailed information (Yin, 2003).
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4. Results
The theoretical constructs form the basis of the results of this case study, by being linked to the responses of the investigated interviewees. First, a within-case analysis is described for each entrepreneur, which is followed by a cross case analysis for the exploration of potential replication (Yin, 2003). Quotes are presented to showcase effective evidence – not all quotes are presented but those ones that embody vivid evidence (Braun & Clarke, 2006). The evolved themes are DT traits and growth motivation. Growth motivation was assessed with a questionnaire as well as based on the dimensions of Davidsson (1989) during the interviews. DT traits include sub-themes based on my interpretes level (high, moderate or low) of each pillar used to measure the constructs (Jones & Paulhus, 2014). The ‘friendly stranger’ (Miles & Huberman, 1994) was conducted for a second set of perspective, to further validate the interpreted scores. The results of the overarching questionnaires measuring DT traits are included as well.
4.1 Case of Ép Platz Kft
The owner of Ép Platz rated with a high growth motivation, labeling the proposed 100% increase in employee numbers in 5 years as strongly positive (6). His main reason to grow was described: “To be financially independent and provide for my children.” Going after personal achievement was not amongst his reasons for wanting to grow, and throughout the interview he mentioned several times the benefits growing offers to persons other than him: “…when my company develops, it will affect unemployment and the whole society”.
The SD3 questionnaire depicts the owner of Ép Platz to have moderate levels of narcissism, Machiavellianism and psychopathy, rating with a total of 10 (out of maximum 15, mean: 8.3 out of 15 – Jones & Paulhus, 2014). The table below summarizes the average scores he rated for each construct question together with the number of questions devoted to each sub-construct.4
26 2. Table: Case 1 - SD3 Scores
The owner of Ép Platz Kft rated higher in each of narcissism, Machiavellianism and psychopathy than the mean scores identified by Jones & Paulhus (2014). His score on narcissism is 3.3 while the mean score is 2.8. On Machiavellianism he scored 3.7 with the mean being 3.1. Lastly, on psychopathy he scored 3.0 and the mean is 2.4. While these scores do not result in a person high on DT traits, the entrepreneur in case 1 can be considered to have a moderate level of narcissism, Machiavellianism and psychopathy. Based on SD3 results, the highest sub-constructs rated are entitlement (narcissism), cynical view and reputation (Machiavellianism) and short-term manipulation (psychopathy). The lowest sub-constructs rated are exhibitionism (narcissism) and callous affect (psychopathy). This showcases a person that feels a right for personal entitlement, has a cynical view of other people, regards a strong reputation and short-term manipulation as important aspects, but does not favor personal exhibitionism and shies away from causing callous affect to others.
27 3. Table: Case 1 Interview Results - Narcissism
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is valued and deemed to be an important concept, and the entrepreneur regards himself as a good leader, to whom honesty is a priority – rewarding a high score.
4. Table: Case 1 Interview Results – Machiavellianism
29 5. Table: Case 1 Interview Results – Psychopathy
The extent of psychopathy remains low. This owner refrains from erratic changes and lifestyle and gives strong negative opinions against anti-social behavior – both meriting a low score. He does deem his goals as priority, but they should never come at the expense of the welfare of others. Consequently, a callous affect is not something that is present, warranting of a low score. Similarly, in short-term interaction he sees the importance of trying to manipulate the situation to his own benefits but also recognizes that often that can come at a negative outcome – resulting in a moderate score.
4.2 Case of Bordás Bútoripari Kft
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from inner motivation and the present opportunities: “I want to be more successful and make money, the possibilities are there”. He deems it only natural for him to be aspiring to grow - “It is who I am… I walk forward”. In fact, the interview responses numerous times showcased how he believes it to be an exploitable opportunity to get ahead, something that reflects your goals and aspirations.
He rated high on the SD3 questionnaire with a total of 11.9 out of the maximum 15 on the dimensions of DT. Accounting for the mean results of 8.3, this figure is regarded as high. The table below summarizes the individual average scores for the sub-constructs as well.
6. Table: Case 2 - SD3 Scores
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The results of the overall impression during the interview and the specifically placed questions follow below. The scores attributed to each construct are given by my personal interpretation to further examine the different dimensions of DT traits. Diving into specifics, he demonstrated moderate to high manifestations of the constructs of narcissism, Machiavellianism and psychopathy. The table below summarizes the extents.
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While the entrepreneur is not one who thinks he is entitled to praise, as he recognizes he needs to work for it, he does seek exhibitionism in his life, mostly in the form of exposure. He also views any lack of attention or praise towards him as a fault of others. He only possesses a moderate level of grandiosity, not depicting himself as any superior but acknowledging there are skills which make him stand out. Leadership is valued highly by him – something he actively seeks and wants in the form of control, and he regards himself as a natural leader. 8. Table: Case 2 Interview Results – Machiavellianism
33 9. Table: Case 2 Interview Results – Psychopathy
The low levels of psychopathy show avoidance of an erratic lifestyle and anti-social behavior, as both can bring forth negative consequences. The level of a callous affect remains low, since even though this entrepreneur is not afraid to cause negative effects upon others in order to achieve his own goals, he did specifically mention he does not want to harm others. In short-term manipulation however, achieving personal benefits remains to be the goal of top priority, resulting in a high score.
4.3 Case of Hunnia Farm Kft
The owner of Hunnia Farm rated with a high growth motivation, viewing a 100% increase in the number of employees as strongly positive (6). His main reason to grow is to provide better arrangements for his family. “I don’t want the company to stagnate, I want to keep growing”. He explains having had realized that in order to achieve better outcomes, he needs to grow. However, personal benefits do not equate to his aspirations: “I stopped thinking of me as an individual”, “you yourself stay as second or third priority”.
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mentioning it across different dimensions of DT traits, as well as mutual benefits in relationships (“People should be the focus … need mutual benefits”).
10. Table: Case 3 - SD3 Scores
The owner of Hunnia Farm Kft has scored right around the mean on all of narcissism, Machiavellianism and psychopathy. His narcissism score is 2.7 with the mean being 2.8 for that construct. He scored 3.1 on Machiavellianism which is the same as the mean for that. He scored 2.7 on psychopathy while the mean is 2.4. These scores are right on the mean of the SD3 scores, depicting a person low on DT traits. The highest scores within the sub-constructs arrived for entitlement (narcissism) and short-term manipulation (psychopathy) and the lowest were assigned leadership, grandiosity (narcissism) and erratic lifestyle (psychopathy). This depicts the entrepreneur to feel entitled and regard short term manipulation techniques to be important. At the same time, an erratic lifestyle and leadership are not something attractive to this person and he does not feel himself as superior or grandiose.
35 11. Table: Case 3 Interview Results – Narcissism
36 12. Table: Case 3 Interview Results – Machiavellianism
37 13. Table: Case 3 Interview Results – Psychopathy
The low levels of psychopathy of the owner depict him as a person not driven by erratic lifestyles, who regards anti-social behavior and manipulation as a negative concept and is very much against callous affect to others. The scores are low of each construct of psychopathy.
4.4 Cross Case Analysis
The purpose of this research is not only to assess the levels of the 3 DT traits by the 3 entrepreneurs, but also to look at their potential effect on their growth motivation. Some general comments are made about both concepts in a cross case setting. This cross case analysis helps linking the underlying theoretical factors to both DT traits and growth motivation.
38 14. Table: Cross Case SD3 Scores
The constructs show variations in their scores across the cases. The one dimension where all three entrepreneurs scored high on is entitlement. Furthermore, two of the cases scored high on reputation, and two scored high on short-term manipulation. Otherwise, the cases show little replication in their scores on the constructs.
39 15. Table: Cross Case - Interview Results
Planning ahead with outcomes in mind, coalition building in the form of acquiring contacts that benefit personal goals and strong leadership and control were the facets deemed unanimously important for all 3 entrepreneurs. An erratic lifestyle was not favored by any of them, as they all expressed the need to be relaxed in order to concentrate on their more important objectives. An anti-social behavior was regarded as unbeneficial by all involved, as it does not bring any advantages the three entrepreneurs argued. Similarly, all three entrepreneurs showed a conscious awareness of not causing harm to others through their actions, accounting for low callous affect scores throughout.
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a more positive view. Case 2 shows a high level Machiavellianism, while Case 3 a unanimously low level of psychopathy. Narcissism and psychopathy pillars show much varied levels across the 3 cases, however Machiavellianism is the dimension that receives overall higher scores.
4.4.1 DT traits and growth motivation
As explained before, all three entrepreneurs and their companies have a high growth motivation. Regarding the specific pillars of growth motivation, all three cases perceive providing for their families and financial stability or independence as their biggest needs to grow. Only in case 2 is achievement mentioned as an innate need to move forward. The entrepreneurs’ perceived abilities to grow show differences as well. Confidence show ups in this dimension in 2 cases out of the 3. Case 2 shows an enhanced perceived ability when compared to the other two cases as he mentions being proactive and aggressive as being his key abilities to grow. All three entrepreneurs regard their leadership skills as an important ability to their growth, often through the ability to appoint the correct people for the specific situations.
The perceived opportunity to grow manifests differently in all 3 cases. Case 1 shows a belief in creating the opportunities: “it’s not that easy that somebody knocks on your door and does it … you should create the opportunity”. Case 2 believes success is in his hands and in the even race he can get ahead. “… To this day it’s a very even race … gives the most possibility.” Lastly, in Case 3 the entrepreneur believes that his company is ready and set up to grow. He regards their possibilities as attractive - “opportunities are always there. You have to recognize it and exploit it”.
41 16. Table: Cross Case - Growth Motivation
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5. Discussion
The above analysis shows little possibility for links between DT traits and growth motivation. Traditionally, the DT is composed of three independent traits with some overlay (Paulhus & Williams, 2002), but the recent theoretical research has deemed enough evidence to treat them as various measures of the same underlying construct (Jonason & Webster, 2010). Measurements of the DT consciously keep their flexibility of being scored as three related sub-constructs or as a single, combined scale (Jones & Paulhus, 2014; Jonason & Webster, 2010). If taken as a single combined construct, this research identifies no possible relationship between the different extents of DT in entrepreneurs and their subsequent growth motivations. Using the pillars of growth motivation defined by Davidsson (1989), the perceived need, ability and opportunity to grow of the entrepreneur show no signs of being influenced by DT traits. In the case of Bordás Bútoripari Kft, the DT traits showed a higher level than that of the normal means identified by Jones & Paulhus (2014). The growth motivations of the owner did account for a “getting-ahead” mentality, guided by a cynical view of human nature in a “dog-eat-dog” world. He noted that keeping your guard up and exploiting others to your own benefit are needed attitudes, ones that contribute to his growth motivations. However, the cases of Ép Platz Kft and Hunnia Farm Kft showed a similarly high growth motivation despite them possessing very limited cynicism towards other’s behavior, and lower extents of DT traits.
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present care towards their needs resulting in a cruel and insensitive indifference often causing harm (Lilienfeld & Widows, 2005). It is a central characteristic to DT traits, specifically to psychopathy, although narcissism and Machiavellianism have shown to lead to such tendencies as well (Spain et al., 2014; Paulhus & Williams, 2002). The results of this research however show that the perceived need to grow is affected by the potential of brining benefits to others in the society in the form of employment or general betterment of conditions. A callous affect is the direct opposite of this concept, which gives way to the first proposition of this research:
P1: A lower extent of callous affect of the entrepreneur leads to their increased perceived need to grow.
Another construct shows a relationship to growth motivation. Leadership is a sub-construct of narcissism as narcissism is shown to elevate the person’s belief in their skills and accomplishment, such as their leadership skills (Spain et al., 2014; Paulhus & Williams, 2002; O’Boyle et al., 2012; Jones & Paulhus, 2014). As showcased in this study, effective leadership is viewed as a key perceived ability to grow contributing to a high growth motivation. This was exemplified within the research in the ability to appoint and delegate the correct people in the situations that warrant it and showing good leadership qualities in general by those who place much importance on control and view themselves as good leaders. Therefore I propose the following proposition:
P2: Entrepreneurs, who regard themselves as good leaders, show an increased perceived ability to grow.
5.1 Theoretical and Managerial Implications
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unbeneficial and unproductive characteristics (Jones & Paulhus, 2010; Lee & Ashton, 2005) but rather can lead to positive outcomes in certain situations. (Kramer et al., 2011, Hmeileski & Lerner, 2013). As this area of research is rather new and currently developing, this paper represents yet another contributing study.
This research provides business owners and policy makers with more insight on understanding what motivational factors lay behind their growth aspirations. Recognizing the true motives behind their orientation to grow can help with the fine-tuning of company-wide policies and overall strategies to the betterment of the firm. Additionally, the findings of this research pose an unexpected implication for the HRM sector. Firms that seek growth oriented employees or managers can carry out their research based on this paper’s proposed influential factors in mind. Looking for individuals with low callous affect and a strong belief in their leadership qualities could result in a potential employee with higher growth motivations. 5.2 Limitations and Future Research
One of the drawbacks of qualitative research is that it is susceptible to subjectivity and personal bias (Flick, 2000). Steps were made to limit these shortcomings such as utilizing a friendly stranger throughout the research and analysis as well as following case study and interview protocols based on previous theory, as described in the research design. Additionally, the incapability of statistical generalization is a well-known disadvantage of case study research due to the limited number and particularity of the cases. However, the goal of this study was not that, rather it was to provide fruitful insights to be further developed in their natural case settings. Despite the theoretical sampling of cases, the growth motivations of the entrepreneurs can be influenced by a majority of factors outside of control for this research. While much effort was put forth to control for any effects of potential influence, a diverse previous experience or personal background is impossible to fully account for. Lastly, while the SD3 is a well-regarded measurement tool for DT traits (Arvan, 2012; Baughman et al., 2012; Giammarco, 2013; Holzman, 2011) and the interview protocol was designed to garner truthful insight, the possibility of the respondents shying away from completely honest answers remains a potential limitation of this research.
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