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The handle http://hdl.handle.net/1887/79649 holds various files of this Leiden University dissertation.
Author: Brusgaard, N. Ø.
Title: Carving interactions: rock art in the nomadic landscape of the Black Desert, north- eastern Jordan
Issue Date: 2019-10-17
Chapter 6 | Places of production and consumption
6.1. Introduction
The strong relationship between rock art and the landscape has long since been recognised by scholarly debate in rock art studies. Seminal works such as Richard Bradley’s study on Atlantic European rock art (Bradley 1997) and the edited volume The Figured Landscapes of Rock-Art (Chippindale & Nash 2004a) have demonstrated the value of a landscape approach to rock art and paved the way for the many advancements that have been made in this field since. It is evident that studying rock art contextually is crucial to gaining further understanding of the three central components to a material study of rock art: content, production, and consumption. The previous chapter discussed the direct traces of production and consumption, such as techniques, form, effacement, and accumulation. In this chapter, I discuss the places of production and consumption. Where in the landscape was the rock art produced and consumed? What kind of indirect traces of interaction can we detect between the producers and the rock art landscape and the consumers and the rock art landscape? I analyse these places on two levels: the micro-landscape and the macro-landscape.
This chapter first focuses on the study of the micro-landscape, studying the rock surface itself and, especially, the relationship between the figures and the panel. I study this through two case studies:
a selection of hunting scenes and the possible depictions of ‘micro-structures’. Additionally, I briefly discuss the occurrence of individual compositions and accumulations on boulders. The following sections then focus on the study of the macro-landscape. First, I present the results of the spatial analysis of the distribution of Safaitic carvings in the Jebel Qurma region. The results will show that there is no difference in the distribution of rock art figures, rock art compositions, or composite carvings (§ 6.3.1). For this reason, the next section focuses on the distribution of composite carvings in the region as a whole and in five areas, through which I give a detailed description of the spatial distribution. Here I also discuss a number of significant sites, including their natural and anthropogenic features in relationship to the rock art. Second, I look at two factors that can provide insights into the significance of the rock art and its producers and consumers: the accessibility and visibility of and from carving sites. Based on the results of this chapter, I explore what we can say about the places of production and consumption of the Safaitic rock art in this region.
6.2. The micro-landscape
The Jebel Qurma engravings occur on a number of different types of panels, comparable to the different types and sizes of basalt boulders one finds in the landscape. As mentioned in the previous chapter, most boulders are small to medium-sized,50 but there are a number of large boulders51 covered with a multitude of carvings. Carvers appear to have made the most of the space available on the panel, with compositions generally taking up all of the panel, whether it is an image with inscription (e.g. fig. 5.10) or an entire scene (e.g. fig. 4.90). Interestingly, there are a number of carvings that appear to make use of the panel in terms of more than just space; they engage with certain features of the boulder, making use of the panel topography in their composition. In total, there are 15 rock art carvings that do so, of which 11 are hunting scenes and four are geometric figures.
50 The average panel size is 24 x 18 cm.
51 A panel length of 1 m or more.
6.2.1 Hidden hunters
The majority of hunting scenes, and scenes in general, are depicted on one panel on a boulder, usually taking up most of the panel. But there are eight representations of hunting that stand out because they are depicted across multiple panels and three which show similar compositions. They were found at seven different sites. All of the depictions are associated with an inscription. Of the eight scenes whereby the inscription could be translated, the authors’ names and genealogies were all different.52 These scenes were thus each made by a different carver.
These compositions have what could be called the ‘main panel’, where most of the figures are located and which immediately draws the eye, and a ‘side panel’ where only one figure is depicted and which is often less noticeable. For example, one boulder features three archers and a dog on one panel, surrounding a herd of three oryx (fig. 6.1). There is a fourth archer located behind the oryx, but on a different panel of the boulder, as if slightly hidden from view. Seven other hunting scenes exhibit the same type of composition. Additionally, there are two hunting scenes where the hunter is not depicted on a side panel, but it is located in an indent in the boulder.
In each of these scenes, the style and technique of all of the figures are the same and they were clearly carved as part of the same scene. The ‘hidden’ figure was therefore not a later addition to these scenes. Additionally, there is no reason to assume that the carver expanded to the side panel merely due to lack of space; the main panel is not overcrowded. Indeed, in other hunting scenes, even those involving a lot of figures, the entire scene fits on one panel, sometimes resulting in a couple of figures being smaller or at a different angle. In two cases there is also a cartouche carved around all of the figures across the two panels, also indicating that they belong together. Therefore, it appears that it was a conscious choice to depict these scenes across two panels, revealing an interesting interaction between the carver and the material.
In all eight scenes depicted across two panels, it is clear that the producers of the carvings deliberately 52 In three cases, the inscription was too weathered to be deciphered.
Figure 6.1: A hunting scene depicting archers hunting oryx with the help of a dog. a) The main panel with three oryxes surrounded by three archers and a dog. b) The side panel where another archer is depicted, as if hiding from view. The archer’s bow and arrow curves across onto the main panel (QUR-64.213).
a b
used the shape of the boulder in the composition of the hunting scene. Interestingly, in all of these scenes, it is a hunter that is depicted on the side panel. In one scene it is a dog depicted on the side panel. It is situated as if standing behind or chasing the three bovids, either ibex or gazelle, which are depicted on the main panel, across from an archer (fig. 6.2). The other seven scenes feature an archer on the side panel. It is noteworthy that in five of these scenes, the bow and arrow held by the archer curves across the boulder ridge and onto the main panel.
Figure 6.2: a) In this hidden hunter scene, the helper in the hunt, the dog, is located on the side panel. On the main panel an archer stands across from three bovids. The inscription probably refers to ‘the she-goats’ (QUR-
a b
c
d
The two other hunting scenes also appear to make use of the natural features of the boulder, but in a slightly different manner. In both cases, the archer and the prey are situated on the same panel. However, in one scene, the archer is located on a part of the panel that slants away from the rest (fig. 6.3). In the other, the archer appears to be located in a ‘dip’ or indent of the boulder (fig. 6.4, fig. 3.14). In the latter example, the archer’s bow and arrow also curve over the dip. In both scenes, the panel topography creates a subtle division between the hunter and prey. It seems likely that, considering the other examples, the locations of the archers on the panel were also chosen deliberately to enhance the image.
Figure 6.3: A hunting scene depicting an archer hunting four bovids. The archer has been carved on a part of the panel that is situated at a slight angle to the rest of the panel (QUR-442.12).
Figure 6.4: The archer is situated upside down in a small ‘dip’ in the panel. The contrast between the incised archer and pecked wild ass also creates degrees of visual emphasis in the scene (QUR- 839.35).
There is one additional scene that might have been produced in a similar way, but here it is not clear if the figure on the side panel was originally part of the scene. On the main panel, a hunting scene is depicted featuring a large carnivoran standing behind five ostriches (fig. 6.5). On the side panel, there is a thinly incised carnivoran situated as if facing the ostriches. In terms of composition, it appears to belong to the scene. The style and the technique of this figure are the same as the other figures, but it appears unfinished, making it difficult to ascertain if it was made as part of the same composition originally.
However, if the maker of the scene did not carve this carnivoran, it would suggest that someone else did later. This person would clearly have been aware of the hunting scene so this would point to an interesting later interaction with the scene.
Figure 6.5: a) A hunting scene featuring a carnivoran and five ostriches. The inscription is unclear, but might refer to ‘the ostriches’. On the side panel there is another, very thinly incised and probably unfinished, carnivoran. This might be an unfinished hidden hunter scene. b) The ‘hidden’ carnivoran has been traced (red) (QUR-442.1).
Figure 6.6: The two panels subtlely divide the archer (depicted upside down) from the wild ass. The archer’s bow and arrow curves across onto the other panel (QUR- 176.29).
a b
In all of these hunting scenes, the natural divisions in the rock, either between panels or within one panel, have been used in the creation of the composition. The result is that these scenes have a ‘hidden hunter’, a hunter separated and thus seemingly hidden from view of the prey due to the physical properties of the boulder’s surface. Furthermore, the hunter is sometimes not only hidden from the other figures on the rock, but also from the viewer of the rock art scene. The main panel usually contains the majority of the figures and sometimes also an associated inscription and geometric motif. It therefore immediately captures the viewer’s eye. However, the figure on the side panel often only becomes visible when the viewer looks at the boulder from a different angle or position. How quickly the hidden hunter is discovered depends on a Figure 6.7: a) In this hunting scene, two anthropomorphs hunt two ibex and an oryx together with a dog. One of the anthropomorphs, an archer, is barely visible at first because he/she is carved around the edge of the boulder. b) Close-up of the archer on the bottom of the boulder. To take these photos I leaned the boulder on another rock, but when we discovered it the boulder was resting on the ground, completely obscuring most of the archer’s body. The inscription says ‘By Fdy son of Yshh are the ibex and the animals’ (QUR-176.32).
Figure 6.8: a) Approached from this angle the composition appears to consist of depict a herd of ibex, a woman figure, and an inscription.
b) When viewed from a different angle, the hidden hunter appears and the hunting scene reveals itself. The archer’s bow and arrow curve across the two panels (QUR-64.134).
a b
a b
number of factors, including how great the angle is between the two panels, the technique used to carve the figure, the size of the side panel, and the general composition. For example, one scene features an archer and a wild ass, which are both immediately noticeable because the angle between the two panels is quite small, the archer is quite large in relation to the wild ass, and the technique used to carve the two figures is the same (fig. 6.6). Additionally, the inscription is situated on the same panel as the hidden hunter; this is the only scene where this is the case.
In contrast, one of the other scenes found at the same site is situated on a small, loose boulder where the angle between the two panels is much greater than 90° (fig. 6.7a). Here the archer on the side panel was literally hidden from view until I turned the boulder over and discovered the figure (fig. 6.7b). Only the archer’s bow and arrow curving onto the main panel gave away that it was there. At the time of discovery, the side panel was also facing down on the ground, completely obscuring the archer. It is impossible to know if the boulder was originally positioned this way, but even if it was not, the archer would have been hard to see due to the angle of the side panel. Similarly, when viewing one of the other hunting scenes, at first glance the rock art appears to just depict a herd of ibex, a common occurrence (fig. 6.8a). However, when the viewer looks at the boulder from another angle, the archer becomes visible and the hunting scene unveils itself (fig. 6.8b).
Other scenes appear to use differences in technique to enhance the division that the panel topography creates. For example, the hunting scene featured in figure 6.9 depicts the archer on a different panel than the wild ass and the archer is only incised, whereas the wild ass is pounded. As a result, the archer is barely visible from afar. A similar difference is observable in figure 6.4. These eight, possibly nine, hunting scenes thus all interact with the topography of the boulder to enhance the effect of the content, often in combination with a manipulation of composition and technique. The result is a variation in the (in)visibility of the figures in the scene. The scenes thereby acquire an extra dimension to the narrative: that of the hidden hunter ready to ambush the prey. Furthermore, the carvers have not only used the micro-landscape of the boulder to their advantage, they may even have intended to recreate a landscape within the scene. I will discuss this further in § 6.5.
Figure 6.9: a) In this hunting scene the hunter is barely visible at first glance. The archer is situated on side panel and is thinly incised. The prey, the wild ass, is large and has been pounded. The inscription, made in the same technique as the archer, refers to ‘the wild ass’ (scale bar = 20 cm). b) Tracing of the archer (red) (QUR-733.9)
a b
6.2.2 Micro-structures
The four other figures are two kites and two ‘wheel’ figures, which also appear to engage with the topography of the boulders on which they are carved. The two desert kite depictions have both been carved across multiple panels of the boulder, whereby the largest, circular part of the figure is situated on top of the boulder, on a flat panel facing upwards. The smaller circles, probably representing the kite’s enclosures, are located along the edges of the panel and, in some cases, on another panel or a sloping side (fig. 4.78). The long lines, probably depicting the guiding ‘arms’ of the kites, have been carved on the panel below, sloping away from the main structure. As such, these carvings appear to be almost 3D depictions of the real-life installations. In both cases, the carving engages with the natural features of the boulder and it is highly likely that the boulders were chosen deliberately for their shape to create these depictions. Several of the kite carvings surveyed from other areas in the Jordanian harra by Helms and Betts (1986) (see Chapter 4.5.8) also make similar use of the boulder topography in their shape, a fact noted by Helms and Betts (1986). By carving the depictions across the boulders in this manner, the producers managed to imitate the appearance of the stone structures in the landscape, thus creating ‘micro-structures’.
The other two figures are more difficult to identify, but they might represent the ‘wheel’ stone structures also found in the landscape, as proposed in Chapter 4.5.7. The two figures have in common that they are both carved around a small, round indent in the panel. Lines extend from the natural indents in the rock, forming a wheel shape in one figure (fig. 4.77c) and a more ambiguous shape in the other (fig. 4.77d).
In both, the carvers have clearly and deliberately made use of the panel feature to create or enhance their engraving. However, if they were meant to depict wheel structures, the topography of the rock is not used to mimic the topography of the structure, like in the kite carvings. Their resemblance to the stone wheel structures is not as convincing as that of the kite carvings. It is possible that these depictions were not meant to represent micro-structures, but instead display a different form of interaction with the rock surface.
6.2.3 Individual compositions and accumulations
The previous two sections covered evident examples of the intentional interaction with the surface rock.
Carvers chose specific boulders for the carving of specific images, as I will discuss further in the conclusion of this chapter. However, what about the rest of the carvings? Were they deliberately produced on specific boulders? As I showed in the previous chapter, the majority of the rock art compositions have been carved separately on rocks with no pre-existing petroglyphs. This may be a result of the size of the surface rock available; there is not the space for many engravings. Equally, it may have been a conscious choice to create a composition in its own space. This seems to especially have been the case for scenes. Compositions consisting of an individual figure, such as a camel with an inscription, often occur on their own on a panel but are also found on larger boulders with an accumulation of carvings. In contrast, scenes are very rarely found on boulders with other compositions, especially the hunting and conflict scenes (e.g. fig. 4.90-4.96).
There are plenty of large boulders at some sites with enough space to add a scenic composition to them. It would therefore seem that carvers chose to produce scenes on empty, individual spaces. This may have been to create a clearer and more visible narrative; a scene carved among other petroglyphs would not stand out as much. One of the few examples of a scene carved among other petroglyphs is the nursing and leading scene shown in figure 4.98. However, all of the compositions on this panel appear to have been made by the same carver.
The large boulders with an accumulation of carvings show no particular patterns in the types of petroglyphs that they attracted, other than the lack of scenes. The large boulder at QUR-186 has a variety
of individual zoomorphic motifs, including several individual camels and a flock of ostriches, and a lot of inscriptions (fig. 5.23). Similarly, one of several large boulders at QUR-148 is engraved with three separate camels, a lion, an anthropomorph, a bovid, and several inscriptions (fig. 6.10) and a large panel at QUR-64 contains several figures and inscriptions (fig. 4.26). None of the rock art figures on the large boulders appear to be carved so that they are interacting with or related to one another. Simultaneously, as shown in Chapter 5.5, in general, few carvings superimpose each other, indicating that carvers worked around pre-existing compositions on the boulders, and few rock art figures are effaced. However, in future research, it would be worthwhile to investigate how the inscriptions relate to one another and to the rock art compositions.
There are some indications that there may be more engagement than is visible in only the rock art record.
As discussed in the previous chapter, the rate of effacement and destruction is higher in the textual corpus.
Additionally, there are examples of rock art compositions signed by multiple authors. For example, the hunting scene from QUR-64 shown in figures 4.51 and 6.1 is signed by three carvers, two of which refer to
‘the oryx’ and one of which refers to ‘the image’. Did the three carvers make the scene together or somehow participate in the carving act together? Or did one person make it and on separate occasions two other people came along and ‘claimed’ the image as their own work? A joint study of the rock art and inscriptions could shed light on these questions.
6.3. The macro-landscape 6.3.1 Introduction
The results of the study of the micro-landscape show that carvers intentionally chose different types of boulders on which to make rock art compositions, influenced by a number of different factors. In the following two sections, I explore whether factors of the macro-landscape of the Jebel Qurma region influenced the carving of compositions on a wider scale. I do this through a number of spatial analyses, investigating the distribution of carvings throughout the region.
Figure 6.10: A large boulder at QUR-148 with six figures and five inscriptions (scale bar = 20 cm) (QUR-148.110).
I first mapped the distribution of carving sites in three different categories: figures, rock art compositions, and composite carvings (for an explanation of the terminology see Chapter 3.3.2) (fig. 6.11- 13). These distributions were made according to the classes of sites and their sizes presented in the previous chapter’s discussion on accumulation. For the different size classes and their definition see tables 5.13-5.14.
Comparing the three distributions, it is apparent that there are few differences between the categories. The distribution of rock art sites, whether counted per figure or per rock art composition, is near identical to the distribution when the associations with inscriptions are included. The only difference is in the total number. There are 68 additional sites when the inscriptions are included in the analysis.
Additionally, the total number of carvings per site is much higher in some cases; for example, QUR-2 has 643 composite carvings in comparison to 337 rock art figures. However, the relative number of carvings per site is similar. This indicates that the place of production did not vary depending on whether the carving was a petroglyph, an inscription, or a composition of image and text. For this reason, I will subsequently discuss the distribution based on the analysis of composite carvings, shown in figure 6.13.
The distribution and classification of sites reveal a large number of very small sites (≤ 15 composite carvings), which are located throughout most of the survey region. Altogether, approximately 12% of the Jebel Qurma carvings are located at these sites. In terms of site structure, they often comprise a small anthropogenic structure or two (such as a marker or clearing) with some carvings near it, a natural clearing with a few carvings found around it, or just a small cluster of carvings (fig. 6.14). Many of these sites are located close to large carving sites. The presence of a few carvings in these locations shows that people were active in these locations and may have built and/or used the structures there too. However, these are not the locations that attracted a large accumulation of carvings.
Figure 6.11: Distribution of figures per site in the 2012 - 2016 surveyed area of the Jebel Qurma region. Base map: overlay of slope degrees on WorldDEM.
Figure 6.12: Distribution of rock art compositions per site in the 2012 - 2016 surveyed area of the Jebel Qurma region. Base map: overlay of slope degrees on WorldDEM.
Examining the distribution of sites with more than 15 carvings, it is apparent that the sites are distributed mostly along the edges of the basalt region and, especially, on the edges of the various basalt hills. Further ‘inland’ in the basalt area there are mostly only very small or small sites. In the following section, I will describe the distribution of sites for five different areas and focus on a number of specific sites (fig. 6.15). These areas are arbitrarily designated and are not a classification of particular types of sites or landscape. They are merely a tool to describe in detail the distribution of the carving site and to take the reader through the Jebel Qurma landscape as it were, providing a picture of the overall landscape Figure 6.14: a) The site QUR-516, situated in a row of small sites on the southern basalt ridge (see figure 6.31). The structure is a small clearance, of which the function and relationship with the carvings is unclear. The location of the inscription on the right is indicated. b) Safaitic inscription in which the author states ‘he pastured’ (QUR-516.3.1). This is a typical setting of the very small carving sites: a small structure or two and a few carvings around or near it.
Figure 6.15: The five areas that are described in the text.
a b
distribution of the rock carvings. For each area, the sites are described in order of the highest to lowest number of rock carvings at the site. The total number of composite carvings at each site in the Jebel Qurma region is listed in Appendix C.
6.3.2 Area 1 – northwest Introduction
This area lies between Wadi Rajil and the large mudflat, Qa’a al-Teyarat (fig. 6.16). It consists of two basalt islands overlooking the wadi, a scattering of low basalt hills around the edges of the mudflat, and the start of the large basalt plateau that stretches to the south. As in the rest of the region, there are some small to very small sites on the plateaus. However, the area exhibits a noticeable concentration of carving sites around the edges of the basalt plateaus, including several large sites located on the prominent hilltops (fig.
6.17). Several of these sites are visible from one another; for example, QUR-956 provides a view of the peak on which the cluster of carvings at QUR-186 are situated and of the surrounding landscape (fig. 6.18).
These two sites are located in a row that starts with QUR-952 and ends with QUR-965, between which a number of small sites are situated.
The large site QUR-176 lies a little further along on the basalt ridge, just over 2 km from QUR-952 and thus within walking distance, albeit across difficult basalt terrain. This site also belongs to a handful of carving clusters dispersed along the western edge of the mudflat (fig. 6.19). Of these, most are small to medium-sized, with between 16 and 109 carvings. There is one other large site: QUR-171, which is a bit of an anomaly in terms of location compared to the other large sites in this area (see below). It is part of a Figure 6.16: Distribution of carving sites per size in the north-western area. Sites mentioned in the text are indicated.
Figure 6.17: a) The hilltop on which site QUR-952 is situated, viewed from the basalt plateau to the south. b) A view of two basalt hills and their sites, QUR-186 and 956, indicated, as seen a
b
c
concentration of carvings spread out across the low hill within a circa 100 m radius, which in the field was documented as four separate sites. It is interesting to note that, after QUR-171, there are only a few small sites along the eastern side of the mudflat.
In figure 6.20 the spatial distribution of composite carvings per boulder for this area has been mapped.
Comparing this distribution to that of the carvings per site, it is apparent that there is little difference. The spread of carvings across the northernmost hill in the area and the hill of QUR-171 is clearer when the distribution is plotted per boulder. However, aside from these two areas, the boulders with carvings are located in very dense concentrations. This illustrates that carving sites do not consist of a spread of carvings across tens of metres, but of localised dense clusters. This also suggests that, although the carvings are mapped only per site for the other areas in Jebel Qurma, the spatial distribution gives an accurate impression of the spread of the carvings in the region.
Figure 6.18: A view from QUR-956. Two carved panels are visible in the foreground and the peak of QUR-186 is visible in the background. This site, like the others mentioned, affords an extensive view of the lower lying valley.
Figure 6.19: A view of the mudflat Qa’a al-Teyarat seen from QUR-176.
QUR-186
The largest site in the north-western area is QUR-186, which is situated at the end of a long basalt hill, overlooking the valley below (fig. 6.17). It has a concentration of 398 composite carvings, making it the third largest carving site in Jebel Qurma (e.g. fig. 4.39a, fig. 4.59a). The carvings are distributed around the top of the hill, in a relatively tight concentration. There are a number of large boulders covered in engravings, including the boulder with the highest number of carvings in Jebel Qurma, as described in Chapter 5.6 (fig.
5.23).
The site contains a cairn of the tower tomb type, situated on the hilltop. Although at first glance the petroglyphs appear to cluster around the cairn, it is not clear whether the relationship between the carvings and structure is anything other than spatial. The survey and excavation of the cairn revealed that one of the stones used to build the façade was engraved with a Safaitic inscription and a camel, which is now upside down (fig. 6.21). The position of this rock art panel indicates that the boulder was located elsewhere when it was carved and later used as a building block for the cairn. The skeletal remains in the tomb have been dated to between the 2nd and early 4th century AD based on a radiocarbon date, but the tower construction itself could be older because there are indications for reuse (Huigens 2018, 188). The engraving was at least made prior to the 2nd to 4th century AD though. This could indicate that the Safaitic carvings at the site pre-date the construction of the cairn. However, there is also the possibility that some of the carvings at the site were made before the cairn was built and that some were carved later. Based on this data, it is not
Figure 6.20: Distribution of carvings per boulder in the 2015 survey area. Base map: overlay of slope degrees on WorldDEM.
possible to establish that all of the Safaitic carvings at QUR-186 pre-date the 2nd to 4th century AD, but the engraving of the camel and inscription at least does. It is noteworthy that this basalt peak attracted both a large accumulation of Safaitic carvings and the construction of a tower tomb and that the builders of the tower tomb evidently had no regard for the inscriptions.
QUR-171
The second largest site in this area is QUR-171. As mentioned above, its location in the landscape differs from the other large sites because it is situated on a low hill, below the surrounding high basalt hilltops (fig.
Figure 6.21: The tower tomb at QUR-186 with an engraved panel incorporated into the façade of the structure. The camel figure (indicated by the arrow) is upside down, suggesting the boulder was already carved before it was used as a building block. Scale bar = 50 cm.
Figure 6.22: One of the cairns at QUR-171 and the attached crescent-shaped structure (scale bar = 50 cm). The site is siuated on a low, long hill , separated from the next basalt hill by a valley. The coloured tags visible in the photo mark engraved panels.
6.22). It therefore does not provide the same type of view as the large sites located on high basalt peaks.
Several structures are located at the site, including a cairn and crescent-shaped clearing, around which a lot of engravings are situated. A few carvings are situated on the cairn. Their positions indicate that the carvings were already present at this site and that their boulders were reused to build the cairn (fig. 6.23).
The structures have not been excavated.
In total, this site has 282 composite carvings, making it the fifth largest site in Jebel Qurma. The rock art and inscriptions cluster less densely than at other sites and many are scattered across the low, outstretched hill. Furthermore, there are three other concentrations of carvings in the direct vicinity. The carvings surveyed under site name QUR-839 (45 composite carvings) are situated circa 25 m away to the southeast, spread out further along the same hill. Those surveyed under site name QUR-1016 (73 composite carvings)
Figure 6.23: A panel with a camel figure and several Safaitic inscriptions on it is located on top of one of the cairns at QUR-171. Its position suggests it had already been carved before being used as a building block (scale bar = 50 cm).
Figure 6.24: The slope of the hill along which the carvings at QUR-1016 are located. In the valley lie several enclosures and possible campsites, but it is unclear if they date to the Hellenistic/Roman periods (cf. Huigens 2018, 133).
are located less than 15 m away to the south, distributed along the slope of this hill (fig. 6.24). Finally, the small group of 22 composite carvings at QUR-172 are situated less than 40 m to the northeast. This could therefore also be seen as one large concentration of Safaitic carvings, located along an approximately 200 m stretch of basalt hill. Numerous interesting compositions are located across this hill, including a wild ass hunting scene with a slightly hidden hunter (fig. 6.4), the elaborate ostriches (fig. 4.61), and a detailed raiding scene (fig. 4.96).
QUR-956
The site QUR-956 lies close to QUR-186 in a similar location in the landscape; at the end of a long basalt hill, overlooking the Wadi Rajil valley (fig. 6.17). This site was informally referred to as the Cairn of the
Figure 6.25: The tower tomb at QUR-956. In the foreground one can see the panel with the carving of five dogs and the Safaitic inscription referring to ‘the dogs’ (QUR-956.20).
Figure 6.26: Several boulders with carvings are situated around the site of QUR-956.
The site overlooks Wadi Rajil.
Dogs during the survey, due to it containing the only known occurrence of a signed depiction of dogs in Safaitic rock art (see Chapter 4.4.5) (fig. 6.25, 4.50). Here 154 composite carvings were found, making it the eighth largest site in Jebel Qurma. Like at QUR-186, a tower tomb cairn is situated on the peak. The tomb was subsequently reused in the Early Roman period, as evidenced by the human skeletal remains that have been dated to between the late 1st and early 3rd century AD (Huigens 2018, 173). The reuse phase included the construction of a cover over the tomb (ibid., 173). The textual and pictorial engravings occur around the cairn and on the later cover of stones (fig. 6.26). Their position in the cover suggests that they had already been carved elsewhere and that the boulders were then used to construct the cover. This would indicate that the engravings pre-date the 1st to 3rd century AD.
Figure 6.27: On the right the large cairn at QUR-176 is visible and on the left, the view over the basalt plateau. In the foreground lie two of the many rock art panels that are situated on the hilltop around the cairn. The position of the two camels on the left boulder suggests this rock is not in its original position.
Figure 6.28: The view from QUR-176 over the basalt plateau. In the foreground a panel is visible with several inscriptions and figures.
QUR-176
QUR-176 consists of several structures and a large concentration of rock art and inscriptions. Two cairns, a small shelter-like structure, and a long pendant trailing from the cairn were discovered at this site. The structures have not been excavated. Most of the 140 composite carvings cluster around the large cairn, which is situated on the top of the hill (fig. 6.27). Numerous engravings, mostly textual, were also found on the cairn, but again it is unclear whether engraved rocks were used as building blocks for the cairn or whether the carvings were produced later when the cairn had already been built. The site affords a view of the mudflat and, due to its slightly elevated position on the hilltop, one can also look over the surrounding basalt plateau (fig. 6.28). A number of interesting engravings are located at this site. Three of the hidden hunter scenes, described above, were found here (fig. 6.2, fig. 6.6, fig. 6.7). Additionally, the site has two panels featuring well-executed, patterned equids depicted in a hunting scene (fig. 4.89, fig. 5.12). The site has also one of the few Safaitic inscriptions in fine script in the Jebel Qurma region (cf. Della Puppa forthcoming).
QUR-965
With 78 composite carving QUR-965 is smaller than the other sites discussed here, but it stood out during the survey because it differed from the other medium to large sites in the area in two ways. Firstly, no large, clear structures were found here; there is only a small clearance of stones. No relationship with the carvings could be established. Secondly, it is located on the edge of the basalt plateau, but not on a clear hilltop.
Instead, the cluster of carvings sits on the ridge of a gentle slope (fig. 6.29). However, although it is not situated as high up as the aforementioned sites, one does have a panoramic view of the valley below (fig.
6.30).
Figure 6.29: A rock art panel at QUR-965 featuring two lions hunting a dromedary camel and several other animals and inscriptions (QUR9-65.24).
Figure 6.30: QUR-965 is situated on the ridge of a gentle slope, but it does provide a panoramic view of the valley below. a) View to the NE. A rock art panel is visible in the foreground. b) View to the N. c) View to the NW.
a
b
c
6.3.3 Area 2 – southwest Introduction
To the south, the large basalt plateau continues and there are several more basalt islands (fig. 6.31). The most prominent of these is the Jebel Qurma hill (QUR-2), which dominates the skyline. This area is bordered by Wadi Rajil in the west and the Hazimah plains in the south. The basalt hills situated here also mark the end of the basalt, after which the lowlands begin. There is one very large site in this area, QUR-2, two large sites, several medium-sized sites, and many small sites. Like in area 1, most of the sites concentrate on the periphery of the basalt, especially on the outermost edges. Even the small sites appear to conform to this pattern, of which the most noticeable are the seven sites located in a row along the end of the basalt plateau, such as QUR-516 (fig. 6.10). The only exception is the cluster of small sites situated between QUR-370 and QUR-215. Several sites in this area stand out due to their size and/or location, which I shall discuss in more detail.
QUR-2
The concentration of carvings at QUR-2 is the largest in the region and is situated on the most prominent hill in the region, the Jebel Qurma hill. To the north, the hill overlooks the valley and Wadi Rajil, and to the south, the Hazimah plains (fig. 2.6). The oasis of Azraq lies approximately 30 km to the west and, on a clear day, is visible from the Jebel Qurma hill. The hill is long and structures are spread out down across it, including a total of 18 cairns (fig. 6.32). However, the Safaitic engravings cluster at the north-western end of the hill, around the highest peak and the first cairns seen from the west. The majority are located on the Figure 6.31: Distribution of carving sites per size in the south-western area. Sites mentioned in the text are indicated.
top of the hill and on the northern ridge, overlooking the wadi (fig. 6.33).
In total, 643 composite carvings were found at QUR-2 (e.g. fig. 4.15c, fig. 4.23, fig. 4.53, fig. 4.56, fig.
4.91). Like at other sites with large cairns, the engravings cluster around and on some of these cairns. One of these cairns, the largest at QUR-2 and situated on the highest point of the hill, was excavated. The burial cairn is of the tower tomb type and proved to have been reused during several phases (Huigens 2018, 177).
Several Safaitic inscriptions were incorporated within the structure, including one which was situated on a panel in the ‘seams’ of the tower (ibid., fig. 5.34). The engraving must thus already have been present on the panel before it was used to build the cairn. OSL and radiocarbon dates of the tower tomb indicate that it was constructed prior to the 1st century BC (ibid., 192), suggesting this engraving pre-dates the 1st century BC, but by how much is not clear. Like at QUR-186, it therefore appears that at least some of the carvings were present at the site already before the burial tombs were built, using engraved boulders as building material.
Figure 6.32: The row of cairns (indicated by the arrows) situated along the Jebel Qurma hill.
Figure 6.33: A large rock art panel with three canids and 16 ostriches on it (QUR-2.511).
From the panel one has a view to the north and of Wadi Rajil, which had some water in it at the time of this photo, taken in April 2016.
QUR-370
The second and third largest sites in this area are, respectively, QUR-370 (253 composite carvings) and QUR-372 (144 composite carvings) (fig. 6.34). QUR-370 is situated on a small, low hill, between the basalt plateaus and higher hills (fig. 6.35). The rock art and inscriptions are situated on and around the top of the hill. The rock art at this site differs from that at many other sites. There are only 41 composite carvings of text and image; most figures occur on their own or with one of two other figures. Additionally, there are only a few elaborate or detailed figures and scenes (fig. 3.10). Most figures are stylistically simple in form (fig.
6.36a). In terms of location and style of the rock art, QUR-370 thus diverges from the other large carving sites. It is also worth noting that the carvings at this site are very poorly preserved; 121 of the 208 rock art figures are weathered, most likely due to the wind-blown sand deposits that accumulate at this site.
Figure 6.34: The position of the sites QUR-372 and QUR-370, between which lies QUR-655.
Figure 6.35: The site QUR-370, which is surrounded by large basalt peaks and plateaus.
Members of the fieldwork team are surveying the site.
QUR-372
In comparison, QUR-372 has fewer carvings, but its location on top of a high peak is similar to many of the other large sites. It is situated just northwest of QUR-370, overlooking the wadi. A large number of structures, including several cairns, are located at this site, but without a clear relationship to the carvings.
The majority of the rock art and inscriptions is situated at the peak of the hill. Here preservation of the engravings is better and the rock art is stylistically more similar to the aforementioned sites (fig. 6.36b).
QUR-7
Along the southern ridge of this area, there are two sites that have a number of interesting features. QUR-7 is located at the edge of the large basalt plateau, near to and with a good view of the Jebel Qurma hill (fig.
6.37). The 108 composite carvings are spread out across the hilltop, rather than clustered around any of the cairns that are also present at the site. The rock art is noteworthy because this site has five of the 12 women figures in the Jebel Qurma region (fig. 4.3b and c). All five figures are of relatively similar style, which differs from the more elaborate woman figure at QUR-449 (fig. 4.2). Three of the four inscriptions in the region that mention lions in a narrative context are located on one panel at QUR-7.53 All three mention the author camping and there are also three other inscriptions at this site mentioning camping.54 In one of these, the author states he ‘was on the lookout while camping’.55 This text is particularly interesting due to its location at a site on a high hilltop with a good view of the surrounding area (fig. 6.38).
QUR-12
QUR-12 is located further southeast, on an isolated basalt hilltop, with a view of the surrounding valley (fig.
6.39). The site has 83 composite carvings as well as two cairns, a circle-like structure, and a long pendant, which stretches across the hill. However, the carvings cluster around the hilltop. Many of the carvings at this site are weathered and several were found half-buried in the sand (fig. 3.8). Two of the inscriptions at this site refer to pasturing.
53 QUR-7.30.1, QUR-7.30.3, and QUR-7.30.4.
54 QUR-7.12.1, QUR-7.100.3, and QUR-7.101.1.
55 QUR-7.12.1.
Figure 6.36: a) A carved panel from QUR-370 featuring two camels and an inscription. The carvings are quite weathered and the style of the rock art is simplistic compared to other large carving sites (QUR-370.4). b) A nursing scene featuring two camels located at QUR-372.
The style of the rock art at this site is more elaborate and well-executed than most petroglyphs at QUR-370 and it resembles the rock art at other large carving sites (QUR-372.107).
a b
Figure 6.37: View from QUR-7 of the valley and the Jebel Qurma hill. This photo was taken in April 2016 after a wet winter, the effects of which can be seen in the vegetation.
Figure 6.38: A Safaitic inscription at QUR-7 in which the author says he is on the lookout and the view from the site over the valley (scale bar = 20 cm) (QUR-7.12.1).
QUR-215
QUR-215 lies to the north, on one of the highest points in the Jebel Qurma region. It is situated in the middle of a basalt plateau at the western end of the basalt region (fig. 6.40). It has a concentration of 71 composite carvings, a large cairn and pendant, and a small cairn (fig. 6.41). The rock art at this site includes some interesting carvings, such as the circular text and camel composition (fig. 5.9a) and the rider with hair/
headdress (fig. 5.13). There is also a notable Safaitic inscription here, which refers to a cairn: ‘For Ms¹k son of ʿmr is the cairn’.56 The cairn at this site was excavated, which revealed that it was first used for a burial between the 4th and 2nd centuries BC (Huigens 2018, 156, P. Akkermans pers.comm. 2018). The construction of the pendant can be placed to between the 6th century BC and early 1st century AD (Huigens 2018, 158).
It is therefore possible that the inscription refers to the 4th to 2nd century BC burial. If so, it would suggest an early date for the inscription. However, there is also a nearby cairn that has not been dated, which the inscription might refer to.
56 QUR-215.28.1.
Figure 6.39: a) View of the hilltop on which QUR-12 is located. b) View of the valley from QUR-12.
a
b
6.3.4 Area 3 – south Introduction
This area is slightly different than the two aforementioned ones because here the medium-sized sites do not concentrate on the edges of the basalt, but they are situated further inland on the basalt plateau. There are no large sites in this area. Zooming in on the cluster of sites in this area, it is interesting to note that this region is made up of a small wadi system with various hills and plateaus along the tributaries (fig. 6.42). This would make even the sites most inland in this cluster easily accessible because one can move quite easily between the hills through the valley created by the wadi system. This is in contrast to other inland sites that can only be reached by walking across the basalt plateaus.57 This area has a relatively high concentration of small sites (16 to 59 carvings) and medium-sized sites (60 to 109 carvings). A few of these sites warrant further attention.
57 As a reference point, several team members and I resurveyed these sites in 2016 and we walked from the QUR-551 to the foot of the hill on which QUR-449 is located within an hour by taking a route through the valley.
Figure 6.40: A view over the basalt plateau from QUR-215. The pendant is visible in the foreground.
Figure 6.41: Two members of the fieldwork team sitting between the two cairns at QUR-215.
QUR-449
QUR-449 is situated on a basalt plateau near the southern edge of the basalt. It sits high up on the top of the plateau and on the ridge, thereby providing a good view of the wadi to the north (fig. 6.43). There are two small structures at this site, of which the functions are unclear; they have not been excavated. There are 106 composite carvings on this hilltop, including a number of very interesting petroglyphs. The conflict scene with the elaborately carved woman figure is located at this site (fig. 4.2). It also has an unusually high number of equids with riders in relation to other types of motifs; there are 11 equids with riders, making up a sixth of the 68 rock art figures at this site (fig. 6.44). One of the hidden hunter scenes, featuring a lion being hunted, is also located at QUR-449 (fig. 4.88).
Figure 6.42: Distribution of carving sites per size in the south-eastern area. Sites mentioned in the text are indicated.
Figure 6.43: The view from QUR-449 towards the wadi through which one can walk to reach the sites ‘inland’. Several rock carvings are visible in this photo, including a panel with two equids with riders (centre), another equid with rider (left), and a lion
QUR-551
This site lies further to the northeast on a low basalt hill with a view of the valley to the west. It is the farthest ‘inland’ on the basalt plateau of the medium to large sites in Jebel Qurma. There are several small structures at this site, but their functions are unclear. Engraved panels have been incorporated in some of them and in such a way that suggests the rocks were situated elsewhere and later reused as building blocks.
In the case of the other carvings, the relationship with the structures is unclear. The site has 103 composite carvings with several interesting rock art compositions, such as two of the patterned equids (fig 6.45, fig.
3.14, fig. 5.12), three lion figures (fig. 4.82), and two conflict scenes.
Figure 6.44: 3D model of a boulder at QUR-449 on which two depictions of horsemen have been carved on opposite panels of the same boulder (QUR-449.64). The inscription refers to
‘the horseman’ (3D model generated by author using Agisoft Photoscan).
Figure 6.45: An interesting carving located at QUR-551 with two small structures visible in the background. Their function is unclear. A close-up of the rock art in this photo is featured in figure 5.12 (QUR-551.56).
QUR-20
Just 300 m across the valley, to the northwest, lies QUR-20, a site consisting of four enclosures and 60 carvings. The site is situated next to the wadi; its location is just visible from QUR-449 and the enclosures become visible when one leaves the hill of QUR-449 (fig. 6.46). At QUR-20, the enclosures are situated on the slope of the hill and the carvings scattered around and above the structures (fig. 2.10). Most of the carvings are textual, of which four are of particular interest. Three mention an enclosure and one mentions camping.58 These inscriptions may indicate that the enclosures were used or even constructed by the authors of the inscriptions; the ambiguity of the texts allows for either interpretation (Al-Jallad 2015).
The excavation of one of the enclosures and the dating of its fire pits yielded only post-15th century AD dates, but this does not exclude an earlier construction date (Huigens 2018, 33).
6.3.5 Area 4 – southeast Introduction
This area is the most south-eastern part of the Jebel Qurma that has been surveyed in 2012-2016 (fig. 6.47).
The medium-sized sites and one very large site are concentrated on the southern edge of the basalt plateau and in a cluster next to a valley and mudflat. This valley is part of a large open area between two basalt ridges and that stretches into the Hazimah plains. It is thus possible to reach these sites by travelling from the plains into the valley between the basalt hills. Furthermore, one can move between the hills on which QUR-256 and QUR-258 are situated to reach the north-easternmost sites of Jebel Qurma, such as QUR- 148 (area 5). There are not a lot of sites in this area, but one of them is one of the three very large sites in the region: QUR-64.
58 Inscriptions QUR-20.45.1, QUR-20.50.1, QUR-20.50.2, and QUR-20.50.3.
Figure 6.46: This photo was taken further down the hill than the photo of figure 6.43. Site QUR-20 (indicated) and its enclosures are visible in the distance to the left of the wadi.
QUR-64
QUR-64 is situated on a hilltop on the edge of the basalt, overlooking the valley and mudflat below (fig.
6.48). It has a large cairn and a very large concentration of carvings located on the highest part of the hill.
(fig. 6.49). As at other sites with large cairns, the carvings concentrate around and on the structure. This cairn is probably also a tower tomb, but it has not been excavated so its typology and chronology is not known (Huigens 2018, 67). The site has a total of 463 composite carvings, making it the second largest petroglyph site in Jebel Qurma. The has site has a number of large boulders covered in large compositions or accumulations of images and texts (e.g. fig. 4.26). Two of the hidden hunter scenes occur at QUR-64 (fig.
6.1, fig. 6.8). In total, there are 11 scenes depicted at this site, including hunting, conflict, and nursing scenes.
Figure 6.47: Distribution of carving sites per size in the south-eastern area. Sites mentioned in the text are indicated.
Figure 6.48: View from QUR-64 to the southeast and the mudflat in the distance. A herd of sheep moves along paths through the
QUR-28
The sites QUR-28 and QUR-32 are located approximately 700 m apart on the southernmost basalt hills of Jebel Qurma. They are thereby part of a long row of sites, starting with QUR-2, overlooking the Hazimah plains. At both sites an interesting distribution of the carvings is visible. At QUR-28 there is a cairn on the edge of the hill and a long pendant stretching inwards on the plateau (fig. 6.50). The 75 composite carvings are only concentrated near the cairn at the edge of the hill and do not occur down the length of the pendant.
QUR-32
At QUR-32, there are several structures, including a cairn on the ridge of the hill, a long pendant, and a large cairn at the end of the pendant. Like at QUR-28, the carvings are concentrated on the ridge of the hill together with the first cairn (fig. 6.51). From these positions, one has a wide view across the plains (fig.
6.52). The two sites have a comparable number of carvings as well; QUR-32 has a concentration of 72 composite carvings.
Figure 6.49: a) QUR-64 seen from the north. The large cairn is just visible on the highest point of the hilltop to the left. The carvings concentrate at this spot as well. b) View from on top of the site, with the cairn on the right, to the southwest.
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b
Figure 6.50: a) The pendant at QUR-28 and the cairn (indicated) at the end, on the edge of the hill. b) Team members document rock art and inscriptions, which cluster on the basalt ridge.
a
b
Figure 6.51: a) QUR-32 seen from a distance. The long pendant structure dots the plateau of the hill. At the edge of the hill sits a cairn (indicated by the arrow), around which the Safaitic carvings are concentrated. b) Team members document rock art and inscriptions around the cairn, on the ridge of the basalt top.
a
b
6.3.6 Area 5 – northeast Introduction
The north-eastern area comprises a number of basalt islands and is bordered by Qa’a al-Teyarat to the west and the hamad to the east (fig. 6.53). After a number of small and very small sites on the large basalt plateau, this area consists of several larger sites, including one of the region’s largest sites: QUR-148. The sites are situated on the edges of the small basalt plateaus and are all within circa 2 km from one another.
As mentioned above, this area can be reached from QUR-64, but it can also be reached by travelling from the other northern sites across the mudflat when it is dry. The hill on which QUR-148 is situated is the last basalt plateau before a stretch of the plains begins.
Figure 6.52: a) The view from QUR-32 looking southeast. b) The view looking west.
a
b
QUR-148
There are 321 composite carvings at QUR-148, making it the fourth largest petroglyph site in Jebel Qurma, after QUR-2, QUR-64, and QUR-186. This and its position on the north-easternmost plateau of the region make it an interesting site. It is situated on a large hill together with QUR-147 and two other smaller sites (fig. 6.54). The concentration of carvings and a large cairn sit on the edge of the hill (fig. 6.55). The carvings cluster mostly on the eastern side of the cairn. Especially noteworthy is its large number of big boulders covered in multiple rock art figures and inscriptions (fig. 6.56, fig. 6.10).
The large cairn is a tower tomb and is similar in morphology to the tower tomb cairn at QUR-2 (Huigens 2018, 186). A number of Safaitic engravings were found under the tomb cover and there was a Safaitic inscription on a stone that was used to build one of the burial chambers adjacent to the tower. The cairn was reused multiple times for burials, but only two burials could be dated. These belong to the Mamluk and Ottoman/Mandate period (ibid., 182). However, the presence of Safaitic engravings in the construction of one of the burial chambers indicates that some phases of the cairn were much older. Based on the cairn’s similarity to the cairn at QUR-2, it may date broadly to the Hellenistic/Roman period (ibid., 186). Like at the other tower tomb sites, it is possible that the large concentration of carvings at this site was already present on the hill before the cairn was constructed.
QUR-147
Situated on the same hill, QUR-147 has a much smaller concentration of 58 composite carvings. The cairn at this site was excavated in 2017, revealing that it is a ring cairn on top of which a tower tomb had been built (P. Akkermans pers. comm. 2018). This site therefore shares some characteristics with QUR-148, but has much fewer carving this site is situated in the middle of the hill, whereas QUR-148 sites on the edge.
Figure 6.53: Distribution of carving sites per size in the north-eastern area. Sites mentioned in the text are indicated.
Figure 6.54: View of the cairns (indicated) of QUR-147 and QUR-148 on top of the large basalt hill.
Figure 6.55: QUR-148 and its large cairn situated on the edge of the hill, as seen from QUR-147.
Figure 6.56: A large panel at QUR-148 with 11 rock art figures and 17 inscriptions on it (QUR- 148.74). Another large boulder is visible on the left (QUR-148.139). This part of the site overlooks the
QUR-290
QUR-290 and QUR-137 are located on a smaller, relatively low basalt hill to the southwest (fig. 6.57).
QUR-290 has a concentration of 169 composite carvings. There are several structures at this site, including a cairn and several enclosures, but there is no clear relationship to the carvings. The carvings are mostly concentrated higher up on the hill, on and around the cairn. A number of interesting carvings are located here, such as solitary hunting scenes and small combined carvings of a single inscription and image (e.g. fig.
4.38).
QUR-137
The site consists of several structures, including cairns and enclosures. The cairns and carvings are concentrated higher up on the hill, from where there is a good view of the mudflat below (fig. 6.58). There are a total of 90 composite carvings here, including several scenes (e.g. fig. 3.9).
Figure 6.57: The hill on which QUR-290 is located, seen from the southeast. The enclosures are visible at the bottom of the slope of the hill to the left.
Figure 6.58: The view from QUR-137 of the mudflat below.
