How advertisements of care products affect body dissatisfaction and negative mood of young adults and how this effect influences their purchase intention: An empirical investigation on the Greek market.
By
Elina Safaridou
University Of Groningen
Newcastle University Business School
Dual Award master of Science
Advanced International Business Management and Marketing
December 2015
II
Master Thesis
How advertisements of care products affect body dissatisfaction and negative mood of young adults and how this effect influences their purchase intention: An empirical investigation on the Greek market.
Dual Award master of Science
Advanced International Business Management and Marketing
Supervisors:
Newcastle University, Business School Dr. Nima Heirati University of Groningen,
Faculty of Economics and Business: Dr. Henk Ritsema Elina Safaridou
Student numbers: 140674716 S2711095 Notara 31
60100 Katerini, Greece Word count: 13119
Submission date: 07 December 2015
III ABSTRACT
This research investigates how the models‟ body size of International commercials of care products affects young adults‟ body dissatisfaction and negative mood and how this effect reflects on their final purchase intention. Self-esteem, social comparison tendency and gender were hypothesized to be significant moderators in this relationship.
A non-experimental, empirical survey research with quantitative primary data selection was conducted. Two scenarios, each of which included models with different body types (thin, idealize versus average, next door) were created. In total, 285 young adults in Greece participated in the survey. SPSS statistics software 23.0 was used for data analysis and hypotheses testing.
The findings of these results suggest that thin, idealized models influence to a greater extent individuals‟ body dissatisfaction than average-size models do. However, no significant difference was found between models‟ body size and negative mood caused by commercial‟s exposure. Moreover, social comparison tendency has been found to be a significant moderator in the relationship between the thin models commercials and people‟s body dissatisfaction as well as negative mood. The current study also indicates that self-esteem negatively moderates the relationship between thin models‟
commercial and negative mood. No significant moderator effect was found on body dissatisfaction influence. The key finding of the study though is that thin models‟
influence on body dissatisfaction affects positively the purchase behavior. Thus, regardless of negative body image the commercial causes, young consumers intend to buy the advertised product in order to achieve those thin, idealized models‟ standards.
Finally, this research contributes to the existing literature of Consumer Psychology and Marketing fields and might help managers to implement the appropriate marketing strategy, involving the appropriate models (thin versus average-size) in order to achieve the desired managerial goals.
Key words: Self-esteem, Advertisement, Social Comparison Tendency, Purchase Intention, Body Image, Body Dissatisfaction, Negative Mood
IV
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to express my deep sense of gratitude to both of my supervisors Dr Nima Heirati from Newcastle Business School and Dr Henk Ritsema from the Faculty of Economics and Business of the University of Groningen for being helpful and understanding as well as supportive through this challenging period in my life both in academic and personal level. I am also very much thankful to my friends for their help, and for encouraging people to participate in the survey. I also would like to thank my boyfriend, for being so patient with me dealing with anxiety.
I wish to acknowledge my family who supported me in many ways during the thesis experience and regardless any difficulties, they were the ones who pushed me to reach my goal. Finally, I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my mentor, my father.
He was the one who inspired me to set big goals and never give up. He always supported my choices with his understanding and his financial resources support. I am sincerely grateful for his encouragement and for these great things he has taught me.
V TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 Introduction ……….………...1
1.1 Introduction………..…………...1
1.2 Background………...1
1.3 Research Objective and Questions………...3
1.4 Research Rationale ………..………4
1.5 Research Design……….. …………...6
1.6 Structure of Thesis ………...6
1.7 Conclusion……….…………..7
2 Literature Review and Conceptual Development ………..…...7
2.1 Introduction………..…….7
2.2 Models in advertisements……….….………...…..7
2.2.1. Thin, idealized versus average, next-door looking models………...8
2.2.2 Self-Esteem………..….….10
2.2.3 Social Comparison tendency ……….…….………11
2.2.4 Body Dissatisfaction……….….….12
2.2.5 Negative Mood after commercial’s exposure ………….………...….13
2.2.6 Consumer Behavior and Purchase Intention ………..…..14
2.3 Development of Hypotheses………...….15
2.3.1 Model’s thinness and attractiveness effect on negative mood and body dissatisfaction………..………..…...15
2.3.2 Gender differences on Body dissatisfaction and Negative Mood….…....…16
2.3.3 Social Comparison Tendency affect on Body Dissatisfaction and Negative Mood……….………...……18
2.3.4 Prior Self-Esteem affect on Body Dissatisfaction and Negative Mood ………..….19 2.3.5 Body Dissatisfaction and
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Negative Mood effect on Purchase Intention ………..…………...20
2.4 Conceptual Model………...21
2.5 Conclusion……….…22
3 Research Design……….……23
3.1 Introduction……….…..…..23
3.2 Methodology - Quantitive Survey Research……….…..…….23
3.3 Methods………..….…..23
3.3.1 Construct and Measure Specification……….………...23
3.3.2 Primary data Collection Instrument……….……….………..26
3.3.3 Sampling Methods……….…………27
3.3.4 Ethical consideration………..…….…27
3.3.5 Data Analysis……….……….………28
3.4 Conclusion………..…….29
4 Results ………...30
4.1Inroduction………...…...30
4.2.1 Sample Characteristics………..…….31
4.2.2 Descriptive Results………...33
4.3 Internal Consistency Reliability ………...35
4.4 Hypotheses testing………..….….36
4.5Conclusion……….….…...…40
5 Discussion……….…………..…....42
5.1 Introduction ……….…..……42
5.2 Model’s size effect on Body Dissatisfaction and Negative Mood of young adult………..……….………42
5.3 Self-Esteem Comparison Tendency and Gender moderation effect on Body Dissatisfaction and Negative and Mood……….…………..…….43
5.4 Body Dissatisfaction and Negative Mood influence on Purchase Intention……….………….………45
VII
5.5 Theoretical and Managerial Implications……….………….……..46
5.6 Limitations and Future Research……….…...47
5.7Conclusion………...47
6 References ………...48
7 Appendices………... 57
Lists of Tables Table 1 Constructs’ definitions and measurement specification………..25
Table 2 Sample Characteristics: Demographic ……….………..…31
Table 3 Item descriptions and measurement model results ……….……….………33
Table 4 Construct-level measurement statistics and correlation matrix: Group 1…..36
Table 5 Construct-level measurement statistics and correlation matrix: Group 2…..36
Table 6Testing Hypothesis 1-One Way Anova……….…37
Table 7 Testing Moderation effect of Hypotheses 2a-4a-Linear Regression………38
Table 8 Testing Moderation effect of Hypotheses 2b-4b-Linear Regression …………..40
Table 9 Regression Analysis for H5………... 41
Table 10 Results of Hypotheses Tests……….……42
List of Figures Figure 1 Conceptual Model…..………..22
VIII
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
AVE: Average Variance Extracted E.g.: Exempli gratia (for example) Et al.: Et Alii (and others)
I.e.: Id EST
H: Hypothesis
RQ: Research Question TV: Television
SD: Standard Deviation
SPSS: Statistical Package for the Social Sciences Ad: Advertisement
1
1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Introduction
Thin, idealized models‟ employment in advertisement received increasing attention both from social and marketing studies (see Anschutz et al, 2009; Aubrey, 2007; Ahern et al., 2008; Bassenoff, 2006; Grabe et al., 2008; Micu & Coulter, 2012; Halliwell, 2013; Smeesters & Mandel, 2006). Advertisers have been heavily criticized for promoting unrealistic standards by employing thin, skinny models and perfect bodies that for most people are unachievable (Sobol & Darke, 2014). For decades now, there has been an overall increase of the exposure of thin, idealized women images in the media and specifically in famous fashion magazines, which influence women (Kim &
Lennon, 2007) as they tend to engage in appearance related comparisons (Leahey et al., 2007). This exposure is claimed to have a negative influence on an individual‟s body image and enhances negative mood (Kim & Lennon, 2007; Ahern et al., 2008; Tucci &
Peters, 2008; Bessenoff, 2006; Harper & Tiggemann, 2008). This study aims at investigating the effect of the model‟s size (thin, idealized versus average, next-door looking models) in international commercials on body dissatisfaction and negative mood of young adults and how this effect influences their final purchase intention towards the advertised product. The introductory chapter presents the background of the study. Next, research objective and questions as well as the research rationale are outlined.
1.2 Background
Media is one of the most potent sources of socio-cultural messages about appearance (Halliwell, 2013) and might be a source of a continuous stream of anxiety-provoking experience (Aubrey, 2007). The average person is exposed to media images and advertisements every day (Hobz et al., 2007). Media exposure has been defined as the frequency of magazines reading and television watching (Cash & Pruzinsky, 2002).
Objectifying media has been shown to have a number of negative effects, including lower level of social competence (Hamilton et al., 2007), body dissatisfaction (Rivadeneyra et al., 2007; Aubrey, 2007; Kim & Damhorst, 2010; Grabe et al., 2008;
Harper & Tiggemann, 2008) and appearance dissatisfaction (Rivadeneyra et al., 2007).
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Fashion models promote unhealthy ideals as their body size is significantly below the average level (Klesse et al., 2012). Media exposure to thin idealized attractive women increases the internalization of thin ideals as socio-cultural beauty norm and social comparison tendency (Bissell & Rask, 2010). Social comparison has been defined as automatic process the effect of which can be modified through conscious processing (Want, 2009) and which can generate negative effects such as body dissatisfaction (Myers & Crowther, 2009) when one is exposed to idealized, unrealistic beauty standards in the media and specifically in advertisements. Therefore, comparisons with others and especially models, may strongly influence how people think and feel about themselves and the emotions they experience (Epstude & Mussweiler, 2009).
Marketers often support their decision of using thin, perfectly beautiful models and argue that average size models do not appeal to consumers and do not achieve the level of desired sales (Diedrichs & Lee, 2011; Wan et al., 2013). Therefore, brands use the thin stereotype because of the fear of losing revenue (Bian & Foxal, 2013). Moreover, some industry stakeholders even argued that average-size models promote obesity and unhealthy behaviors among consumers (Wells, 2010) based apparently on the argument that models who are employed in advertisements, fashion shows or commercials often are viewed as role models and frequently their appearance or behavior has been imitated (Fernandez & Pritchard, 2012). Another research that also supports the employment of thin models in a brand‟s marketing activity reveals that when an established brand is associated with small size models, these types of models will result in more positive consequences towards the brand than average-size models (Bian &
Foxall, 2013).
However, numerous researches proved negative effects of mass media and especially women‟s fashion magazines, on body image (Hargreaves & Tiggemann, 2004; Kim &
Lennon, 2007). Ahern et al. (2008) and Tucci & Peters (2008) also claimed in their research that the influence media has on body image of women is powerful (Ahern et al., 2008; Tucci & Peters, 2008). Magazines usually include thin, attractive women and muscular, wealthy, prestigious men (Hobz et al., 2007) sending the message that obtaining these ideals is feasible when individuals work towards society‟s expectations (Hobz et al., 2007; Sohn, 2009). Advertisements also tend to include attractive women as visual stimuli, especially when it comes to products related to beauty (Micu et al.,
3
2009; Wasylkiw et al., 2009). In the general advertising framework, the spokesperson or the model who has been employed to promote a product, is the mean that transfers a message or product information and represents the product (Dimofte et al., 2015).
Thereby, commercial campaigns aim at convincing women to use the products by making a concrete link between the thin ideal models and means to achieve that for women themselves (Anschutz et al, 2009). To conclude, a constant depiction of attractive, thin, idealized models in advertisement often affects vulnerable individuals‟
own body perception and satisfaction (Sohn, 2009). Thus, “media depictions of such ideal body shapes increase the distance between our actual self-evaluation and our ideal self” (Sohn, 2009).
1.3Research Objective and Questions
The purpose of this research is to investigate the influence that thin, idealized models and average-size models of international care products‟ brand have on young adults‟
body dissatisfaction and negative mood and how this effect reflects their purchase intention towards the advertised product. Thus, the research objective reads as follows:
General Research Objective: The main research objective is to investigate the effect of models‟ attractiveness and body size (thin, idealized versus average) of care products‟
international advertisement on body dissatisfaction and negative mood of young adults and how this effect reflects on their final purchase intention towards the advertised product.
Moreover, the extent to which factors such as gender, social comparison tendency and self-esteem moderate the influence of commercial on body dissatisfaction as well as negative mood after young adult‟s advertisement exposure will be investigated.
Constructs‟ definition and measurement method are provided with details in Table 1 of Chapter 3, Section 3.3.1.
In order to address the research objective, this study aims to answer the following specific research questions.
I. To what extent does models’ size in the care products’ advertisement (thin idealized models versus average size models) have different influence on body dissatisfaction and negative mood of young consumers?
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II. To what extent does the gender moderate the influence of body dissatisfaction and negative mood on the advertisement exposure?
III. To what extent does the social comparison tendency moderate the influence of body dissatisfaction and negative mood on the advertisement exposure?
IV. To what extent does the young adults’ self-esteem prior advertisement exposure affect their body dissatisfaction and negative mood after the advertisement exposure?
V. To what extent does body dissatisfaction and negative mood generated by advertisements affects negatively purchase intention of the advertised product?
1.4 Research Rationale
The effect of thin, idealized models received increasing attention from scholars and practitioners. Powerful images of female and male models in advertisements (Murray, 2012) attract the attention of potential consumers (Häfner & Trampe, 2009; Kardes et al, 2015). Managers aim at convincing consumers that by purchasing the advertised product, consumers are able to achieve the models‟ appearance themselves (Anschutz et al, 2009). Therefore, models represent the ideal self one can obtain by using the advertised product (Aydinoglu & Cian, 2014). This media internalization and comparison tendency that consumers have, viewing idealized models, have numerous negative effects on the individual‟s body image, self-esteem and confidence about their own self and body (Micu et al., 2009; Wasylkiw et al., 2009). Consumers‟ inherent self-perception (Ferguson et al., 2011; Blechert et al., 2009; Roefs et al., 2008) and social comparison tendency level are claimed to be moderating factors that influence the level of the negative advertisement‟s exposure effect (Sohn, 2009; Epstude &
Mussweiler, 2009). While numerous studies have been investigating whether models in advertisements have any influence on consumers‟ body image and self-esteem (see Bessenoff, 2006; Rivadeneyra et al., 2007; Kim & Damhorst, 2010; Grabe et al., 2008;
Aubrey, 2007; Harper & Tiggemann, 2008), little research had linked this influence with the consumers‟ purchase intention.
5
Considering these aspects, and after reviewing existing literature which will be presented in Chapter 2, research gap was identified regarding the extent to which body dissatisfaction and negative mood of potential consumers are affected by advertisements and more specifically TV commercials influence the purchase intention.
The existing literature focuses on its majority on fashion magazines images as a representative part of media and is usually related to fashion and apparel products‟
advertisement (see Kim & Lennon, 2007; Hobz et al., 2007; Aubrey, 2007; Anschutz et al., 2009; Bissell& Rask, 2010; Luff & Gray, 2009; Diedrichs & Lee, 2010; Häfner &
Trampe, 2009; Wasylkiw et al., 2009; Halliwell, 2013; Yu, 2014). It is important however to examine this relationship using also TV commercials, because people are watching a lot of television these days and probably are more exposed to TV commercials than magazines. Very few studies have examined the effects of exposure to televised thin ideals on body image or eating disturbance (Anschutz et al., 2009).
Magazines differ from TV commercials in several ways, such as motion pictures and storyline (Anschutz et al., 2009). Thus, the effects of television commercial exposure on body dissatisfaction might differ from the effects of magazines on body dissatisfaction. Moreover, this study will focus on advertisements of real international brands‟ care products instead of usual fashion magazines‟ images and apparel industry as personal care products are items that are used on a daily basis in Europe (Hall et al, 2007; Hafner & Trampe, 2009). In addition, a few international brands of affordable care products have adapted new strategic marketing related to round models and consumers‟ self-esteem focus with the purpose of altering the thin-idealized model stereotype in their commercials (Bissell & Rask, 2010). This marketing movement aims to enhance consumers‟ self-perception (Murray, 2012), increase advertisement effectiveness and eventually products‟ sales. The extent to which this is achievable will be part of this research‟s investigation.
Thereby, this research aims at fulfilling the research gap and investigating the potential relationship as a deeper understanding of consumers‟ body dissatisfaction and negative mood on purchase intention is needed.
This research might be helpful for marketing practitioners who may tailor their marketing approaches and use the findings of this research as a guide to approach consumers through emotions and mood that are generated by commercial campaigns.
6
The research might serve as possible guidance in advertising design and model selection for the promotion campaigns. Furthermore, the extent to which purchase decision is influenced by advertisement will be investigated. Therefore, managers and stakeholders of the international care products‟ brands may also benefit from the findings of this research as the research‟s goal is to better understand the Greek consumer based on the possible link of advertisement to purchase intention since Greece is a challenging market to enter as well as operate in, due to economic recession of many years (Kouri, 2014).
1.5 Research Design
In order to investigate the research questions, initially a secondary data analysis, which includes a literature review in Advertising and Consumer psychology fields has been conducted. Definitions and previous studies‟ outcomes from the secondary data were used as a theoretical base for this study. In line with the research questions a quantitative approach and survey design was chosen for this study (Crotty, 1998). For the development of the online-questionnaire, constructs‟ measures were taken from prior studies and adapted to suit the purpose of this research (see Table 1, Chapter 3).
Convenience and snowball sampling methods were used for the participants‟ approach and survey distribution as participants were randomly selected from online students‟
forums and university online platforms in order to reach students or young adults. Next, snowballing mechanism enhanced further participation and self-selected participants were reached to take part in the research. After the collection of primary data from the online survey, relationships among constructs were tested by means of statistical techniques. Statistical Software SPSS 23.0 was used for that purpose. Before the final data analysis, a pilot test was run to test constructs validity and reliability and to ensure that participants can fully understand all the questions of the survey. Then sample properties, and descriptive analyses followed. Reliability and validity tests were also run in order to move on to the final hypothesis testing. Again, SPSS statistic software 23.0 was used for the purposes of hypotheses testing.
1.6 Thesis Structure
After Chapter 1, a review of current literature and theories related to the constructs relevant to this study will be provided in Chapter 2. Based on the study‟s theoretical
7
framework, relationships between the constructs will be specified and hypotheses developed. In Chapter 3, research design and methodology are presented. Afterwards, Chapter 4 presents the results of the empirical investigation. Finally, Chapter 5 provides the discussion of the findings, theoretical contributions, managerial implications, limitations of the study and suggestions for further research.
1.7 Conclusion
In Chapter 1, the background of the research has been introduced, the main research objective and related questions have been outlined and the choice of the topic has been justified with the research‟s rationale. Finally, the design of the investigation has been presented and the structure of the thesis was outlined.
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2 LITERATURE REVIEW AND CONCEPTUAL DEVELOPMENT 2.1 Introduction
This chapter presents the concepts of existing literature as well as theoretical aspects relevant to the research‟s main objectives and research questions introduced in Chapter 1. In Section 2.2 of this Chapter, existing literature regarding the main constructs is critically reviewed. Next, in Section 2.3 relationship outcomes that build the endogenous constructs of the conceptual model are outlined. Section 2.4 supports the hypotheses development based on previous research and which are in line with the research questions. In conclusion, conceptual model which shows the relationship among constructs that are going to be investigated in the research is presented.
2.2 Models in advertisements
For decades now, beauty and fashion industries have created powerful images that communicate dominant ideology of female beauty as ultra-thin, tall, sexual bodies (Murray, 2012). Models who are employed in commercials have the role to attract the attention of the audience and targeted consumer and potentially increase the sales of the advertised product (Hafner & Trampe, 2009; Kardes et al, 2015) by convincing them that by purchasing the product, consumers are able to achieve models‟ appearance themselves (Anschutz et al, 2009). Taken together, models represent the “ideal self one can obtain” by using the advertised product (Aydinoglu & Cian, 2014). This is the repercussion of the fact that women compare themselves spontaneously and automatically with the models of advertisement (Smeesters & Mandel, 2006) and buy a promise of attaining this ideal which might be one of the reasons to buy the advertised product (Smeesters & Mandel, 2006). It has been identified that women tend to internalize socio- cultural norms related to the thinness and appearance and may believe that they need to reach the unrealistic high beauty norms in order to be accepted and to attain social and personal success (Owen & Spencer, 2013).
2.2.1 Thin, idealized versus average, next-door looking models
In the literature, model‟s thinness and attractiveness effect on products and ad evaluation have received considerable debate (see Micu et al., 2009; Bardone-Cone &
Cass, 2007). Several researches have underlined that people‟s implicit reaction is to express positive feelings and to like thin models as well as find them more attractive
9
than round ones (Smeester & Mandel, 2006; Hafner & Trampe, 2009). In addition to that, it has been declared that when two models with similar facial characteristics, but with different body shape (thin versus large) are employed in the advertisement, thin model are evaluated as more attractive than the larger model (Bissell & Rask, 2010).
Micu et al. (2009) proposed that “women, who use products that have been advertised by attractive models, declare more positive self-confidence and attractiveness as they associate attractive beautiful models with the quality of the product”. According to that, attractive people seem to be more persuasive than less attractive individuals (Diedrichs et al., 2011; Wan et al., 2013; Kardes et al, 2015). Thus, model‟s thinness and attractiveness may link to positive product evaluation (Micu et al., 2009) and attitude towards the brand and the self, as it may have inspirational effects that motivate consumers to achieve those high standards of beauty (Smeesters et al., 2010).
In reverse with the above, other empirical studies declare that thin models in campaign may also influence negatively the advertisement evaluation (Bardone-Cone & Cass, 2007; Ahern et al., 2008; Anschutz et al., 2009) and subsequently the product evaluation (Strack et al., 2006). Models‟ thinness as well as airbrushed, ideal appearance effect on consumer‟s self-perception received increased attention from scholars and practitioner. Studies in Marketing and Consumer Behavior fields have revealed that thin, attractive models generate negative self-judgments like self-esteem and body image (Martin & Kennedy, 1993; Martin & Gentry, 1997; Micu et al., 2009;
Wasylkiw et al., 2009), self-ratings of attractiveness and negative mood (Bessenoff, 2006; Owen & Spencer, 2013; Harper & Tiggemann, 2008). Therefore, it becomes apparent that thin, attractive and ideal models generate general negative emotions to consumers (Tucci & Peters, 2008).
Considering these aspects, when ideal bodies are highlighted in ads, the message is received negatively and the source is denigrated (Wan et al., 2013). Numerous researches also have investigated and proved the link between idealized models prevalence in media and eating disorders (Grabe et al., 2008; Want, 2009; Fernandez &
Pritchard, 2012; Anschutz et al., 2009; Kim & Lennon, 2007; Halliwell, 2013).
However, this correlation was challenged by Klesse (2012) who suggested another side effect of consumers‟ thin models‟ exposure. He argued that individuals who are exposed to extremely thin model, perceive their potential or actual goal to lose weight
10
as less attainable when engage in comparison procedure and they disengage from the goal of attaining a thinner self. Thus, the prevalence of extremely thin model images in media may also contribute to rising obesity rates.
Other practitioners support the statement that the employment of average - size model in advertisements enhance purchase intention over the use of ultra-thin or over-sized models (Tsai & Chang, 2007; Micu et al., 2012; Hagtvedt & Patrick, 2008)since consumers appreciate realistic, normal idols in advertisements whose appearance is similar to theirs (Hagtvedt & Patrick, 2008).
Based on these findings, a new strategic movement regarding marketing is observed from big cosmetic companies (Micu et al., 2009; Hafner & Trampe, 2009; Bian &
Foxall, 2013) and leading teen magazines (Luff & Gray, 2009) that alters this stereotype and adopts more round, normal, “next-door‟ models. Uniliver for instance, launched the Dove‟s Campaign for Real Beauty based on personal marketing research, in order to change the western stereotype style of models used in advertisements. Dove is a brand of personal care products which redesigned its marketing strategy in order to reach audiences‟ emotions by building connections with its female target group (Murray, 2012). Moreover, Dove Self-Esteem Fund serves as a site for in person and online workshops that provides “self-esteem enhancement advices” for women and girls (Murray, 2012). Other big cosmetics brands like Benefit, Pretty Polly, Fake Bake and Magnum are also observed to use more real women in their advertisements lately (Bian & Foxall, 2011).
In conclusion, this attempt to reverse the extremely thin model stereotype has been appreciated from the consumers in their majority (Hagtvedt & Patrick, 2008) as was discussed above, causing positive emotions towards themselves and the brand (Tsai &
Chang, 2007; Micu et al., 2012; Hagtvedt & Patrick, 2008). One study in the Netherlands revealed, though unexpected outcomes that come in contrast to previous literature and suggested that exposure to average-size models in Dove TV commercials resulted in negative mood and restricted eating among young Dutch women (Anschutz, 2009). Despite this attempt to shift thin ideal to average-size, next-door models, still the big majority of international brand use thin, idealized women and masculine, attractive men in their marketing campaigns.
11 2.2.2 Self-esteem
The consequences of exposure to thin models on self-esteem and body dissatisfaction have been studied with quantitative approaches and empirical testing to a great extent (Klesse et al., 2012; see Grabe et al, 2008). Self-esteem correlation with media exposure and especially exposure to thin, idealized models in advertisements has been also widely investigated (see Bessenoff, 2006; Rivadeneyra et al., 2007; Kim &
Damhorst; 2010). However, the extent to which inherent, prior consumer‟s self- esteem moderates the relationship between thin or masculine, idealized models and body image, has not been widely explored. Ferguson et al. (2011) supported that women, who already have body dissatisfaction are likely to be affected by images of models.
Similarly, women who evaluate positively their own body and consequently have greater self-esteem pay less attention to attractive others (Blechert, 2009; Roefs et al., 2008) and are less likely to turn to others for guidance and compare themselves to media models than do women with low self- evaluation levels (Mischner et al., 2013).
Thus, positive body image and consequently self-esteem, protect women from negative environment messages related to appearance (Halliwell, 2013).
Self-esteem has been defined by Coopersmith (1990) as “an individual‟s self- evaluation and the extent to which the person believes him worthwhile”. Moreover, self-esteem has also been conceptualized as a favorable or unfavorable attitude toward the self, (Rosenberg, 1965) that is frequently measured in relation to media exposure (Hobz et al., 2007) and can be concerned with dimensions as performance, social relations and appearance (Heatherton & Polivy, 1991). This research will investigate appearance self-esteem dimension of the concept as it relates more to feelings of self- worth in terms of physical appearance and attractiveness (Heatherton & Polivy, 1991).
Moreover, self-esteem can be viewed as both an “enduring personality trait” and
“subject to situational influences” (Micu et al., 2012). Self-esteem can be finally divided to Global and Specific self-esteem (Marsh, 1993). Specific self-esteem will be used in this research as it is most relevant to behavior and measures situation and domain specific self-evaluation (Rosenberg et al., 1995) since the research is interested in investigating the direct attitudinal effects of the advertisement (see Aydinoglu &
Cian, 2014).
12 2.2.3 Social Comparison Tendency
Social comparison has been defined as an automatic process the effect of which can be modified through conscious processing (Want, 2009) and which can generate negative effects such as body dissatisfaction (Myers & Crowther, 2009). It is also claimed that people tend to compare themselves with others without realizing this comparison process during the time it is happening (Botta, 1999). Festinger (1954) in his social comparison theory supports the idea that “humans have a drive to compare their own abilities with similar others for the purpose of self-evaluation”. However, there is another aspect that asserts that social comparison effect on one‟s body and self- perception depends on comparison goals such as self-evaluation, self-improvement, and self-enhancing goals (Martin and Gentry, 1997; Micu & Coulter, 2009) especially when one engages in upward comparison. Upward comparison, which is the comparison to others who are superior or more beautiful and fortune, usually influences negatively people‟s mood and self-perception (Wheeler & Miyake, 1992)while downward comparison motives has been claimed to influence positively one‟s self worth as well as advertisement evaluation (Micu et al., 2012). However, upward comparison can also enhance one‟s self by implicating and replicating behaviors or appearance to improve his perception of self and be closer to the comparative standards (Wheeler & Miyake, 1992). This indicates that thin, attractive models can also lead to inspiration and motivational behavior as one may be willing to achieve the model‟s beauty standards (Smeesters et al., 2010). In addition to that, social comparison tendency effect on an individual‟s self-evaluation influence depends on the extremity of the comparison standard (Smeesters & Mandel, 2006). Thus, the extent to which models in commercials are extremely thin or extremely overweight is a significant factor that influences the moderating effect of the social comparison tendency on self-evaluation (Smeesters & Mandel, 2006).
Finally, Botta (2000) based on previous Festinger (1954) study, suggested that media images internalization and subsequently the comparison procedure can be ignored, as it depends on the cultural beauty standards of each individual. Therefore, beautiful models images in commercials could be ignored and do not affect negatively body image or mood if one does not perceive these models as the ideals of beauty.
13 2.2.4 Body Dissatisfaction
Generally, body image refers to a “person‟s perceptions, feelings, or attitudes about his or her body or physical appearance” (Grogan, 1999). Among the many concepts of body image such as body satisfaction, appearance perception, orientation and schema (Cash & Pruzinsky, 2002), the present study focuses on body dissatisfaction dimension.
Previous studies linked mass media exposure to body image issues of individuals (Hargreaves & Tiggemann, 2004; Kim & Lennon, 2007; Ahern et al., 2008; Tucci &
Peters, 2008). Exposure to idealized thin or masculine images in the media, though, is an important risk factor on body image dissatisfaction (Levine, 2009) as beauty standards set by the media are very high and mostly impossible to obtain. Thus, media highlights the contrast between idealized models and real women leading to negative emotions and feelings of incompetence (Myers & Crowther, 2009). However, Kim &
Lennon (2007) suggested that women‟s negative self- evaluation from watching attractive models in ads is temporary as afterwards, women report to feel more attractive and have more confidence when use this advertised product. Body dissatisfaction issues have reached normative levels among women and have become a global problem (Grabe et al., 2008) since body image is an important part of an individual‟s identity and therefore comparing ourselves with the images presented in mass media affects one‟s self-evaluation, often by establishing an ideal of desired look (Klesse et al., 2012). Body image has been defined by Schilder (1934) as a stored knowledge structure that includes perceptions of who and what we have been and how we see ourselves currently. Body image can be also identified as a component of self- esteem concept (Rosa et al., 2006) and can be assessed to the extent to which people are (dis) satisfied with their bodies (Kim & Lennon, 2007). This last definition of body image and more specifically body dissatisfaction dimension is adopted for the purposes of this study (Ferguson et al., 2011; Fitzsimmons-Craft et al, 2012; Harper &
Tiggemann, 2008; Knauss et al., 2007).
2.2.5 Negative Mood after commercial’s exposure
Attractive, thin models in advertising can negatively influence self-ratings of attractiveness, self-esteem, weight related appearance anxiety (Harper & Tiggemann, 2008) and, not surprisingly, the overall mood of potential consumers (e.g., Bessenoff, 2006; Smeesters & Mandel, 2006; Harper & Tiggemann, 2008). These results imply
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that using less thin models in commercials not only does not make women feel better, but moreover, generate negative mood and emotions after the commercial exposure (Anschutz, 2009). Moreover, one‟s negative mood reflects to individual‟s body perception as well as body dysphoria (Baker et al.,1995). Harper and Tiggemann (2008) also found that looking at images of very thin models was negatively correlated with mood of female young adults. Consumers‟ mood is a very important aspect of consumer behavior as it has been suggested that a product is more likely to be consumed when individuals are in a positive mood (Chan, 2005). Finally, Bassenoff (2006) suggests that thin-ideal advertisements lead not only to negative mood but also to a potential depression tendency. In addition, negative mood has been proved to be correlated with self-esteem and body dissatisfaction (Heatherton & Polivy, 1991).
On the other hand, average size, healthy weight models have been reported to affect positively people‟s mood (Owen & Spencer, 2013). Finally, individuals who perceive their appearance as a central factor of their self-worth, are more vulnerable to be triggered regarding their emotions and mood when exposed to external environment (Jakatdar et al., 2006). Thus, body focused anxiety is expected after thin models exposure, while more positive mood and encouragement is expected after average-size models‟ exposure (Owen & Spencer, 2013). Relevant studies also confirmed body dissatisfaction and depressive symptoms‟ positive correlation in adolescent population, which revealed that girls who tend to have a negative body image do also report more depressive mood (Holsen et al., 2001).
Radically contrary findings from other research had shown, however, that exposure to average-size models in a television commercial resulted in negative mood and restricted eating among young Dutch women (Anschutz et al, 2009).
2.2.6 Consumer Behavior and Purchase Intention
Human evaluations and decision making procedure can be explicit or thoughtful and implicit or spontaneous (Micu et al., 2012). On one hand, consumer behavior might be impulsive or depend on different psychological processes and rules (Bettman et al., 2008; Simonson, 2008). On the other hand, it has been found that consumer behavior is unthinking impulse which is outside of conscious awareness (Strack, 2006). Dunning (2007) however, asserts that consumer behavior regarding the decision making process
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is rather conscious and analytical one with emotional elements in it. Purchase intention is the last stage of consumer information processing that occurs when advertising message is evaluated (Sohn, 2009). The previous steps include attention, message clarity, advertising believability, argument quality, attitude towards the ad and attitude toward the brand (Sohn, 2006). Relationship between purchase intention and self- esteem has been identified and it has been declared that people‟s decision is affected by self-image motives and their decisions must honor and flatter their image of self (Dunning, 2007). Dunning (2007) also underlines that the decision making procedure regarding the purchase intention is the sum of the relevant beliefs, needs and desires, the so called, belief harmonization. Purchase decision- making can be complex procedure that involves assessment of needs and desires affected by factors such as consumer‟s societal role, value system and cultural and environmental norms (Barber et al., 2012). Thus, purchase intention can be influenced by how individuals perceive the purchase activity against their own personal satisfaction or self-image. If purchase activity comes against one‟s self-image, then purchase intention will be low (Barber et al., 2012).
Very few , though, researchers have investigated models‟ body shape effect on purchase intention and even fewer analyzed body dissatisfaction and negative mood influence on purchase decision (see Rosa et al., 2006 & Dunning, 2007). Sohn (2014) for instance, suggested that purchase intention is more likely when average-size models are employed in advertisement whether the model is male or female. Marketers, on the other hand, believe that idealized bodies increase purchase intention (Diedrichs et al., 2011) as consumers often rely on the promise of the advertisement (Smeesters &
Mandel, 2006) that they will be able to achieve model‟s standards using the product (Anschutz et al., 2009).
2.3 Development of Hypotheses
In this section, the proposed relationships between the construct mentioned beforehand will be specified and justified based on existing literature and the conceptual model.
Therefore, hypotheses based on research questions and previous findings are going to be presented.
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2.3.1 Model’s thinness and attractiveness effect on negative mood and body dissatisfaction
Models‟ thinness and idealization promoted by the media in general and advertisements specifically, have been criticized in many studies. Numerous studies in the consumer behavior field have revealed that thin, attractive models generate negative self- judgments like self-esteem and body dissatisfaction (Martin & Kennedy, 1993; Martin
& Gentry, 1997; Micu et al., 2009; Wasylkiw et al., 2009). Body dissatisfaction is the dimension of the body image concept and refers to a person‟s negative perception and dissatisfaction with his or her body (Fernandez & Pritchard, 2012). Internalization of thin, ideal images and conscious and subconscious comparison behavior towards models usually causes self-worthiness issues like body image disturbance (Owen &
Spencer, 2013). Thereby, media constant employment of thin, idealized models‟
appearance standards as well as advertisements‟ focus on “perfect” bodies generate a negative evaluation of individuals‟ own bodies as they feel that they fail to reach the high beauty standards that are promoted (Aubrey, 2007).
It has been declared in previous studies that attractive, thin models in advertisements apart from body perception influence have also the power to negatively influence consumers‟ mood (Bessenoff, 2006; Smeesters & Mandel, 2006; Harper & Tiggemann, 2008). Therefore, thin models in commercials generate negative mood and emotions to a potential customer after the commercial exposure (Anschutz, 2009; Harper &
Tiggemann, 2008). Bassennoff (2006) took a step further and suggested that this kind of models not only generate negative mood but also can lead to potential depression of individuals who are exposed to these images.
In addition to that, researchers have explored that the employment of average- sized model in advertisements over the use of ultra-thin (Tsai & Chang, 2007; Micu et al., 2012; Hagtvedt & Patrick, 2008) might generate positive emotions towards one‟s self, confidence and mood as consumers appreciate realistic, normal idols in advertisements who look like them (Hagtvedt & Patrick, 2008).
Taken together, it becomes evident that thin, idealized models may influence negatively individual‟s self-confidence, emotions and consequently the general mood (Micu et al., 2009; Wasylkiw et al., 2009; Tucci & Peters, 2008;Bessenoff, 2006; Smeesters &
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Mandel, 2006) while average-size models can cause adverse, more positive outcomes such as positive body image and positive mood (Tsai & Chang, 2007; Micu et al., 2012). Thus, based on a literature review of negative media influence on body image, it is hypothesized that model‟s size has a different influence on body dissatisfaction and negative mood.
Therefore,
H1a: Size of models in care products’ advertisements (thin, idealized models versus average size models) has a different influence on body dissatisfaction of young consumers.
H1b: Size of models in care products’ advertisements (thin idealized models versus average size models) has a different influence on negative mood of young consumers.
2.3.2 Gender differences on Body Dissatisfaction and Negative Mood
Little research to date had investigated the effect of masculine male models on male self-esteem and purchase intention (Sengupta & Dahl, 2008; Fernandez & Pritchard, 2012). Despite the current global trends that engage men in being extremely interested in their body image (i.e., The emergence of “metro-sexual”), limited is the investigation around the body image influence of media among men (Sohn, 2009).
The majority of investigations around this topic uses female participants (Sohn, 2009), probably because researchers assume that body image influence and social comparison are more women relevant topics (see Halliwell, 2013; Smeesters & Mandel, 2006;
Harper & Tiggemann, 2008; Bian & Foxall, 2013; Wan et al., 2013; Martin, Veer, &
Pervan, 2007; Kim & Lennon, 2007; Owen & Spencer, 2013; Yu, 2014). The limited research that includes both male and female participants suggest though that If women are being pressured by the media to be thin, men are pressured to be lean and toned (Ricciardelli et al., 2010). For both men and women, media models are the primary predictor of drive for thinness (Fernandez & Pritchard, 2012). In fact, both women and men who view media models believe that they should have bodies similar to those of models (Fernandez & Pritchard, 2012). Men as well as young male adults, have been reported to also suffer from body dissatisfaction (Cafri, 2005) after their exposure to
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media (Hobz et al., 2007; Rivadeneyra et al., 2007; Knauss et al., 2007; Blond, 2008) which is generated by body comparison motives (Van Den Berg, 2007).
Average-size male models have been reported to influence positively men‟s and women‟s body image (Diedrichs, 2010). Fernandez and Pritchard (2012) also found that relationships between self-esteem, media influence for thinness can have a profound negative influence on both women and men. Researches that involved exclusively male participants also suggest that men report more negative body image and appreciate less their body shape and also concern more about fitness and muscularity when exposed to muscular models (Hobz et al., 2007; Rivadeneyra, 2007).
Therefore, there is an inverse relationship between media exposure and self-esteem and body image for men (Hobz et al., 2007; Ricciardelli, 2010). However, their influence from ideal models is suggested to be less significant than women‟s (Ahern et al., 2008;
Tucci & Peters, 2008) as women report internalization of body ideals to a greater extent and perceive more pressure from media than men (Knauss et al., 2007). Thereby, a gender difference in the way models‟ images influence individual‟s body perception and satisfaction is expected (Morrison, Morrison, and Hopkins, 2003; Sohn, 2009).
H2a: Gender moderates the relationships between average-size models in a commercial and body dissatisfaction. The relationship between average-size models and body dissatisfaction is stronger for female than male young consumers.
H2b: Gender moderates the relationships between average-size models and negative mood. The relationship between average-size models and negative mood is stronger for female than male young consumers.
H2c:Gender moderates the relationships between thin models in a commercial and body dissatisfaction. The relationship between thin models and body dissatisfaction is stronger for female than male young consumers.
H2d:Gender moderates the relationships between thin models in a commercial and negative mood. The relationship between thin models and negative mood is stronger for female than male young consumers.
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2.3.3 Social Comparison Tendency effect on Body Dissatisfaction and Negative Mood
Individuals are believed to compare themselves spontaneously and automatically with the models of advertisement (Smeesters & Mandel, 2006; Myers & Crowther, 2009) which may lead to negative self-perception and self-worth (Epstude & Mussweiler, 2009). Social comparison is defined as an automatic process the effect of which can be modified through conscious processing (Want, 2009). When comparison serves as a source of inspiration, it may lead to direct coping through improved performance in the domain of comparison (Wehrens et al., 2010) when exposed to ideal models (Sobol &
Darke, 2014). However, a positive relationship between social comparison tendency and body dissatisfaction has usually been reported in previous studies (Epstude &
Mussweiler, 2009; Sohn, 2009) which indicate that the higher the social comparison tendency is, the more possible it is a person‟s self-worth to be influenced from models in commercials. Practitioners devoted attention and also proved that comparison with role models on such a salient yet strong dimension as thinness may influence how a person thinks and feels about him/herself (Epstude & Mussweiler, 2009). According to Festinger (1954), “individuals are driven by a desire for self-evaluation, by which they compare their own attributes and abilities with those of others”, where self-evaluation is referred to “one‟s value and worth” (Festinger, 1954). Therefore, the high social comparison tendency affects on a stronger dimension one‟s body dissatisfaction (Myers
& Crowther, 2009; Epstude & Mussweiler, 2009; Myers & Crowther, 2009) which might lead to negative emotions and consequently negative mood. Sohn (2009) also suggested that social comparison tendency can be characterized as “the most common yet important factor found in the influence of mass media on body image”. Body dissatisfaction issues consequently are reported to lead to negative mood (Halliwell, 2013). Thereby, social comparison tendency is expected to have a moderating influence on body dissatisfaction and negative mood of individuals after a commercial exposure.
To summarize, based on previous studies, social comparison tendency is hypothesized to be an important moderating factor in the relationship between both thin and average- size models and body dissatisfaction as well as negative mood influence. Thus, it is hypothesized that the higher a person rates his or her social comparison tendency, the more his or her body dissatisfaction and negative mood are expected to be influenced by models in commercials.
20 Thus,
H3a: The consumer’s social comparison tendency moderates the relationship between average-size models and body dissatisfaction. The relationship between average-size models and body dissatisfaction is stronger, when the level of social comparison tendency is high.
H3b: The consumer’s social comparison tendency moderates the relationship between average-size models and negative mood. The relationship between average- size models and negative mood is stronger, when the level of social comparison tendency is high.
H3c: The consumer’s social comparison tendency moderates the relationships between thin models and body dissatisfaction. The relationship between thin models and body dissatisfaction is stronger, when the level of social comparison tendency is high.
H3d: The consumer’s social comparison tendency moderates the relationships between thin models and negative mood. The relationship between thin models and negative mood is stronger, when the level of social comparison tendency is high.
2.3.4 Prior Self-Esteem effect on Body Dissatisfaction and Negative Mood
Self-esteem is frequently investigated in relation to media exposure (Hobbs et al., 2007). However, limited is the research about inherent self-esteem, which an individual have prior advertisement exposure. Ferguson et al. (2011) supported that women, who already have body dissatisfaction issues and low self-worth are likely to be affected by images of models. Similarly, women who evaluate positively their own body and consequently have greater self-esteem pay less attention to attractive others (Blechert, 2009; Roefs et al., 2008) and are less likely to “turn to others for guidance” and compare themselves to media models than do women with low self- evaluation levels (Mischner et al., 2013). Thus, positive body image and consequently high self-esteem protects women from negative environment messages related to appearance (Halliwell, 2013). Thereby, women with lower self-esteem pay more attention to the appearance- related advertisements than women with higher self-esteem (Mischner et al., 2013).
Kim (2013) in his research had shown that students who were dissatisfied with their overall appearance, exhibit lower levels of self-esteem after thin models advertisement exposure. Therefore, a significant moderating effect of self-esteem on body
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dissatisfaction and negative mood influence from advertisement exposure is expected.
The higher the self esteem, the less body dissatisfaction and negative mood influence are expected after the thin and average models‟ exposure.
Thus,
H4a: The consumer’s self-esteem moderates the relationships between average-size models and body dissatisfaction. The relationship between average models and body dissatisfaction is weaker, when the level of self-esteem is high.
H4b: The consumer’s self-esteem moderates the relationships between average-size models and negative mood. The relationship between average models and negative mood is weaker, when the level of self-esteem is high.
H4c: The consumer’s self-esteem moderates the relationships between thin models and body dissatisfaction. The relationship between thin models and body dissatisfaction is weaker, when the level of self-esteem is high.
H4d: The consumer’s self-esteem moderates the relationships between thin models and negative mood. The relationship between thin models and negative mood is weaker, when the level of self-esteem is high
2.3.5 Body Dissatisfaction and Negative Mood effect on Purchase Intention Dunning (2007) claims that consumer‟s decision making is conscious and analytical behavior which involves emotional elements in it. He also asserts that the concepts of self-esteem and purchase intention are correlated as people‟s decisions are affected by self-image motives and their decisions must honor their image of self (Dunning, 2007).
Based on this statement, the aspect of “belief harmonization” that includes relevant beliefs, needs and desires was introduced. Purchase decision procedure complexity and its relationship with self-image and value system also have been introduced by Barber et al. (2012). He suggests that if purchase activity comes against one‟s self-image, then purchase intention will be low (Barber et al., 2012). Therefore, purchase intention can be influenced by how individuals perceive the purchase activity against their own personal satisfaction or self-image. The current study assumes a negative correlation between self-esteem and body dissatisfaction. In other words, if an individual has low self-esteem, then he also probably has high body dissatisfaction as both concepts have
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similar definitions that underline the aspect of one‟s self-worth and self-perception regarding his or her own appearance (Kim, 2013). Thereby, a significant relationship between body dissatisfaction and purchase intention is expected and since negative body perception can lead to negative mood (Baker‟s et al., 1995) it is hypothesized that negative mood is also significantly related to purchase intention. In addition, Chan (2005) claimed that one is more likely to purchase a product if he/she is in a positive mood. Thus, a strong relationship between body dissatisfaction and purchase intention as well as negative mood and purchase intention is encouraged and hypothesized.
Thus,
H5a: Body dissatisfaction of young consumers caused by average-size models is significantly related to purchase intention.
H5b: Negative mood of young consumers caused by average-size models is significantly related to purchase intention.
H5c: Body dissatisfaction of young consumers caused by thin models is significantly related to purchase intention.
H5d: Negative mood of young consumers caused by thin models is significantly related to purchase intention.
2.4 Conceptual Model
Figure 1 presents the conceptual model with the postulated hypotheses among constructs.
23 Figure 1 Conceptual Model
H2a/H2c H3a/H3c
H4a/H3c H1a
H5a/H5c H2b/H2d
H3b/H3d H4b/H4d
H1b H5b/H5d
Note: For H2-H5: Average-size models=a, b; Thin models=c, d 2.5 Conclusion
In Chapter 2 literature review and theoretical concepts were provided and five hypotheses based on existing literature and construct hypothesized relationship were conducted. Finally, the conceptual model based on empirical studies and research questions was created and presented.
Model size: Average- size/Thin models in an advertisement
Moderators:
Gender; Self- Esteem; Social Comparison
Body
Dissatisfaction
Negative Mood
Purchase Intention
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3 RESEARCH DESIGN 3.1 Introduction
In Chapter 3research design will be presented. Chapter 3 presents the research methodology process as well as data collection and measurement specification. In Section 3.3 constructs‟ definition and items measurement are provided in Table 1.
Finally, details of the empirical study will be elaborated on.
3.2 Methodology – Quantitative Survey Research
The research‟s epistemological and theoretical base, leads to the choice of a specific methodology and paradigm for an investigation (Bryman, 1984; Crotty, 1998). For the purpose of this research a non-experimental design such as survey will be used. A survey is concomitant with the research question at hand and involves gathering primary data by means of a cross-sectional survey (Creswell, 2014). Survey research is useful in describing the feelings of the specific target group (Krosnick, 1999). The target group for this research is young adults in Greece. Moreover, a quantitative approach is best for this research as the study‟s goal is to identify factors that influence a specific final outcome – Purchase Intention (Creswell, 2014; see also Bryman, 1984).
Both research question and conceptual model introduced above require empiric testing theorized relationships between constructs and give further support for a quantitative research paradigm.
3.3 Methods
This section presents the methods employed in the research process. Secondary data was collected first on which hypotheses were based and relationships among constructs hypothesized. Afterwards, primary data was collected in order to test the developed hypotheses and relationships. In the section that follows, details regarding constructs, data collection, sampling and ethical consideration are presented.
3.3.1 Construct and Measure Specification
The two Groups were developed for the purpose of the study. The first Group included average-size, “next- door” looking male and female models. The second Group on the other hand, included masculine, attractive and idealized male model for men
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participants and thin, attractive, the idealized female model for women participants respectively.
To prevent bias and as the perception of “attractive” and “thin” varies among people (Botta, 2000), participants who were exposed either to thin, idealized model or to average size models were asked to indicate the extent of the models‟ thinness (for women) and masculinity (for men) as well as models‟ attractiveness. Therefore, participants were asked how attractive and how thin/masculine the models they watched in the commercial were. The responses were measured with 7-point Likert scale from 1 (Not at all) to 7 (very much) (Häfner & Trampe, 2009).
Being masculine for men equals to being thin for women (Ricciardelli et al., 2010).
Media and advertisement promote thin female models and masculine male models as beauty standards that some young adults attempt to achieve (Fernandez & Pritchard, 2012). Thus, the wordings of masculinity and thinness question were adopted for male and female respondents, and meanings of the items will be treated as identical in this research (Hobbs et al., 2009).
In the empirical analysis, measurement instruments help to measure the theoretical latent constructs specified in the research questions and conceptual model (Bagozzi&
Yi, 2012). Constructs were measured by items developed by prior studies where they have proven to be reliable and valid (Table 1). However, the items‟ reliability was tested again and is presented in Chapter 4.
The measurement of each construct was based on a definition of each construct that was adopted by this research and was described in Section 2. However, due to the fact that items needed to be in line with the research aim and questions, some items were adopted and modified when necessary in order to fit the research purpose. Items responses were captured on a 7-point Likert-type scale anchored at 1 = ‟strongly disagree‟ and 7 =‟strongly agree‟. Demographic questions such as “gender”, “age”,
“education” as well as general questions related to the research, such as “media exposure”, “frequency of body care products‟ purchase” were also presented in the survey.
