“Without the Designer, Fashion would be Dead!”
-Anonymous.
An explanatory study of the effects of entrepreneurship policy on the entrepreneurial intentions of Dutch fashion designers
Abstract
Foreword
Before you is my thesis. Like every journey in life, this journey has had its difficulties. Therefore, I would like to express my gratitude to a few. First of all, I want to thank God because without him none of this would be possible. I would like to thank my mentors for their patience, inspiration and help. Of course, my parents, my sister and my boyfriend, who also believed in me and encouraged me.
Foreword ... 3
Chapter 1. Introduction ... 6
1.1 Background and Context of the Research ... 6
1.2 Problem Statement... 7
1.3 Key Concepts ... 8
1.4 Thesis Outline ... 9
Chapter 2. Theoretical Framework ... 10
2.1 Entrepreneurship ... 10
2.1.1 The Schools of Entrepreneurial Thought Approach...11
2.1.2 Enterprise Usage Approach...12
2.1.3 Conclusion ...14
2.2 Entrepreneurship Policy... 15
2.3 Creative industries ... 17
2.3.1 Characteristics of the creative industries...18
2.4 Entrepreneurial intention... 20
2.4.1 Theory of Planned Behavior ...21
2.4.2 Liñán and Chen’s Theory of Planned Behavior...23
2.4.3 Shapero’s Model of Entrepreneurial Event ...24
2.4.4 Discussion and conclusion...25
2.5 Conclusion... 26
Chapter 3 Research Methodology ... 28
3.1 Conceptual Model ... 28 3.2 Procedure ... 30 3.3 Qualitative Research... 30 3.3.1 Desk Research...30 3.3.2 Field Research ...31 3.4 Quantitative Research ... 31 3.4.1 Population...31
3.4.2 Sample & Sample Size...32
3.4.3 Data Collection ...32
3.4.4 Questionnaire Development...33
3.4.5 Data Analysis ...34
Chapter 4 Results I: Qualitative Research... 37
4.4 Conclusions ... 47
Chapter 5 Results II: Quantitative Research ... 49
5.1 Introduction ... 49
5.2 Personal Attitude toward Entrepreneurship ... 50
5.3 Subjective Norm ... 51
5.4 Perceived Behavioral Control ... 51
5.5 Entrepreneurial Intention ... 52
5.6 Knowledge Test ... 53
5.7 Discussion... 54
Chapter 6 Conclusions & Recommendations ... 56
6.1 Conclusions ... 56
6.2 Recommendations ... 58
6.3 Limitations of this Study ... 59
6.4 Further Research ... 59
Reference List... 60
Appendix 1 Transcript interview with expert on creative industry ...66
Appendix 2 Questionnaire Variable Table...73
Appendix 3 Adapted EIQ ...78
Chapter 1. Introduction
1.1 Background and Context of the Research
Government interventions can serve different purposes and can take different forms. Government or governmental organizations can intervene on several levels e.g. local, regional, national or even on international levels. In the context of this study intervention means when the government or a governmental organization makes an attempt to
influence the behavior of an industry in a way which is intended to increase the economic benefit which would not have happened if it had it been left solely to market forces (Bridge et al., 2003). Objectives for intervening on the field of entrepreneurship can be for example to create jobs, to lower the entry barriers of certain industries and promote more business creation. The government tries to achieve its objectives by formulating policies. A policy is a scheme of objectives and instruments for governance purposes (de Leeuw, 1996). A policy prescribes in which field the government will enforce and which objectives it wants to achieve. Through the instruments will the government try to achieve its objectives.
This research looks at the entrepreneurship policy. This policy field has two main approaches; the first one is to promote more business creation and the second one is to support existing small businesses (Bridge et al., 2003). Making business creation more feasible for the individual, the government is indirectly affecting the intention of an individual to become an entrepreneur.
economically or business driven and they are most of the time dependent of government subsidy. As a consequence this can create a gap between the designed product of the fashion designer and his public’s need (Rutten et al., 2004) also it can stagnate
entrepreneurship because the fashion designer is not stimulated enough to start a business. This study tries to uncover to what extent fashion designers’ intention are stimulated by the entrepreneurship policies.
1.2 Problem Statement
Entrepreneurship is of key importance for economic development (Bridge et al., 2003; Hart, 2003; Potter, 2005). The government can use its policies to intervene and further assist in developing an economy or an industry (Bridge et al., 2003). Therefore, it is important to evaluate whether the current entrepreneurship policies are reaching their goal(s) (de Leeuw, 1996). After evaluating a policy, policy makers can adjust the already existing policies to make a better fit for the concerning industry or they can design new policies. This research has characteristics of policy supportive type of research. This type of research gathers useful knowledge for policy evaluation. It is a type of research that aims to improve the policy components and governance processes (de Leeuw, 1996).This study has mainly an explanatory character (Marshall and Rossman, 1999). Marshall and Rossman (1999) indicate that an explanatory study tries to find out how plausible relationships are shaping a phenomenon. In this research, the relationship between the industry specific entrepreneurship policies and the entrepreneurial intentions of the fashion designer will be analyzed.
The fashion design industry can be categorized under the creative industry (Raes, 2005). The study lists and analyzes industry specific entrepreneurship policies aimed at
stimulating the intention to start a business and eventually lead to business creation. Then the entrepreneurial intention of the fashion designers in this industry is explored. The purpose of this study is to explain whether the entrepreneurship policies had any effect on the fashion designers.
To what extent do the entrepreneurship policies in the Netherlands, regarding the creative industries, stimulate the entrepreneurial intention of the Dutch fashion designer?
The research question is broken down into these following sub-questions: 1. Can entrepreneurship be stimulated among individuals? If so, how?
2. What kind of policies may be effective to stimulate entrepreneurship among individuals?
3. Have Dutch entrepreneurship policies been successful in stimulating entrepreneurship among potential fashion entrepreneurs?
1.3 Key Concepts
Dividing the main research question in various key components results in the key concepts of a study (Verschuren and Doorewaard, 2005). Below is a list with the definitions of the key concepts.
Entrepreneurship Policy: policies that are not only concern fostering the existing entrepreneurs, but also intent to stimulate potential entrepreneurs who are seriously considering starting a business (Hart, 2003).
Creative industry: an industry that encompasses activities which have their origin in individual creativity, skill, and talent and which have potential for wealth and job
creation through generation and exploitation of intellectual property (Cunningham, 2002). Intentions: a state of mind that directs a person’s attention toward the attainment of a particular goal or object, or towards the actions and behaviors that may be used to attain a more general goal (Bird, 1988).
Fashion design industry: industry that deals with the initial creation, manufacture and trade in clothing articles, garment and costumes and accessories (Raes, 2005 and Eckert and Stacey, 2009).
1.4 Thesis Outline
This thesis comprises of six chapters. The first chapter discusses the background
Chapter 2. Theoretical Framework
The first part of this chapter elaborates more on entrepreneurship. Several views are discussed, afterwards the reason for a specific choice is explained. The next part is about what entrepreneurship policies are and what they intent to do. Subsequent to analyzing the intentions of these policies a list is presented of criteria they should contain to effectively stimulate entrepreneurship. Next, the creative industry is reviewed. Several authors tried to provide a definition for this industry and also which branches have to be included in this industry. This section shortly assesses the most relevant discussions. Because this study’s focus is on the fashion design industry a brief discussion is provided of this industry and its entrepreneurs. Lastly, the most common theories about intention are reviewed. From these theories one or more will be chosen to apply in this study. The chapter ends with a conclusion.
2.1 Entrepreneurship
The entrepreneurship literature is extensive. Yet, the knowledge and research available on entrepreneurship are still in an emerging stage (Kuratko and Hodgetts, 2004). Kuratko and Hodgetts (2004) state that entrepreneurship is interdisciplinary and as such it contains various approaches that can increase the understanding of this field.
2.1.1 The Schools of Entrepreneurial Thought Approach
The first approach consists of two views; the micro and the macro view. The micro view highlights the ability/controllability, opportunities and the planning process of
entrepreneurship. From this view, the first school of thought – the entrepreneurial trait school of thought – can be partly applied to this study. In this school of thought controllability is one of the main aspects.
The macro view highlights external factors. These factors do go beyond the entrepreneur as an individual. These factors could be political decisions that affect a certain group, financial resources and other factors that affect the entrepreneur as an individual.
Entrepreneurial Schools of Thought Approach Environmental School of Thought
Financial/Capital School of Thought Displacement School of Thought
Entrepreneurial Trait School of Thought Venture Opportunity School of Thought Strategic Formulation School of thought
Table 2.1 Entrepreneurial Schools of Thoughts Source: Kuratko, Hodgetts, 2004.
In table 2.1, Kuratko and Hodgetts (2004) provide an overview of views on
entrepreneurship and their corresponding schools of thought. The macro view relates to external processes that are at times beyond the control of the individual.
The first school of thought that falls under this view is the environmental school of thought. This school of thought deals with external factors that affect a potential entrepreneur’s lifestyle. This can be either positive or negative and molds the entrepreneurial desires.
The second school of thought is the financial/capital school of thought. This school of thought is based on the capital-seeking process. This school of thought views the entire
Macro View
entrepreneurial venture from a financial management standpoint (Kuratko and Hodgetts, 2004).
The third school of thought in this view is the displacement school of thought. This school of thought focuses on group phenomena. It holds that the group affects or
eliminates certain factors that project the individual into an entrepreneurial venture. Three major type of displacement illustrate this school of thought: political displacement, cultural displacement and environmental displacement (Kuratko and Hodgetts, 2004). The second view is the micro view. In this view the potential entrepreneur has the ability, or control, to direct or adjust the outcome of each major influence.
The first school of thought under this category is the entrepreneurial trait school of thought. Under this approach researchers try to study which traits are common among successful people.
The second school of thought is the venture opportunity school of thought. This school of thought focuses on the opportunity aspect of venture development, also developing the right idea at the right time for the right market niche is important for entrepreneurial success.
The last school of thought in this view, is the strategic formulation school of thought. The strategic formulation approach to entrepreneurial theory emphasizes the planning process in successful venture development (Kuratko and Hodgetts, 2004).
The next section presents a discussion about the enterprise and its different usage.
2.1.2 Enterprise Usage Approach
For purposes of this study the meaning of this term will be limited within the business context (business creation in general). Within this context there are two views for the term enterprise; the narrow and the broad view (Bridge et al., 2003).
The narrow view (also known as the economy school view) of enterprise is about business creation and development. The narrow view refers to the process of
entrepreneurship itself (see also Hart, 2003 and Kreuger, 1993). According to Ronstadt (as cited in Kuratko & Hodgetts, 2004) entrepreneurship is the dynamic process of creating incremental wealth. This wealth is created by individuals who assume major risks in terms of equity, time, and/or career-commitment of providing value for some product or service. The product or service itself may or may not be new or unique but the value must somehow be infused by the entrepreneur by securing and allocating the necessary skills and resources. To sum up, entrepreneurship is a process of creating wealth whereby someone supplies a certain product or service through a business. This person is the entrepreneur and he/she will take all the risks of business creation.
The broad view (or education approach) of the enterprise focuses on the individual. Here the focus is on the attributes and resources this individual has or can allocate. Gibb (as cited in Bridge et al., 2003) states that usually in the business context when an
Typical attributes identified by a variety of writers on the subject of entrepreneurship or enterprise are:
Autonomy/ independence
Belief in control of one’s own destiny Creativity Determination Flexibility Goal orientation Hard work Imagination Initiative Leadership
Table 2.2 Entrepreneurial or enterprising attributes Source: Bridge et al., (2003).
2.1.3 Conclusion
The narrow view on enterprise usage tries to explain what entrepreneurship is all about. Entrepreneurship seen within the business context is a process that an individual
undergoes when starting a business (Bridge et al., 2003). The macro view on
entrepreneurship looks beyond what entrepreneurship is. This specific view studies the external factors that are of influence on the individual. Within the macro view, the school of thought that relates to this study is the displacement school of thought with political displacement. This school of thought states that with policies or other political tools the government will try to encourage or discourage individuals from certain behaviors or actions (Kuratko and Hodgetts, 2004).
2.2 Entrepreneurship Policy
Entrepreneurship policy encompasses activities at several levels of government, from local to national and beyond. It also targets several activities in the economy (such as business creation and infrastructure). Furthermore, it includes governance capacities more familiar under other headings, ranging from regulatory policy to economic development partnerships and so on (Hart, 2003). Hart states that entrepreneurship policies aim at fostering socially optimal levels of venturing. With venturing he refers to the process of starting a business. Thus, one of the targets of entrepreneurship policy is to stimulate the process of starting businesses. Moreover, Hart (2003) proceeds that when policy-makers are designing policies they are aiming to raise the level of
entrepreneurship (usually but not necessarily). This is not only in regard to fostering the existing entrepreneurs, but also to stimulate potential entrepreneurs who are seriously considering starting a business.
encourage or facilitate them to start a business; they can also be referred to as ‘business start’ or ‘business birthrate’ policies (Bridge et al., 2003 and Hart, 2003).
While entrepreneurship policies are more narrowly focused on the individual, the enterprise policy focus more broadly in encouraging enterprise. Much of these policies but not all may manifest in business creation. These policies try to develop the skills and attitudes likely to assist people to be more successful in any chosen career or endeavor. However, the description ‘enterprise’ may also be applied to policies which try to incorporate the promotion of both entrepreneurship and small business growth, or the term enterprise policy may be used to describe a combination of both entrepreneurship and small business policy (Bridge et al., 2003). These policy types can be applied at different stages of the entrepreneurship process.
There are two stages in which the government can intervene; the early stage and the later stages of the entrepreneurship process. The early stage aims to develop an enterprising culture. Making individuals aware of entrepreneurship, and also make individuals prefer to start a business. Intervening in the later stages can be realized by letting the individuals perceive that the can start and run a feasible business.
The early stage development can be seen as a preparation to start a business at sometime in the future that is even before any decision to start a business has taken place (Bridge et al., 2003). The entrepreneurship policies concern this stage.
The later stages concern the business development. Here the focus shifts from the entrepreneur to the business. The small business policies apply at this stage. The later stage is about the actual creation, growth, decline and termination of the business (Bridge et al., 2003).
policies have to encourage entrepreneurship. This can be achieved by clearly defining and communicating regulations/ rules and other initiatives. Other criteria can be drawn from Bridge et al. (2003), to cultivate an entrepreneurship culture these policies should focus on early stage intervention. Making for example students (group) aware of
possibilities of what self-employment has to offer them as starting entrepreneurs and also develop their entrepreneurial skills. Awareness has the advantage that it can change the attitude towards entrepreneurship if any (negative) attitude was already formed. Policies focusing on the later stages of entrepreneurship can be directed to individuals who want more support in business creation.
Thus, to effectively stimulate and cultivate an enterprising culture the policies should fulfill the criteria seen in table 2.3.
Criteria for effective entrepreneurship policy Facilitating self-employment (feasibility) Encouragement
Focus on the early stage intervention Focus on Awareness
Develop skills & attitudes Individual & group
Table 2.3 General criteria for effective entrepreneurship policy
In the next section, a discussion of the creative industry is presented. 2.3 Creative industries
There are several studies using various other names for the creative industry, for example creative sector, culture industries (Adorno and Horkheimer, 1944) and copyright
industries as industries that supply goods and services that we broadly associate with cultural, artistic or simply entertainment value. These goods can be visual arts, performing arts, sound recordings, cinema and TV films even fashion and toys and games”.
The British government first defined the concept of the creative industry. Through the Creative industry Task Force Mapping document they developed the following definition for the creative industry: industries encompassing activities which have their origin in individual creativity, skill, and talent and which have potential for wealth and job creation through generation and exploitation of intellectual property (Cunningham, 2002).
The mapping document distinguished several activities in the creative industry. These are the following: advertising, architecture, arts and antique markets, crafts, design, designer fashion, film, interactive leisure software, music, television and radio, performing arts, publishing and software. Cunningham (2002) adds that this eclectic list includes the resolutely analogue (arts, crafts, antiques, architecture), established commercial business sector ( television, radio, film) as well as all-digital new economy sectors (software, interactive leisure software).
Some governments have used this ‘British model’ as point of reference for definitions and policy orientation (Hesmondhalgh, 2002). This study will also keep this definition as point of reference for later analysis. From the definition of the ‘British model’ can be concluded that the creative industry consists of several branches including the fashion design industry.
The next section provides a review about the creative industries. 2.3.1 Characteristics of the creative industries
Here follows some of these characteristic that apply to the creative industries seen from an entrepreneurial perspective.
Time flies. Fashion that is currently ‘in’, might next year be forgotten or ‘out’. Designers are constantly forced to innovate and be one step ahead of the current trends if they want to build a sustainable business. Also, if they want to position themselves with a certain name they have to innovate and stay ahead of their competition (Canoy et al., 2005).
Small scale production. This is related to the designing process. Designers work often alone or within a small group. Consequently, they do not enjoy scale advantages (Canoy et al., 2005).
They do it because they enjoy it. Designers enjoy the designing process and they do not do it because of financial reasons. They are content with a lower payment for their productions and do not seek other (business) opportunities. Also, they design for status or appreciation from their peers (Canoy et al., 2005).
One or many products. The designing process cannot be reproduced. However, the product from that process can. Having one product and not reproducing it is associated with artistry and having a certain skill (Canoy et al., 2005). Complex interaction. The designer can choose to work individually or with
other professionals (Canoy et al., 2005). For designers that choose to work on their own, breaking through in the creative industries is more difficult then one who chooses to work with professionals. It is very important to receive critical reviews from the professional who have experience in the industry if they want to develop a sustainable business. A very critical point is what the goal of the designer is. Some of these designers want to stay small and design for a small public, design what they enjoy.
industry which does not work like other industries as we have seen on the list above. To properly start and run a business these individuals need guidance from others who
understand this industry. Like in any other industry some individuals would like to start a business and some do not. Important is that the individuals who are interested in an entrepreneurial career can get a fair chance in doing so. Fair chance means that there are proper facilities and guidance from professionals on the industry.
Following this section, a discussion about the entrepreneurial intention is presented. 2.4 Entrepreneurial intention
In this section a review of the definition of this concept will be discussed. In addition, an elaboration on what the intention to start a business means and what can be of influence on intention.
Bird (1988) defines intentions as a state of mind that directs a person’s attention toward the attainment of a particular goal or object, or towards the actions and behaviors that may be used to attain a more general goal. According to Ajzen (1991) intention is trying to do a particular behavior rather then doing the actual behavior.
Intention is considered to be the single best predictor of behavior (Ajzen, 1991; Liñan and Chen, 2009 and Krueger et al., 2000). Ajzen (1991) further explains that intentions are assumed to capture the motivational factors - cognitive variables that influence intention like needs, values, wants and so on - (Liñan and Chen, 2009) that influence behavior. Intentions indicate how hard an individual is willing to try, how much of an effort an individual is planning to exert, in order to perform a behavior. Intentions provide a critical insight into the behavior processes (Kreuger, 1993). Intention is the result of a cognitive process, a process that includes perceptions, beliefs, expectations and values (Hartwick, 1998). Understanding the antecedent of intentions increases our
Understanding the intentions of the entrepreneur is of key importance in understanding the overall process of entrepreneurship (Kreuger, 1993). Bird (1988) also states that ideas and intention of the entrepreneur form the initial strategic template of new organizations are important underpinnings of new venture development (business creation).
Kreuger (1993) defines entrepreneurial intention (see also Bird, 1988) as the commitment to start a new business. Intentions represent a degree of the commitment for a future behavior. Intentions can explain and predict a certain behavior. Similarly, attitudes toward a behavior affect intentions. Roughly stated, external factors influence intention and behavior through these attitudes. If the government is to influence the intention of an individual to take self-employment, they have to influence his or her attitude towards entrepreneurship.
In the entrepreneurship literature two approaches do study entrepreneurial intentions have been compared with each other for effectiveness (Krueger et al., 2000). These two
approaches are Ajzen’s theory of planned behavior and Shapero’s model of entrepreneurial event. Below follows a literature review of these two approaches. In this report, a third approach is analyzed, Liñán and Chen’s theory of planned behavior. Obviously, this approach is based on Ajzen’s theory. However, Liñán and Chen’s theory of planned behavior studies how external factors can be of influence on the
entrepreneurial intentions of an individual.
2.4.1 Theory of Planned Behavior
The theory of planned behavior is an extension of the theory of reasoned action. The first was made because the latter had crucial limitations in dealing with behaviors over which people have incomplete volitional control (Ajzen, 1991). One of the assumptions of the theory of reasoned action is that the behavior of an individual will be completely under his conscious control (volitional behavior). Theory of planned behavior studies beyond the volitional control of an individual.
has whether the behavior is personally controllable. A central factor in both the theory of reasoned action and the theory of planned behavior is the individual’s intention to perform a given behavior. As mentioned earlier intentions are assumed to capture the motivational factors that influence behavior (Ajzen, 1991). The other two attitudinal antecedents (Krueger et al., 2000) of intentions are attitude toward a behavior and
subjective norms. These two variables reflect the perceived desirability of performing the behavior. Perceived behavioral control reflects perceptions that a particular behavior is personally controllable. The perceived behavioral control reflects the perceived feasibility of performing the behavior and is thus related to the perceptions of situational
competence (self-efficacy) (Krueger et al., 2000). Below follows a brief description of three motivational antecedents.
Attitude toward the behavior. This antecedent is about the personal desirability of
performing the behavior. This attitude depends on expectations and beliefs about personal impact of the outcomes resulting from the behavior (Krueger et al., 2000).
Subjective norm. This antecedent taps in the perception of what important people in the individual’s life think about performing a particular behavior (Krueger et al., 2000). Perceived behavioral control. As mentioned earlier perceived behavioral control refers to the perception of an individual has about the ease or the difficulty of performing a
behavior (Krueger et al., 2000).
Figure 2.2 Ajzen’s Theory of Planned Behavior
Source: Krueger et al., 2000
2.4.2 Liñán and Chen’s Theory of Planned Behavior
Liñán and Chen (2009) want to analyze how the decision to become an entrepreneur is made. To do this Liñán and Chen wanted to integrate psychology and entrepreneurship, as well as previous empirical research in this field. Liñán and Chen (2009) use the theory of planned behavior as described by Ajzen, according to them this model was also used by other authors. Also, they argue that this model implies the existence of structural relationships. The theory of planned behavior includes the cultural and social
environment that affects the individual (Liñán, Urbano and Guerrero, 2009). However, Liñán and Chen (2009) point out a difference in their model. They hypothesized what the pattern of the relationships among the motivational antecedents of intention is. Subjective norm is assumed to influence both personal attitude and perceived behavioral control (see Figure 2.3). On the other hand, Liñán and Chen (2009) argue that external factors
Figure 2.3 Liñán and Chen’s Entrepreneurial Intention Model
Source: Liñán and Chen, 2009.
2.4.3 Shapero’s Model of Entrepreneurial Event
Krueger (1993) uses Shapero’s intentions based model, Shapero models the process of the entrepreneurial event. Shapero states that when an individual takes a decision to start a business this decision consists of two things. First, the founders should perceive that starting a business is “credible”; it must be a believable opportunity. Second, starting a business requires some kind of precipitating (or “displacing”) event for example an opportunity. In turn, credibility requires at least a threshold level of perceptions of feasibility and desirability plus some propensity to act upon the opportunity. In this model he hypothesizes that the intention to start a business derives from the perceptions of both desirability and feasibility and from a propensity to act. The components perceived desirability and perceived feasibility refer to the attitude toward
entrepreneurship and that they should partly derive from prior exposure to entrepreneurial activity. Also, he suggests that the process of forming intentions may be more complex than shown in Figure 2.4. Here follows a graphical interpretation of Shapero’s model:
Figure 2.4 Shapero’s Model of Entrepreneurial Event Source: Krueger, 1993.
2.4.4 Discussion and conclusion
Liñán and Chen’s model of entrepreneurial intention (2009) has the theory of planned behavior as a basis, this model and Shapero’s model of the entrepreneurial event (Krueger, 1993) will be discussed in the first part of this section. The particularities of Liñán and Chen’s model of entrepreneurial intention (2009) will be discussed at the end of the section.
The model of entrepreneurial event has its roots in the entrepreneurship literature and the theory of planned behavior from the psychology literature. Obviously, the models of Liñán and Chen (2009) and Shapero (Krueger, 1993) are built of different constructs (see figure 2.3 and 2.4). However, after analyzing these constructs closely, they are quite similar to each other. This is confirmed by Krueger et al. (2000) who concluded that these two models are almost “homologous to one another”. Krueger et al. (2000) analyzed the model of Ajzen (1991). Liñán and Chen (2009) use the same constructs as Ajzen making the constructs used the same. The concepts of personal attitude and social norm can be compared with that of perceived desirability (Liñán, Urbano and Guerrero, 2009). Both of these concepts reflect the attractiveness of a behavior and also the level of approval and support from the environment.
The concepts perceived behavioral control and propensity to act might seem different but they are really not. The first concept embraces the second. The theory of planned
behavior places the perceived behavioral control within a more general framework of the relations among beliefs, attitudes, intentions and behavior (Ajzen, 1991). The concept of perceived behavioral control includes also questions and statements like “If I do it, will I be successful?”, “I can control a certain situation” and “I know I can be successful doing a certain behavior”. Propensity to act can be defined as “the disposition to act upon one’s decisions” (Kreuger, 1993). Questions like “Will I actually do it?” reflect what is meant with this concept. Krueger et al. (2000) state that propensity to act depends on the control perceptions of an individual. Thus, to a certain degree the perceived behavioral control is comparable to propensity to act.
Entrepreneurial intentions can be approached from different theories. In this report Liñán and Chen’s (2009) theory of entrepreneurial intention is used. Liñán and Chen (2009) use Ajzen’s (Kreuger, 2000) theory of planned behavior as a basis. In this theory the
motivational factors are personal attitude towards a behavior, subjective norm and perceived behavioral control. These factors will influence the entrepreneurial intention of an individual.
2.5 Conclusion
Entrepreneurship can be seen from different views (for example the narrow and the macro view) with their underling characteristics. This helps us understand the concept of entrepreneurship and how it can be stimulated. This is important for policymakers. Policies are not always successful in targeting the intended group (Hart, 2003).
Chapter 3 Research Methodology
In this chapter the research methodology is presented and discussed. First, the conceptual model is discussed. Later in the chapter, the research design is presented.
3.1 Conceptual Model
The conceptual model is an illustration of the concepts that are going to be researched to answer the main research question. This model is based on the literature of chapter 2. Although the model of entrepreneurial event has its roots from the entrepreneurship literature I chose to use the theory of planned behavior as a basis for this conceptual model.
The model of entrepreneurial event had never been explicitly tested (Krueger, 1993). For this reason Krueger (1993) decided to test his model. After testing the model Krueger (1993) concludes, that it needs measuring refinements. In addition, the model of
entrepreneurial event focuses on the phenomenon of the entrepreneurial event. This event is seen as being conditioned by the individual’s perception of desirability and feasibility (Liñan, Urbano and Guerrero, 2009). Thus, in this model the focus is on finding out the level of entrepreneurial intention by looking at external factors. My study, however, focuses on how one particular (environmental) variable (this is entrepreneurship policy) will affect the entrepreneurial behavior of the individual. Thus, not what a person wants, but how a person is influenced.
Liñán and Chen (2009) also chose to use Ajzen’s model (1991) (with slight adaptations) to do their study. They state that their results support the use of this model for
previous literature instruments. Later on in this chapter more of the instrument that Liñán and Chen (2009) have developed.
Liñán and Chen (2009) try to study how a particular factor can influence the variables of the theory of planned behavior. The factors they used are human capital and other demographic variables. Liñán and Chen (2009) study the effects of social and cultural variables in general on entrepreneurial intention and the relationship among the
motivational antecedents. To study these effects they developed a questionnaire, later on in the study, this questionnaire is used as a tool for the research.
Figure 3.1 Conceptual model 3.2 Procedure
To get a better understanding of the main issues and questions raised in the literature review, qualitative and quantitative methods such as a desk research and a survey are employed in this study.
The remainder of this chapter presents and discusses the research methods applied in this study. First, the qualitative method will be presented and discussed and second the quantitative method.
3.3 Qualitative Research
3.3.1 Desk Research
To gather additional background information- aside from the articles that were used (found on EBSCO and Google Scholar) - about entrepreneurship, entrepreneurship policy in general and also the entrepreneurship policy situation in the Netherlands, an extensive desk research were performed to find out more on both the creative industries and the
included existing articles in scientific journals on small business & entrepreneurship and also on entrepreneurship policy.
3.3.2 Field Research
To complete the desk research and for validation purposes about the Dutch entrepreneurship policy a different research strategy was used. This was an expert interview. Prof.dr. Dany Jacobs, he is professor industrial development and innovation policy at the university of Amsterdam and lector art, culture and economy ArtEZ and HAN (Hogeschool Arnhem en Nijmegen). He also contributes with research to stimulate and integrate the creative industry and economy, in particular the fashion design industry (Jacobs et al., 2007). This research strategy is categorized under field research
(Verschuur and Doorewaard, 2005). Through a series of questions on a questionnaire (see Appendix 1) information is gathered. This questionnaire was sent to the expert at least one week before the interview took place. This is to give the interviewee time to prepare for answers and also to prevent information loss.
3.4 Quantitative Research
This section of the study concerns the design of the survey.
3.4.1 Population
3.4.2 Sample & Sample Size
Fashion design students are used as sample of this population, preferably students who are in the last year of their study program. The reason behind this choice is because these students are preparing and orienting for the next step in their career. These students represent the sample population of upcoming fashion designers. On recommendation of dr. prof. Jacobs, Amsterdam Fashion Institute (AMFI) was contacted, to know whether it is possible to take a survey among its fashion design students. ArtEZ was also contacted, with the same question.
AMFI is clearly a large institution with about 1300 students (www.amfilectoraat.nl). ArtEZ has more then 125 students on their fashion and design department
(www.modearnhem.nl). This makes the sample population about 1425. However because ArtEZ did not want to cooperate with this study this sets the sample size back at 1300. For statistical relevance, the sample size this study tries to reach is forty but with a minimum of twenty participants (20≥ N ≤40).
3.4.3 Data Collection
Due to cost and time constraints the preferred method to distribute this survey is digitally. Distributing the questionnaire digitally has the advantage that it might reach a greater amount of students. Also, reminders can be sent to receive more response.
Through the website www.thesistools.com it is possible to make a survey online. The survey was available in both English and Dutch. Firstly, the department of
3.4.4 Questionnaire Development
To do this survey a questionnaire was developed. The questionnaire was mostly based on an existing survey about the topic of entrepreneurial intention. Liñan and Chen (2009) have designed the Entrepreneurial Intention Questionnaire (EIQ). With this instrument they try to create a standardized instrument to measure entrepreneurial intentions. The EIQ serves as a basis for the questionnaire that was used in this research. Most of the questions were used as is in the EIQ and some were adapted in the context of this study. Questions were added for the variable that is not being covered by the EIQ; namely entrepreneurship policies. The questionnaire developed specifically for this research is presented in Appendixes 2 and 3. This questionnaire consists of six sections. These are: 1) general questions, 2) personal attitude toward entrepreneurship, 3) subjective norms, 4) perceived behavioral control 5) entrepreneurial intention and 6) entrepreneurship policies. Here follows an analysis of these sections and what they measure.
General questions. These general questions are gather information about the current academic situation of the students. Jacobs et al. (2007) state in their article that fashion design students should receive more entrepreneurial education. Through the questionnaire we found out whether these students are receiving entrepreneurial education at their institutions. To verify in which institution they are receiving entrepreneurial education, they were asked to name their institution.
Subjective norm. The subjective norm measures the perceived social pressures from family, friends, or significant others (Liñan, Urbano and Guerrero, 2009). This section consists of three questions (Liñan and Chen, 2009). Again a seven-point Likert scale was used to measure the level of agreement on each statement. The first question consists of three items and measures how entrepreneurship is being valued by the three groups just mentioned. The second question measures what the perceived thoughts of family and friends are about firm creation (see page 76). The last question in this section focused on the perceived opinion of others about entrepreneurship/ entrepreneurial culture/firm creation in general and how it is accepted.
Perceived behavioral control. This section tries to measure the individual’s perception of the ease or the difficulty of business creation. This section consists of one question with a six-item scale which is based on Liñan and Chen (2009).
Entrepreneurial intention. This section measures the level of commitment to start a business. This section consists of two questions. One of these questions measures if the individual has had thoughts to be an entrepreneur. The next question uses a seven-point Likert scale and consists of six items (Liñan and Chen, 2009). All of the statements focused on the readiness and commitment to be an entrepreneur.
Knowledge test. The knowledge test measured the knowledge of the students of the current Dutch entrepreneurship policies. The first two questions were taken from the EIQ (Liñan and Chen, 2009) and focused on the perceived knowledge of the student about the Dutch business associations and support bodies. The remaining questions focus on the knowledge about the content of the current Dutch entrepreneurship policy (see page 78) (Jacobs, 2009 and www.cultuureneconomie.nl).
In chapter 5, the survey results are presented.
3.4.5 Data Analysis
The first section of the survey is to gather general information about the students.
Section two to five focus on the student’s opinion and perception about entrepreneurship. The questions in these sections are asked in the Likert-scale format. The results are put into tables and the percentages answered will be illustrated into the tables. Afterwards, a brief discussion is presented and some first conclusions will be drawn.
The last section is a knowledge test. In this section the answered questions were rewarded with a certain amount of points. Based on this point system it will be possible to know if the Dutch students are aware of certain entrepreneurial policies that apply to them. Question 16, students had the possibility to mention different organizations. With the help of this question we were able to know if students are aware of associations and support organizations. For each organization they mention (the students can mention the acronyms on the survey) that falls under the correct category they can receive five points. The highest score they could receive is 15 points. Thus, if they mention three or more organizations they will still receive 15 points.
Question 17 focuses on the level of knowledge of the students have of different services offered by these organizations. Students that choose the values between 4 and 7 receive points. Of these points they receive we take the average score. Thus, the average score is valid for the survey. Here is how the points are counted: value 4- 1 point, value 5- 2 points, value 6- 3 points and value 7- 5 points and the rest of the values zero (0) points. The total point is then divided into 5. This result is the average score. The maximum average score is 5 points.
Questions 18 and 19 seek to know if the students are aware of where the policies are to be found and what they state. Question 18 is a multiple choice question. When students chose ‘A’ they will receive 5 points, ‘B’ 2 points and ‘C’ 0 points.
Question 19 is similar to question 18 and consists of multiple choice questions. The first two choices in this question (A and B) will award students with points; if they choose ‘A’ they receive 2 points, ‘B’ 5 points and if they choose ‘C’ or ‘D’ they will be awarded with no points.
points. This question was used to find out more about the path a student chooses if they want to start a business.
Afterwards, each filled in questionnaire is computed to find out the highest score. This score indicates how well a student is informed about the different organizations that offer support. Not only that, it also indicates if student are on their way of becoming fashion design starters or entrepreneurs. The score of the questionnaire indicates per section: a). level of knowledge about business and support organizations and the services these offer (questions 16, 17), b). level of awareness about entrepreneurship policies (questions 18 and 19) and c). level of how well informed a students is when making a choice (question 20). Each student can receive a maximum of 35 points if they answer at least one correct item on one question. Table 3.1 illustrates the total scores per question and the maximum score per student. It also shows the actual and the average total score and per question and the frequency of the highest score. These three variables are filled in when the results of the survey are computed. This section of the survey is reinforcement for the variable perceived behavioral control. This variable reflects the perceived ease or difficulty of a certain behavior. The students know which organizations are there for support and may let them feel more secure and thus that the chances of success are higher. The assumption is that if students perceive for themselves that they are well informed about support organizations and their services this particular behavior might be relatively successful.
Chapter 4 Results I: Qualitative Research
This chapter comprises of a critical review of the Dutch fashion design industry. Afterwards it presents the entrepreneurship policies that concern the Dutch creative industry.
4.1 Fashion design industry in the Netherlands
Research on the Dutch fashion design industry is emerging. Therefore, right now there is not much research to be found on this subject. Nonetheless, there are studies that focus on the creative industry in general but also analyze the sub-industries of the creative industry. From these studies we can gather information about the fashion design industry.
From an economic perspective designing is very important for the Dutch economy because it strengthens innovation, competition on the industry and positioning of the industry on the international market. However, most of the time designing is not seen from an economic perspective. It is most of the time seen from the artistic/aesthetic perspective. In these last few years there is slowly been a shift in perspective (Rutten et al., 2005).
Fashion designers are conscious of the fact that they can receive more then artistic value for their creations. Researchers (Rutten et al., 2005 and Jacobs et al., 2007) are also recognizing the fact that fashion design is not only about the artistic value but also the economic value.
However, this industry needs more stimulation and more support. The government can play a great role in developing this industry.
There are two branches that belong to the design category. These are the advertising branch and the fashion and interior design branch (Rutten et al., 2005).
In the economical context, the fashion design industry is known to be non-transparent; information not is available to everyone in this industry (Jacobs et al., 2007). Often times, it seems that fashion designers do not have much interaction with their financial
resources (Roso, 2005) for example banks and business angels and production possibilities (Jacobs et al. 2007) for example fabrics manufactures, as a consequence many opportunities and business ideas are left undone. The lack of interaction between the fashion designers and the financiers is because this industry is perceived to be highly risky and financiers are not willing to invest (Jacobs et al., 2007).
On the other hand, production resources that exist in the Netherlands are not being promoted and their existence is unknown; consequently these will be left unused. The fashion designers, who want to produce more, bring their production abroad (Jacobs et al., 2007).
Furthermore, Roso (2005) lists and explains the emergence of these networks. These segments are based on the strategy and the network of the fashion designer. Next is a description of the different segments.
Segment A. Subsidy oriented
Designers that are depended on the subsidy do realize fashion shows and exhibitions and profile themselves in their network often consisting of curators, gallery holders and members of a commission. This is a closed network and it was build during their studies (Roso, 2005).
Segment B. Business oriented
The designer chooses consciously to build a network without the help of a subsidy to create his/her label. The network build from subsidy connection does not have answers about the business strategies he/she wants to follow. In this segment the desire to innovate is clearly bigger. They will try and find their business answers outside of the fashion design industry or even on the international market.
They not only try to innovate with their products but also the way to work with others, for example as a stylist or for fashion wholesale companies (Roso, 2005).
Segment C. Creative combinations
This group stays within the broad group of creative people. There is a need to search for and create new combinations. In this segment there are different sub-cultures. In this segment, the creation of networks with others with the same interests is very important (Roso, 2005).
Segment D. Consumer oriented
This group of designers is primarily focused on selling their products to the consumers. Because their style appeals to a large number of consumers they will build slowly but surely resonance (Roso, 2005).
the designers from different segments there is little interaction. They compete on basis of the network they built and the contacts they have.
These segments can best be reviewed with the help of figure 2.1. On this figure I put the level of art and business orientation of the designer in the axis.
Segments that are more oriented towards art do attract a limited amount of public; they are more interested in art of the product and less in making a business out of the product. The designer in these segments characterizes itself as not business oriented but want to show what he/she has created and seeks appreciations from his/her peers (Roso, 2005). Segments A and C fit on this side.
The other extreme on the right of the axis is business oriented. Here the designers want to attract a great amount of public and these designers are more business oriented. They want to make a name for themselves; art is not the main issue but the business and second comes art. Segments B and D fit on this side of the axis.
From figure 4.1 we can conclude on a few things. The amount of public the designer wants to attract, the level of artistry of designer and how entrepreneurially oriented the designer is. Fashion designers on the far right of the axis are more entrepreneurially oriented.
Figure 4.1 from Art to Business
4.1.2 Conclusion
Fashion design is often seen from an artistic/aesthetic point of view. Slowly there has
Segment C Creative Combinations Segment A Subsidy Oriented Segment D Consumer Oriented Segment B Business Oriented
future. Knowing these two conditions of the fashion design industry it become clear why entrepreneurs on this industry chose to start a business certain way if they chose to start at all.
4.2 Entrepreneurship Policies on the Creative Industry
The Dutch Government issued a so-called ‘Mapping Document’ on the creative industry in The Netherlands in June 2005. The Mapping Document is the synthesis of a substantial research project initiated by the Dutch Ministry of Education, Culture and Science and the Ministry of Economic Affairs. The Mapping Document is based a on a range of research reports dealing with the definition of creative industry, assessing its economic impact in The Netherlands, identifying bottlenecks in creative production and exploring the role of (national) government. In the same year the Dutch government has launched an experimental program for the creative industry to make the most of the economic potential of culture (Braun and Lavanga, 2007).
From the ‘www.cultuureneconomie.nl’ website we can concluded that, from initial researches like Raes and Hofstede (2005) and others, the government was able to design five policy directives in which they want to develop the Dutch creative industry. Each of these policy directives focuses on several areas to be developed. Under theses directives fall several other organizations whose task it is to assist, guide or support individuals or groups that are linked to the creative industry. These are the five policy directives.
1. Create active connections
Programs that stimulate connections between economy and culture, these programs are supposed to bring members of these two parties together.
2. Reinforce financial conditions for creative companies
More financial possibilities for creative starters and for existing small and medium enterprises (SME’s). Additionally increase accessibility of alternative financial sources.
The cabinet will support alternatives license systems. Measures will be taken to thoroughly communicate the opportunities this system will offer the business owner/ license owner.
4. Intensify internationalization
Existing conditions for exporting products from the creative industry will be
improved and reinforced. Financial sources have to be better utilized, improvement of the mobility of collections and also promotion of these abroad.
5. Further professionalization of cultural management
To achieve this, the cabinet wants to introduce entrepreneurship courses to art profession education, create incentives for entrepreneurship within subsidized
institutions and additional and supportive policy to the support organization ‘Kunst & Zaken’.
4.2.1 Discussion
These five directives focus on several areas of the creative industries. These directives are experimental and are only temporary (www.cultuureneconomie.nl). If there are any positive outcomes of sustainability, they will be continued.
The second directive is about expanding the current financial assistance that is being offered. Creative starters will receive more financial assistance and financial assistance for small and medium sized enterprise will be exclusively adapted for the several sectors in the creative industry. However, because of the worldwide economic recession it is still difficult to obtain a subsidy especially in the creative industry (Jacobs, July 8th 2009). Jacobs (July 8th 2009) suggests setting up an investor fund exclusively for the creative industry. He mentions that in Belgium such an alternative already exists (CultuurInvest) and that it operates successfully. He adds, that in The Netherlands research has been done by ‘Nederland Kennisland’ for this particular alternative but that this particular research concluded that this is not necessary for the Dutch market and that the market would resolve itself. Additionally, he adds that he does not agree with the above mentioned research because it was done by people who do not understand and have not study the particularities of the creative industry. Consequently, according to Jacobs (July 8th 2009), they gave the wrong recommendations and the chance to set up an investment fund is gone. This directive does have an investment fund but it focuses only on the
technological part of the creative industry and not on the fashion design industry.
The third directive sheds light on improvements of the legal and intellectual properties of the creative industry. There is an alternative license system supported by the government for the creative industry. The aim is to make the position of the creative individual stronger by proving information through workshops and how to protect their creation with licensing. Creative Commons and Syntens provide information through workshops and their website on this subject.
The fourth directive, tries to intensify internationalization by expanding export
possibilities and promoting Dutch creativity in foreign countries. Existing and incidental resources have to be effectively used to achieve this.
The last directive focuses on entrepreneurship. The government wants to promote and create incentives to encourage and stimulate entrepreneurship. Organizations like
According to Jacobs (July 8th 2009) the last two directives are the ones who will mostly stimulate business creation. They provide assistance and make business creation feasible for the creative entrepreneur.
In conclusion, these directives seem to be a good basis to stimulate the economy and the creative industries. However, they should be expanded and made permanent (Jacobs, July 8th 2009). Jacobs is pessimistic about the further expansion of these directives. He feels that for the government they have not reached the goals they wanted to achieve and that because of the experimental character of this project it will not be set forth. On the other hand, however, he is glad because he senses that the government is becoming more and more conscious about the advantages of the creative industry. In addition, he also noticed that (his) students are more aware of business opportunities in this industry. He, however, would like to see teachers or other art professors more involved in the economic side of this industry. He feels that they do not have a broad knowledge (or network) (Jacobs, July 8th 2009). This is confirmed by Roso (2005); teachers and professors have a limited network, and consequently, when students turn to them, they often stay in a limited but familiar circle. Fashion design literature is in its infancy. This report of Roso (2005) might not be valid today. It can be that fashion design institutions already have business or economic courses for their students.
Projects that fall under the ‘cultuur en economie’ initiative have been successful. Creative Challenge Call is one of them. Time will tell if the two ministries will expand these projects and make them structural.
4.3 Fitting the Criteria
Section 2.3 of this report presented a list of general criteria to be used to evaluate the needs for effective entrepreneurship policies. In this section, the above mentioned list is customized for the fashion design industry. Below follows a discussion.
Linking creative individuals with individuals with a business background is one criteria mentioned by Jacobs (July 8th 2009). This is the main object from directive number one of the project ‘cultuur en economie’. This policy directive not only tries to link these two areas together but also other Dutch business sectors (see Creative Challenge Call). Encouraging and or creating internships at existent fashion-houses compulsory is a way of making students aware of entrepreneurial advantage and disadvantages (Jacobs, July 8th 2009). It can also create an (positive) attitude toward entrepreneurship. We can also categorize this way of stimulation as early intervention to stimulate entrepreneurship. Fashion institutions can also offer student business courses instead of only art and fashion courses. Jacobs et al. (2007) also had a similar suggestion in their article. It would
benefits the students if they are exposed to a certain degree to the business aspects of the industry. They, however, conclude by stating that study profiles/study programs should be modernized and business courses should be introduced. Also more research should be done on this area. Another point mentioned by Jacobs (July 8th 2009) is that it is
important that research is done by individuals who understand and have experience with the particularities of the creative industry. Lastly, offer coaching to creative starters (Jacobs, July 8th 2009). The last directive offers coaching through ‘Kunstenaars & co’. This is an organization that offers supportive services and products to creative individuals who want to start some kind of business project. Some of their products and services are coaching, loans and insurance (www.kunsternaarsenco.nl).
entrepreneurship policy is that every issue (support services like carrier guidance) with regard to entrepreneurship stimulation will be the responsibility of ‘Kunst & Zaken’. They will coordinate and work together with ‘Kunstenaars & co’ to stimulate and support entrepreneurship and entrepreneurial projects. The second new criteria is mentioned in the first directive.
Criteria Mentioned in Policy Which policy
directive Facilitating self-employment (feasibility) yes 1, 2, 4, 5 Encouragement yes 4, 5
Focus on the early stage intervention
yes 5
Focus on Awareness yes 5
Develop skills & attitudes
yes 5
Individual & group yes all
Coaching yes 5
Make connections between the two or more industries
yes 1
Table 4.2 Criteria for effective Entrepreneurship Policies on the Dutch Fashion design industry
the industry in the infancy of its development. These criteria are directly linked to ‘Kunsternaars & CO’. This organization deals with most of the entrepreneurship
questions fashion designers or other creative individuals might have. It also offers carrier guidance to creative individuals.
4.4 Conclusions
The Dutch Ministry of Education, Culture and Science and the Ministry of Economic Affairs have been researching this industry for the past years to know which impact the creative industry has on the Dutch economy and also which bottlenecks in the creative production. The joint work of the two concerning ministries have brought the policy note ‘cultuur en economie’ (2005). In this note there are a set of directives that the government wants to explore. This new program for the creative industry is temporarily, explorative and has an experimental character.
There are entrepreneurship policies that are explicitly formulated but others that are not. The new program for the creative industry includes several organizations (‘Kunstenaars & co’, ‘Kunst en Zaken’ and financial support organizations) that fit the policy directives. These two organizations can stimulate entrepreneurship in the creative industry. They have programs and workshops that guide individuals in this industry on the subjects of entrepreneurship and other related subjects.
According to the list for effective entrepreneurship policy in the Dutch fashion design industry, these policies are expected to be effective and should support and stimulate the economic development of the Dutch creative industry. Jacobs (July 8th 2009) is
Chapter 5 Results II: Quantitative Research
This chapter presents and discusses the survey results. The last section of the chapter comprises the conclusion.
5.1 Introduction
A total of 45 students participated in this survey from the sampling population of 1300. Of the 45 students who participated 16 are male and 29 female. Their age ranged from 18 years old to 28 years old. The mean age of this group is 21.62 and the mode 23. The initial target group of this survey was last year students. On the announcement on the intranet was not clearly stated that it was especially for last year students. Instead it was stated that all students are welcome to take the survey. The last year students surveyed were 13.33%, while the second and the third year students are both 40% and first year students were 6.67% of the response.
The majority (51.1%) of these students did not do an internship yet. Of the students who did do an internship, 55.6 % had a compulsory internship, these are second and third year students. These second and third year students had already had in some form contact with the business aspect of fashion.
Of the students who participated, 42.2% had some kind of entrepreneurial education (these included students of all the four years). This education helped them gain greater recognition for the entrepreneur’s figure and the abilities to be an entrepreneur. They point out, however, that they did not learn much about the entrepreneurial environment. Remarkably, most of the students (55%) did not agree that their intention or preference to be an entrepreneur was developed. A small 35 % had developed some entrepreneurial intention but none to a great extent.
The tables and charts belonging to the following sections can be found in the text as well as in Appendix 4. In the following section, results about the attitude toward
5.2 Personal Attitude toward Entrepreneurship
The personal attitude towards a behavior reflects the positive and or negative feeling an individual has towards a certain behavior. In this section the personal attitude of the Dutch fashion design students is presented.
Students have shown clearly that they want more training and preparation after they have finished their study program. The mean of this choice is 5.68 which indicate that they have a high preference for more training and guidance if they want to start a business. Students show a high attraction towards becoming an entrepreneur (mean ≈ 5). This can be interpreted as having a positive attitude toward being an entrepreneur. However, it seems that the students are somewhat reluctant to start a firm (mean ≈ 4).
Results of this section of the survey show that students have an overall positive attitude towards being an entrepreneur (see table 5.1). The statements in table 5.1 all have a mean of ≈ 5 (see appendix 4). Students agree with the statements and see
entrepreneurship as an attractive career choice.
Question 8: Indicate your level of agreement with the following sentences from 1(total disagreement) to 7 (total agreement).
total
disagreement 1 2 3 4 5 6 total agreement 7 no response Being an entrepreneur
implies more advantages than disadvantages to me
,0% 15,9% 13,6% 18,2% 9,1% 38,6% 2,3% 2,3%
A career as entrepreneur is attractive for me
,0% 9,1% 15,9% 34,1% 9,1% 11,4% 18,2% 2,3%
If I had the opportunity and resources, I'd like to start a firm
2,3% 4,5% 11,4% 22,7% 22,7% 15,9% 18,2% 2,3%
Being an entrepreneur would entail great satisfaction for me
2,3% 2,3% 18,2% 20,5% 11,4% 20,5% 22,7% 2,3%
Among various options, I'd rather be an entrepreneur
5.3 Subjective Norm
Subjective norm says something about the perception of Dutch fashion design students of opinions of people in their direct environment about them becoming an entrepreneur or doing entrepreneurial activities.
Overall the students expect to receive support from their environment. Support from their family scored higher than friends, colleagues and mates. As seen in table 5.2 students have the perception that people in the society may have a different take on
entrepreneurship. The last two statements in this table show this. These two statements tell something about the opinions about their contacts about risks and how they see someone who is an entrepreneur. In the table the highest percentages lays on the scale on point 4 and 5 respectively. This means that the respondents think that their family, friends and other contacts think that entrepreneurial activity is too risky and that entrepreneurs have a hidden agenda.
Question 12: Indicate your level of agreement with the following sentences from 1 (total disagreement) to 7 (total agreement).
total
disagreement 1 2 3 4 5 6 total agreement 7 Entrepreneurial activity
clashes with the culture in my country
19,0% 38,1% 9,5% 11,9% 9,5% 7,1% 4,8%
The entrepreneur's role in the economy is not sufficiently recognized
2,4% 16,7% 4,8% 28,6% 42,9% 4,8% ,0%
Many people consider hardly acceptable to be an
entrepreneur
11,9% 4,8% 21,4% 26,2% 21,4% 14,3% ,0%
Entrepreneurial activity is considered too risky to be worth while
4,8% 4,8% 23,8% 19,0% 31,0% 9,5% 7,1%
It is commonly thought that entrepreneurs take advantage of others
11,9% 7,1% 7,1% 38,1% 26,2% 7,1% 2,4%
Table 5.2 Statements Subjective Norm 5.4 Perceived Behavioral Control
