Disability and Employment

(1)

Disability and Employment A contemporary disability human rights approach applied to

Danish, Swedish and EU law and policy

(2)

SCHOOLOF HUMAN RIGHTS RESEARCH SERIES, Volume 43.

The titles published in this series are listed at the end of this volume.

(3)

Disability and Employment A contemporary disability human rights approach applied to

Danish, Swedish and EU law and policy Maria Ventegodt Liisberg

Cambridge – Antwerp – Portland

(4)

Maria Ventegodt Liisberg Disability and Employment

A contemporary disability human rights approach applied to Danish, Swedish and EU Law and Policy

Cover image: © Antonprado – Dreamstime.com

ISBN 978-1-78068-028-6 NUR 828

www.intersentia.com | www.intersentia.co.uk

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data. A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, by print, photoprint, microfi lm or any other means, without written permission from the publisher.

Intersentia Ltd

Trinity House | Cambridge Business Park | Cowley Road Cambridge | CB4 0WZ | United Kingdom

mail@intersentia.co.uk

(5)

v

A

CKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This book is the result of my research as an external PhD student at Maastricht University. First and foremost, I am deeply grateful for the unwavering support of my main supervisor Lisa Waddington who has commented on all the drafts of my thesis as well as helping me with the practicalities associated with being an external PhD student. Lisa has continuously inspired me to seek to improve my analytical skills and my clarity of writing. I am also indebted to my co-supervisor Ruth Nielsen of Copenhagen Business School for highly useful feed-back and guidance.

Special thanks also to my friend Brigit Toebes who has provided me with academic and moral support during the last years of this long-lasting process.

I would also like to acknowledge the support of the Danish Institute for Human Rights where I have had the pleasure of working both before, during and after the writing of my thesis. I thank the former Director of the Institute, Morten Kjærum, and the former Head of the National Department, Birgitte Kofod Olsen, for giving me working tasks related to disability human rights law and for supporting my wish to write this thesis. I have also appreciated the stimulating and supportive atmosphere of the Research Department under the leadership of Hans-Otto Sano, Eva Maria Lassen and Peter Scharff Smith.

Moreover, I am grateful to Stig Langvad, Chairman of the Disabled Peoples’

Organisation Denmark, and Holger Kallehauge, former High Court Judge and Chairman of the Danish Society of Polio and Accident Victims, who both so excellently promote the human rights of persons with disabilities in Denmark and globally, for encouraging me to do research on disability human rights.

In addition, thanks are due to Jan Høgelund of the Danish National Centre for Social Research for providing me with special calculations on the employment of persons with disabilities in Denmark. Many thanks also to Louise Rayar for translating the English summary of the thesis into Dutch.

I am also grateful to the members of the Reading Committee who provided helpful comments: Hildegard Schneider, Ann Numhauser-Henning (Lund University) and Anne Pieter van der Mei.

Finally, I would like to acknowledge the substantial fi nancial support of the Danish Research Council.

I dedicate this book to my husband, Jonas, with love and gratitude.

(6)

(7)

vii

C

^ONTENTS

Acknowledgements . . . v

List of Abbreviations . . . xv

Part I Introduction . . . 1

Chapter I Introduction. . . 3

1. Research Questions and Purposes . . . 5

2. Methodology . . . 6

3. Scope and Structure . . . 7

4. Some Defi nitions . . . 10

5. Disability Employment in Denmark and Sweden in Figures . . . 11

6. This Thesis in the Context of Existing Research . . . 14

7. Conclusion . . . 15

Part II Analytical Framework . . . 17

Chapter II Human Rights . . . 19

1. The Contemporary Disability Human Rights Approach . . . 19

1.1. Methodology for Determining the “Contemporary Disability Human Rights Approach” . . . 20

1.2. From the End of World War II until the End of the 1960s – Formal Equality and the Medical Model of Disability . . . 23

1.2.1. Models of Equality and Disability . . . 23

1.2.2. The United Nations . . . 24

1.2.3. The Council of Europe . . . 27

1.3. From the 1970s until 2000s – Substantive Difference Equality and the Minority Model of Disability . . . 28

1.3.1. The Models of Equality and Disability . . . 28

1.3.3.1. European Convention on Human Rights . . . 36

1.3.3.2. European Social Charter . . . 44

(8)

Contents

viii

1.4. Current trends – Substantive Diversity Equality and Social Universality

Model of Disability . . . 47

1.4.1. The Models of Equality and Disability . . . 47

1.5. The Involvement of Civil Society and Social Partners . . . 55

1.5.1. Involvement of Civil Society . . . 56

1.5.2. Involvement of Social Partners . . . 58

1.6. Conclusion . . . 59

2. Legal Status of Human Rights in Denmark and Sweden . . . 60

2.1. Human Rights Protection under Domestic Law . . . 61

2.2. Legal Status of International Human Rights Treaties . . . 63

2.3. National Disability Action Plans . . . 67

Part III EU and Domestic Law and Policy . . . 71

Chapter III EU Law and Policy . . . 73

1. Introduction . . . 73

2. Development of EU Disability Policies and Laws . . . 73

2.1. The Early Years from Treaty of Rome to the Mid-1970s . . . 73

2.2. Mid-1970s to the Treaty of Amsterdam . . . 74

2.3. From the Amsterdam Treaty and Onwards . . . 75

3. The EU and Human Rights Protection of Persons with Disabilities . . . 81

3.1. General Human Rights Instruments . . . 81

3.2. CRPD . . . 87

4. Employment Equality Directive . . . 89

4.1. Defi nition of Disability . . . 91

4.1.1. Models of Disability . . . 91

4.1.2. Delimitation of the Concept of Disability . . . 92

4.1.3. Defi nition of Disability and the ‘Causal Link’ . . . 95

4.1.4. Conclusion . . . 97

4.2. Direct Discrimination . . . 97

4.3. Indirect Discrimination . . . 103

4.4. Reasonable Accommodation . . . 106

4.4.1. What are “Appropriate Measures”? . . . 108

4.4.2. Who is Entitled to Reasonable Accommodation and in Which Situations? . . . 109

(9)

Contents

ix

4.4.3. Limitations on the Duty to Accommodate . . . 110

4.4.4. Reasonable Accommodation, Direct and Indirect Discrimination and Positive Action . . . 112

4.4.5. Conclusion on Reasonable Accommodation . . . 115

4.5. Harassment and Instruction to Discriminate . . . 116

4.6. Scope of Application . . . 116

4.7. Burden of Proof . . . 119

4.8. Positive Action . . . 120

4.8.1. Defi nition of Positive Action . . . 121

4.8.2. ECJ Case Law on Positive Action . . . 122

4.8.3. Disability-Related Positive Action . . . 124

4.9. Remedies and Sanctions and Victimisation . . . 126

4.10. Conclusion on Employment Equality Directive . . . 128

5. Employers’ Obligations . . . 128

5.1. Protection Against Dismissals . . . 129

5.1.1. Hard-law on Protection Against Dismissals . . . 129

5.1.2. Soft-law on Protection Against Dismissals . . . 130

5.2. Health and Safety . . . 130

5.2.1. Hard-law on Health and Safety . . . 131

5.2.2. Soft-law on Health and Safety . . . 135

5.3. Conclusion on Employers’ Obligations . . . 136

6. Employment Promotion . . . 136

6.1. Hard-law on Employment Promotion . . . 137

6.2. Soft-law on Employment Promotion . . . 140

6.3. Conclusion on Employment Promotion . . . 141

7. Income-Replacement Benefi ts . . . 141

7.1. Hard Law on Income-Replacement Benefi ts . . . 142

7.2. Soft-law on Income-Replacement Benefi ts . . . 146

7.3. Conclusion on Income-Replacement Benefi ts . . . 147

8. Involvement of Civil Society and Social Partners . . . 147

8.1. Civil Society . . . 148

8.2. Social Partners . . . 150

9. Legal Status of Denmark and Sweden under EU Law . . . 153

10. Conclusions . . . 155

Chapter IV Equality Law and Policy . . . 159

2. Contemporary Disability Human Rights Approach . . . 159

2.1. Non-Discrimination and Equality . . . 159

2.2. Defi nition of Disability . . . 162

(10)

Contents

x

2.3. Positive Action . . . 163

3. Overview of Danish and Swedish Equality Law . . . 167

4. Defi nition of Disability . . . 171

4.1. Danish Defi nition of disability . . . 171

4.2. Swedish Defi nition of Disability . . . 177

5. Direct Discrimination . . . 181

5.1. Less favourable treatment . . . 182

5.2. Comparable Situation . . . 182

5.3. Causal Link Between Disability and the Differential Treatment . . . 187

5.4. Exceptions . . . 190

6. Indirect Discrimination . . . 192

6.1. Indirect Differential Treatment . . . 193

6.2. Objective Justifi cation Clause . . . 194

6.3. Reasonable Accommodation Clause . . . 196

7. Reasonable Accommodation . . . 198

7.1. Meaning of “Reasonable Accommodation” . . . 199

7.2. What are “Appropriate Measures”? . . . 200

7.3. Who is Entitled to Reasonable Accommodation and in Which Situations? . . . 203

7.4. Limitations on the Duty to Accommodate . . . 207

7.5. Reasonable Accommodation, Direct and Indirect Discrimination and Positive Action . . . 212

8. Scope of Application . . . 215

8.1. Employer-Employee Relationship . . . 216

8.2. Membership of Workers’ or Employers’ Organisations . . . 218

8.3. Armed Forces . . . 219

8.4. Self-Employment . . . 219

8.5. Education and Training . . . 220

8.6. Related Areas of Transport, Infrastructure and Social Security . . . 220

9. Positive Action . . . 221

9.1. Public Employers . . . 223

9.2. Private Employers . . . 225

(11)

Contents

xi Chapter V

Employers’ Obligations. . . 231

2.1. Employers’ Obligations Towards Employees with Disabilities and Disability-Related Reduced Working Capacity . . . 232

2.2. Protection Against Unfair Dismissals . . . 237

2.3. Dismissals Due to Shortage of Work . . . 239

3. Dismissal Due to Disability-Related Reduced Working Capacity . . . 241

3.1. Material Limitations . . . 242

3.1.1. Denmark . . . 242

3.1.2. Sweden . . . 248

3.1.3. Conclusion . . . 252

3.2. Protection against Unfair Dismissal . . . 253

3.2.1. Denmark . . . 253

3.2.2. Sweden . . . 256

3.2.3. Conclusion . . . 258

4. Adjustment for Reduced Working Capacity . . . 260

4.1. Denmark . . . 260

4.2. Sweden . . . 263

4.2.1. General Duty to Adjust Working Tasks and Conditions . . . 264

4.2.2. Duty to Rehabilitate Employees on Sick Leave . . . 265

4.2.3. Reorganisation of Work and Transfer to Another Position . . . 267

5. Protection against Dismissals Due to Shortage of Work . . . 270

5.1. Denmark . . . 271

5.2. Sweden . . . 274

5.2.1. Criteria for Choosing Employees set by Law . . . 275

5.2.2. Special Protection of Persons with Disabilities . . . 276

6. EU Law and Policy . . . 281

Chapter VI Employment Promotion . . . 283

2.1. Sheltered Employment . . . 285

2.2. Supported Employment . . . 287

(12)

Contents

xii

3. Introduction to Danish and Swedish Labour Market Policy . . . 291

3.1. Danish and Swedish Employment Promotion Policies . . . 291

3.2. Implementation of Danish and Swedish Employment Promotion Policy . . . 293

4. Supported Employment in the Open Labour Market . . . 296

4.1. Overview . . . 296

4.2. Reserved to Persons Otherwise Excluded from the Labour Market . . . . 300

4.3. Available to Those Who Need It . . . 302

4.4. Promote Transition to Open Labour Market . . . 304

4.5. Usual Benefi ts of Labour Law . . . 306

5. Sheltered Employment . . . 309

5.1. Overview . . . 309

5.2. Reserved to Persons Excluded from the Open Labour Market . . . 313

5.3. Available to Those Who Need It . . . 315

5.4. Promote Transition to Open Labour Market . . . 315

5.5. Usual Benefi ts of Labour Law . . . 317

Chapter VII Income Replacement Benefi ts . . . 327

2.1. Disability-Specifi c Provisions . . . 329

2.2. Non-Disability-Specifi c provisions . . . 332

2.3. Work Injury Benefi t from a Human Rights’ Perspective . . . 334

3. Disability Pension . . . 336

3.1. Available to Those Who Need it and Ensures an Adequate Standard of Living . . . 337

3.1.1. Long-Lasting Reduced Working Capacity . . . 337

3.1.2. Partially Reduced Working Capacity . . . 338

3.1.3. Documentation of Reduced Working Capacity . . . 338

3.1.4. Level of Benefi t . . . 340

3.1.5. Conclusion . . . 341

3.2. Dignifi ed Support for Entry into Labour Market . . . 342

3.2.1. Suspension of Disability Pension . . . 344

3.3. Design and Administration of Disability Pension . . . 344

(13)

Contents

xiii

4. Sickness Benefi t . . . 346

4.1. Available to Those Who Need It and Ensures an Adequate Standard of Living . . . 347

4.1.1. Measurement of Working Capacity . . . 348

4.1.2. Level of Sickness Benefi ts . . . 350

4.2. Dignifi ed Support for Entry into the Labour Market . . . 351

4.3. Design and Administration of Sickness Benefi ts . . . 354

5. Rehabilitation . . . 356

5.1. Available to Those Who Need It and Ensures an Adequate Standard of Living . . . 356

5.2. Promotes Re-entry into Labour Market in a Dignifi ed Manner . . . 358

5.3. Design and Administration of Rehabilitation Benefi ts . . . 359

6. Work Injury Compensation . . . 360

6.1. Design and Administration of Work Injury Compensation . . . 361

6.2. Equal Right of Persons with Disabilities to Public Work Injury Compensation . . . 363

Part IV Conclusion . . . 371

Chapter VIII Conclusion . . . 373

1. Main Findings . . . 373

2. Employers’ Obligations . . . 377

3. Equality Law and Policy . . . 377

4. Employment Promotion . . . 379

5. Income-Replacement Benefi ts . . . 380

6. Disability Organisations and Social Partners . . . 381

7. Rights-Based Approach. . . 382

9. Main Recommendations . . . 383

Summary in English . . . 385

Summary in Dutch (Samenvatting) . . . 393

List of Literature . . . 401

(14)

(15)

xv

L

^IST ^OF

A

BBREVIATIONS

CAT Convention Against Torture and Other Forms of Cruel, Inhuman

and Degrading Treatment or Punishment

CEDAW Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women

CERD Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial

Discrimination

CRC Convention on the Rights of the Child

CRMW Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families

CRPD Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities

ECHR European Convention of Human Rights

ECJ Court of Justice of the European Communities

ECtHR European Court of Human Rights

ESC European Social Charter

CJEU Court of Justice of the European Union

ICCPR International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights

ICESCR International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights ICF International Classifi cation of Functioning, Disability and Health

(WHO)

ICIDH World Health Organization International Classifi cation of

Impairments, Disabilities and Handicaps (WHO)

UDHR Universal Declaration of Human Rights

UN United Nations

WHO World Health Organisation

(16)