ADDR ESSING THE
INTENTIONAL DESTRUCTION OF THE ENVIRONMENT DUR ING WAR FAR E UNDER THE ROME STATUTE OF THE
INTER NATIONAL CR IMINAL COURT
Steven Freeland
Cambridge – Antwerp – Portland
Addressing the Intentional Destruction of the Environment during Warfare under the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court
Steven Freeland
© 2015 Intersentia
Cambridge – Antwerp – Portland
www.intersentia.com | www.intersentia.co.uk
Cover illustration: Francisco de Goya (1746-1828), Etching, Plate 41 from ‘Los desastres de la guerra’
ISBN 978-1-78068-314-0 D/2015/7849/54
NUR 824
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Intersentia v
CONTENTS
Introduction . . . 1
Chapter One Th e Imperative to Regulate the Intentional Destruction of the Environment during Warfare under International Criminal Law . . . 5
1.1. Introduction – Intentional Environmental Destruction as a part of Warfare . . . 5
1.2. Impact of Environmental Destruction on Human Security and Confl ict . . . 8
1.3. Intentional Targeting of the Environment during Warfare and the Development of International Criminal Justice . . . 14
1.4. Th e Need for Legal Regulation . . . 23
1.4.1. National Law . . . 25
1.4.2. Regional Law . . . 27
1.4.3. International Law, Armed Confl ict and the Environment . . . 29
1.5. International Criminal Law as a Regulatory Mechanism . . . 34
1.6. Could State Criminal Responsibility Apply? . . . 36
1.6.1. State Criminal Responsibility? . . . 37
1.6.2. Individual Criminal Responsibility . . . 43
1.7. Key Questions . . . 45
Chapter Two Regulation of the Intentional Destruction of the Environment during Warfare under Treaty Law . . . 47
2.1. Introduction – Treaties under International Law . . . 47
2.2. International Humanitarian Law (Jus in Bello) – Relevant Treaty Provisions . . . 49
2.2.1. 1868 St. Petersburg Declaration . . . 59
2.2.2. 1899 Hague Conference Conventions and Declarations . . . 60
2.2.3. 1907 Hague Convention IV Respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land . . . 62
2.2.4. 1925 Geneva Protocol for the Prohibition of the Use in War of Asphyxiating, Poisonous and Other Gases, and of Bacteriological Methods of Warfare . . . 65
Contents
2.2.5. 1949 Geneva Conventions . . . 68
2.2.6. 1954 Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Confl ict . . . 73
2.2.7. 1972 Biological Weapons Convention . . . 74
2.2.8. 1976 Convention on the Prohibition of Military or Any Other Hostile Use of Environmental Modifi cation Techniques . . . 76
2.2.9. 1977 Additional Protocol I . . . 81
2.2.10. 1981 Certain Conventional Weapons Convention . . . 92
2.2.11. 1993 Chemical Weapons Convention . . . 96
2.2.12. 1997 Ottawa Convention on the Prohibition of the Use, Stockpiling, Production and Transfer of Anti-Personnel Mines and on Th eir Destruction . . . 98
2.2.13. 1999 Second Protocol to the Hague Convention of 1954 for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Confl ict . . . 100
2.3. Applicability of International Environmental Law Treaties . . . 101
2.3.1. Development of International Environmental Law Treaties . . . . 102
2.3.2. Applicability during Warfare? . . . 105
2.3.3. Liability and State Responsibility rather than Criminal Responsibility . . . 111
2.4. Conclusion . . . 115
Chapter Th ree Regulation of the Intentional Destruction of the Environment during Warfare under Customary International Law . . . 119
3.1. Introduction – Customary International Law within International Law . . . 119
3.2. Fundamental Customary Rules of the Jus in Bello . . . 130
3.2.1. Principle of Military Necessity . . . 131
3.2.2. Principle of Distinction . . . 141
3.2.3. Principle of Proportionality . . . 150
3.2.4. Th e Fundamental Customary Jus in Bello Rules are Important but Insuffi cient . . . 159
3.3. Additional Protection? ICRC Study – Rules Relating to ‘Th e Natural Environment’ . . . 160
3.3.1. ICRC Study – Rule 43 . . . 163
3.3.2. ICRC Study – Rule 44 . . . 164
3.3.3. ICRC Study – Rule 45 . . . 168
3.4. A General Customary Obligation to Take Account of the Environment during Armed Confl ict? . . . 171
3.5. Conclusion . . . 175
Contents
Intersentia vii
Chapter Four
Regulation of the Intentional Destruction of the Environment during
Warfare under the Existing Rome Statute Regime . . . 177
4.1. Introduction – Th e Core International Crimes in the Rome Statute . . . . 177
4.2. Finalization of the Rome Statute and Establishment of the ICC . . . 180
4.3. Jurisdiction of the Court – A Brief Overview . . . 185
4.4. Applicability of the Rome Statute to the Intentional Destruction of the Environment during Warfare . . . 189
4.4.1. Intentional Destruction of the Environment as Genocide? . . . 190
4.4.2. Intentional Destruction of the Environment as a Crime against Humanity? . . . 199
4.4.3. Intentional Destruction of the Environment as a War Crime? . . 204
4.4.3.1. Article 8(2)(b)(iv) . . . 204
4.4.3.2. Other War Crimes within Article 8 of the Rome Statute 213 4.5. Conclusion . . . 215
Chapter Five Incorporating Crimes against the Environment into the Rome Statute . . . . 219
5.1. Th e Need for a Sui Generis Crime of Crimes against the Environment . . 219
5.1.1. Revisiting the Imperative to more eff ectively Address the Intentional Destruction of the Environment during Warfare under International Criminal Law . . . 219
5.1.2. A Sui Generis Crime – Crimes against the Environment . . . 226
5.1.2.1. Why a Stand-Alone Crime? . . . 226
5.1.2.2. Why ‘During Armed Confl ict’? . . . 228
5.2. Crimes against the Environment – An International Crime? . . . 234
5.3. Crimes against the Environment – A Defi nition for the Rome Statute . . 239
5.3.1. Th e Applicable Approach to Defi ning Crimes against the Environment . . . 239
5.3.2. Defi nition of Crimes against the Environment . . . 245
5.3.2.1. Proposed article 8 ter of the Rome Statute . . . 245
5.3.2.1.1. Discussion . . . 246
5.3.2.1.1.1. Paragraph 1 (article 8 ter(1)) . . . 246
5.3.2.1.1.2. Paragraph 2 (article 8 ter(2)) . . . 274
5.3.2.2. Associated Amendments to the Rome Statute . . . 279
5.3.2.3. Associated Amendments to the Elements of Crimes . . . 279
5.3.2.3.1. Amendment to the Explanatory Note . . . 279
5.3.2.3.1.1. Discussion . . . 280
5.3.2.3.2. Proposed Elements of Crimes for Crimes against the Environment . . . 280
5.3.2.3.2.1. Discussion . . . 281
Contents
5.4. Comparison with article 8(2)(b)(iv) – ‘Righting the Wrongs’ . . . 282
5.5. Procedure for Amending the Rome Statute and the Elements of Crimes . . . 283
5.6. Final Refl ections – A ‘Work in Progress’ . . . 285
Appendix I . . . 289
5.3.2.2. Associated Amendments to the Rome Statute . . . 289
5.3.2.2.1. Amendment to article 5(1) . . . 289
5.3.2.2.2. Amendment to article 8(2)(b)(iv) and the Associated Elements of Crimes . . . 289
5.3.2.2.3. Amendment to article 9(1) . . . 290
5.3.2.2.4. Inclusion of article 15 quater . . . 290
5.3.2.2.5. Amendment to article 20(3) . . . 291
Appendix II . . . 293
5.3.3. Paragraph 3 – Not Included in Final Version of article 8 ter . . 293
5.3.3.1. Discussion . . . 293
Bibliography . . . 297
Curriculum Vitae . . . 353
