International Law Aspects of the EU's Security and Defence Policy, with a Particular Focus on the Law of Armed Conflict

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OF ARMED CONFLICT AND HUMAN RIGHTS

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OF THE EU’S SECURITY AND DEFENCE POLICY, WITH A PARTICULAR FOCUS ON THE

LAW OF ARMED CONFLICT AND HUMAN RIGHTS

Frederik Naert

Antwerp – Oxford – Portland

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International Law Aspects of the EU’s Security and Defence Policy, with a Particular Focus on the Law of Armed Confl ict and Human Rights

Frederik Naert

Antwerp – Oxford – Portland www.intersentia.com

ISBN 978-90-5095-771-7 D/2010/7849/1

NUR 828

No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, by print, photoprint, microfi lm or any other means, without written permission from the publisher.

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Intersentia v TABLE OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ABBREVIATED CITATIONS . . . .xv

INTRODUCTION . . . 1

A. How the Development of the European Security and Defence

Policy Raises International Law Questions . . . 1 B. Methodology and Research Questions . . . 4

PART I

THE ESDP AND ITS INTERNATIONAL LAW ASPECTS

CHAPTER 1

BRIEF HISTORICAL EVOLUTION . . . 15

A. Th e Failure of the European Defence Community and the

Establishment of the WEU in the Aft ermath of Post World War II . . . 15 B. WEU Is Soon Overshadowed by Other Organizations . . . 18 C. European Political Cooperation and the Reactivation of the WEU . . . 21 D. Th e Establishment of the EU with a CFSP and the WEU as Its Defence

Component that is Also the European Security and Defence Identity in NATO . . . 23 E. Th e Treaty of Amsterdam, the Cologne and Helsinki European

Councils and the Foundation of the ESDP . . . 37 F. Th e Treaty of Nice, a European Security Strategy and the First

ESDP Operations . . . 50

CHAPTER 2

THE STATE OF THE ESDP . . . 55 A. Basic Principles. . . 57 B. Institutions . . . 61

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C. Cooperation with NATO . . . 66

D. Cooperation with Other Actors. . . 70

1. Th ird State Participation . . . 71

2. Th e UN and the ESDP . . . 72

3. ESDP and Other International Organizations . . . 78

i. Th e OSCE . . . 78

ii. Th e African Union . . . 82

iii. ASEAN . . . 84

E. Capabilities . . . 85

F. Th e European Defence Agency, Defence Industry and Procurement . . . 90

G. Financing. . . 94

H. Status of Forces . . . 95

CHAPTER 3 ESDP OPERATIONS . . . 97

A. Overview . . . 97

B. EUPM (BiH) . . . 100

1. Mandate . . . 104

2. Legal Status and Applicable Law . . . 104

3. Participation of Th ird States . . . 105

C. CONCORDIA (FYROM) . . . 106

1. Mandate . . . 108

D. ARTEMIS (DRC) . . . 111

1. Mandate . . . 114

E. PROXIMA (FYROM) . . . 116

1. Mandate . . . 118

F. EUJUST THEMIS (Georgia) . . . 121

1. Mandate . . . 122

G. ALTHEA (BiH). . . 124

1. Mandate . . . 127

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H. EUPOL Kinshasa (DRC). . . 131

1. Mandate, Legal Status, Applicable Law and Participation of Th ird States . . . 133

I. EUSEC DRC . . . 133

J. EUJUST LEX (Iraq) . . . 136

K. EU Support AMIS II (Sudan) . . . 138

1. Mandate . . . 141

L. EU AMM (Indonesia) . . . 142

1. Mandate, Legal Status and Applicable Law . . . 144

M. COPPS (Palestinian Territories) . . . 145

1. Mandate, Legal Status and Applicable Law and Participation of Th ird States . . . 147

N. EUPAT (FYROM) . . . 147

O. EU BAM Rafah (Palestinian Territories) . . . 148

P. EUFOR DR Congo . . . 150

1. Mandate and Participation of Th ird States . . . 152

Q. EUPOL Afghanistan . . . 154

R. EUPOL RD Congo. . . 157

S. EUFOR Tchad/RCA. . . 159

T. EULEX Kosovo. . . 164

1. Mandate . . . 168

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U. EU SSR Guinea-Bissau . . . 173

V. EUMM Georgia . . . 175

W. EU NAVCO & EUNAVFOR Somalia / Atalanta. . . 179

1. Mandate . . . 184

CHAPTER 4 SOME CONCLUSIONS AND LEGAL ISSUES RAISED . . . 193

A. Th e Scope of the ESDP . . . 193

1. Th e Scope of the ESDP under the Text of the EU Treaty . . . 193

i. A Common Defence Policy . . . 194

ii. A Terminological Intermezzo . . . 198

iii. Peacekeeping Tasks and Tasks of Combat Forces in Crisis Management, Including Peacemaking . . . 203

2. Th e Scope of the ESDP in Practice: ESDP Operations . . . 206

3. Th e Scope of the CSDP’s Crisis Management Component under the Lisbon Treaty . . . 209

4. Th e Integration of the WEU . . . 209

5. Of Solidarity, Neutrality and the Way towards a Common Defence . . . 213

i. No Common Defence Yet . . . 213

ii. A Confi rmation of the Decline of Neutrality? . . . 215

iii. Solidarity against Terrorism . . . 224

iv. Th e Lisbon Treaty: Towards a Common Defence? . . . 225

6. Th e International Legal Basis for ESDP Operations . . . 233

7. Conclusions on the Scope of the ESDP . . . 248

B. Legal Status and Applicable Law . . . 249

1. What the SOFA/SOMAs Do Say . . . 249

2. What the SOFA/SOMAs Do Not Say: Th e Law of Armed Confl ict and Human Rights Law . . . 251

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Intersentia ix PART II

TO WHAT EXTENT ARE INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS BOUND BY INTERNATIONAL LAW?

CHAPTER 5 THE INTERNATIONAL LEGAL STATUS OF INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS . . . 261

A. Terminology: Legal Personality, Subjectivity, Legal Capacities and Competence . . . 261

B. International Organizations as Subjects of International Law . . . 268

C. Th e OSCE: Not Merely Political in Nature?. . . 269

1. Legal Capacities, Privileges and Immunities . . . 270

2. From CSCE to OSCE . . . 273

3. Non-Legal Obligations and Agreements? . . . 276

4. Th e OSCE Does Have Legal Personality . . . 282

D. International Organizations May Possess International Legal Personality – Even by Implication. . . 283

1. International Organizations May Possess International Legal Personality . . . 284

2. International Legal Personality May Be Granted to International Organizations Implicitly . . . 288

E. Th e Contents of the International Legal Personality of International Organizations . . . 289

1. Two Th eories . . . 290

2. Elements and Consequences of International Legal Personality . . . 293

3. Treaty-Making Capacity as One Decisive Element . . . 303

i. Will Contradicted by Capacities and Treaties or Non-Binding Agreements . . . 306

ii. International Legal Personality and Treaty-Making Power of NATO . . . 308

iii. Th e Eurocorps . . . 314

F. Objective International Legal Personality? . . . 315

G. Preliminary Conclusions . . . 319

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CHAPTER 6

THE INTERNATIONAL LEGAL STATUS OF THE EU . . . 323

A. Rights and Obligations Under International Law and the Power to Adopt Binding Decisions . . . 328

B. Treaty-Making Capacity . . . 334

C. Privileges and Immunities . . . 346

D. EU Agencies . . . 347

E. How Does the EU Relate to the EC and the Agencies? . . . 351

F. Th e Status of ESDP Operations . . . 355

G. Conclusion: A Subject of International Law with International Legal Personality. . . 358

CHAPTER 7 HOW ARE INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS BOUND BY INTERNATIONAL LAW? . . . 361

A. A General but Qualifi ed Acceptance in Doctrine and Jurisprudence. . . . 362

B. Diffi culties in Practice . . . 365

1. Immunities of International Organizations . . . 365

2. UN Forces and the Law of Armed Confl ict . . . 369

C. Approach of the Question and the Internal Legal Order of International Organizations. . . 371

1. Approach . . . 371

2. Th e Internal Legal Order of International Organizations . . . 375

D. Obligations Entered into by the Organization . . . 383

1. International Agreements Concluded by the Organization . . . 383

2. Unilateral Acts . . . 386

E. Obligations Imposed upon the Organization by the Member States. . . . 388

F. Obligations Under General International Law . . . 391

1. Customary International Law . . . 391

2. General Principles of Law . . . 396

i. General Principles in EC/EU Law . . . 397

ii. General Principles in the Legal Order of International Organizations Generally . . . 408

3. Ius Cogens . . . 409

G. Only Exceptionally International Agreements Concluded by the Member States . . . 411

1. General Considerations . . . 411

2. Th e EC, GATT and Customs Agreements . . . 416

3. Th e EC/EU and the ECHR . . . 418

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Intersentia xi 4. Th e EC/EU and other Member State Treaties, Including the

UN Charter . . . 419

i. General . . . 419

ii. Th e UN Charter . . . 419

iii. Th e Yusuf and Kadi Judgments . . . 427

5. Other International Organizations . . . 434

H. Some Refl ections on the Responsibility of Member States for Th eir Actions in the Framework of International Organizations . . . 435

1. Responsibility for the Actions of an International Organization Resulting from Its Establishment . . . 437

2. Responsibility of a Member for Its Own Subsequent Conduct in the Framework of an International Organization . . . 443

I. General Conclusions . . . 449

J. Application to the EU . . . 452

PART III. APPLICABLE INTERNATIONAL LAW IN ESDP OPERATIONS GENERAL INTRODUCTION TO THE APPLICABLE LAW . . . 457

CHAPTER 8 THE LAW OF ARMED CONFLICT . . . 463

A. Introduction . . . 463

B. Th e Th reshold for an Armed Confl ict and Participation in an Armed Confl ict. . . 466

1. Th e Th reshold for Armed Confl ict . . . 466

2. Participation in Armed Confl ict . . . 470

C. Th e Nature of Armed Confl icts and the Parties Th ereto. . . 478

D. Peace Operations as Occupation? . . . 493

E. Th e Impact of Security Council Intervention . . . 499

F. Participating State Obligations in ESDP Operations . . . 506

1. General . . . 506

i. Responsibility Resulting from Establishment Without Guarantees . . . 506

ii. Responsibility Resulting from Voting . . . 509

iii. Responsibility Resulting from Implementing a Decision . . . . 510

iv. Th e Obligation to “Respect and to Ensure Respect” . . . 510

v. ESDP Operations Conducted by Some Member States Only . 514 2. Th e Position of Th ird States Participating in ESDP Operations . . . . 514

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G. EU Obligations in ESDP Operations. . . 515

1. Th e EU Has Proper Obligations under the LOAC . . . 515

2. Th e Sources and Extent of the EU’s LOAC Obligations . . . 526

i. Treaties Concluded by the EU . . . 527

ii. Binding Unilateral Acts . . . 527

iii. Th e EU’s Constituent Instruments and Proper Rules . . . 529

iv. Agreements between the EU Member States Binding the EU . . . 533

v. Provisions of Other International Instruments and Judicial Decisions via the Above . . . 533

vi. Customary International Law . . . 533

vii. General Principles of International Law . . . 536

viii. General Principles of EC/EU Law . . . 536

ix. Ius Cogens . . . 536

x. Member State Treaties through Substitution . . . 537

xi. Th e Position of Forces Provided by Th ird States . . . 537

H. Conclusions. . . 537

CHAPTER 9 HUMAN RIGHTS . . . 541

A. Introduction . . . 541

B. Extraterritorial Scope of Application of Human Rights . . . 544

1. Th e European Convention of Human Rights . . . 544

2. Th e International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. . . 557

3. Other Human Rights Treaties . . . 561

4. Extraterritorial Scope of Application of Customary International Human Rights? . . . 564

5. Conclusion . . . 566

C. Limited Scope of Application of Human Rights in War and Emergencies: Derogations. . . 567

1. General . . . 567

2. Th e European Convention on Human Rights . . . 570

i. Th e Derogation Clause . . . 570

ii. Extraterritorial Applicability? . . . 577

3. Th e International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. . . 580

i. Th e Derogation Clause . . . 580

ii. Extraterritorial Applicability? . . . 583

4. Derogation in Customary International Law or General Principles of Law? . . . 583

5. Th e Impact of Security Council Intervention . . . 585

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Intersentia xiii D. Th e Relationship between Human Rights and the Law of Armed

Confl ict . . . 589

1. Concurrent Applicability Resulting from the Respective Scopes of Application. . . 591

2. Th e Interaction in Cases of Concurrent Application . . . 596

i. Relationship Rules in International Law . . . 597

ii. Jurisprudence . . . 599

iii. Doctrine . . . 615

iv. Specifi c Rights or Situations . . . 618

a. Th e Right to Life and the Use of Force. . . 618

b. Th e Prohibition of Arbitrary Deprivation of Liberty . . . 624

c. Th e Prohibition of Torture, Inhuman and Degrading Treatment or Punishment . . . 634

d. Occupation . . . 637

v. Conclusions . . . 640

E. Participating State Obligations in ESDP Operations: Member State Responsibility . . . 641

F. EU Obligations in ESDP Operations. . . 644

1. Th e EU Has Proper Obligations Under Human Rights Law . . . 644

2. Th e Sources and Extent of the EU’s Human Rights Obligations . . . 646

i. Treaties Concluded by the EU . . . 646

ii. Binding Unilateral Acts . . . 647

iii. Th e EU’s Constituent Instruments and Proper Rules . . . 648

iv. Agreements Between the EU Member States Binding the EU . . . 651

v. Provisions of Other International Instruments and Judicial Decisions via the Above . . . 651

vi. Customary International Law . . . 651

vii. General Principles of International Law . . . 652

viii. General Principles of EC/EU Law . . . 652

ix. Ius Cogens . . . 653

x. Member State Treaties Th rough Substitution . . . 653

xi. Th e Position of Forces Provided by Th ird States . . . 653

G. Conclusions. . . 653

SUMMARY, GENERAL CONCLUSIONS, FINAL REFLECTIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS . . . 659

REFERENCES, CITATIONS AND TABLE OF CASES . . . 671

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Intersentia xv

ABBREVIATED CITATIONS

1. INTERNATIONAL AGR EEMENTS AND INSTRUMENTS

1907 HC V Convention (V) respecting the Rights and Duties of Neutral Powers and Persons in Case of War on Land (Th e Hague, 18 October 1907);

1907 HC XIII Convention (XIII) concerning the Rights and Duties of Neutral Powers in Naval War (Th e Hague, 18 October 1907);

1969 VCLT Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties

(Vienna, 23 May 1969, 1155 U.N.T.S. 331);

1975 VCRSIO Vienna Convention on the Representation of

States in their Relations with International Organizations of a Universal Character (Vienna, 14 March 1975, not yet entered into force);

1978 VCSST Vienna Convention on Succession of States in Respect of Treaties (Vienna, 23 August 1978, 1946 U.N.T.S. 3 and 17 I.L.M. 1978, pp. 1488–

1517);

1986 VCLT Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties

between States and International Organizations or between International Organizations (Vienna, 21 March 1986, not yet entered into force);

ACHR American Convention on Human Rights (San

José, 22 November 1969, OAS Treaties Series No.

36);

Amended Brussels Treaty Treaty of Economic, Social and Cultural Collaboration and Collective Self-Defence (Brussels, 17 March 1948), as amended by the Protocol Modifying and Completing the Brussels Treaty (Paris, 23 October 1954);

1977 Additional Protocols Additional Protocols to the (1949) Geneva Conventions (API & APII, see infra);

API Protocol additional to the Geneva Conventions

of 12 august 1949, and Relating to the Protection

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of Victims of International Armed Confl icts (Protocol I) (8 June 1977, 1125 U.N.T.S. 3);

APII Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions

of 12 August 1949, and Relating to the Protection of Victims of Non-international Armed Confl icts (Protocol II) (8 June 1977, 1125 U.N.T.S. 609);

ECHR (European) Convention for the Protection of

Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (Rome, 4 November 1950, 5 E.T.S, as later amended);

EC Treaty Treaty Establishing the European (Economic)

Community (Rome, 25 March 1957, 298 U.N.T.S.

11, later repeatedly amended);

EDC Treaty Treaty Setting Up the European Defence

Community (Paris, 27 May 1952, not entered into force);

EU Constitution Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe (Rome, 29 October 2004, O.J. C 310, 16 December 2004, not entered into force);

EU SOFA Agreement between the Member States of the

European Union concerning the status of military and civilian staff seconded to the institutions of the European Union, of the headquarters and forces which may be made available to the European Union in the context of the preparation and execution of the tasks referred to in Article 17(2) of the Treaty on European Union, including exercises, and of the military and civilian staff of the Member States put at the disposal of the European Union to act in this context (Brussels, 16 November 2003, O.J.

C 321, 31 December 2003, p. 6, not yet entered into force);

EU Treaty Treaty on European Union (Maastricht,

7 February 1992, O.J. C 191, 29 July 1992, later repeatedly amended);

GATT 1947 General Agreement on Tariff s and Trade

(Geneva, 30 October 1947, 55 U.N.T.S. 187);

Geneva Conventions Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949 (GCI, GCII, GCIII & GCIV, see infra);

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Intersentia xvii

GCI Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the

Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armed Forces in the Field (Geneva, 12 August 1949, 75 U.N.T.S. 31);

GCII Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the

Condition of the Wounded, Sick and Shipwrecked Members of Armed Forces at Sea (Geneva, 12 August 1949, 75 U.N.T.S. 85);

GCIII Geneva Convention Relative to the Treatment of

Prisoners of War (Geneva, 12 August 1949, 75 U.N.T.S. 135);

GCIV Geneva Convention Relative to the Protection of

Civilian Persons in Time of War (Geneva, 12 August 1949, 75 U.N.T.S. 287);

Hague Regulations Regulations concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land. Annexed to Convention (IV) respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land (Th e Hague, 18 October 1907);

ICC Statute Statute of the International Criminal Court

(Rome, 17 July 1998, 2187 U.N.T.S. 3 and 37 I.L.M. 1998, pp. 998–1069);

ICCPR International Covenant on Civil and Political

Rights (New York, 16 December 1966, 999 U.N.T.S. 171);

ICJ Statute Statute of the International Court of Justice (Annexed to the UN Charter (infra));

Lisbon Treaty Treaty of Lisbon amending the Treaty on

European Union and the Treaty establishing the European Community (Lisbon, 13 December 2007, O.J. C 306, 17 December 2007; consolidated versions of the EU Treaty and the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union as they would be amended by the Lisbon Treaty are published in O.J. C 115, 9 May 2008);

Maastricht Treaty Treaty on European Union (original version, Maastricht, 7 February 1992, O.J. C 191, 29 July 1992, p. 1);

Ottawa Convention Agreement on the Status of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, National Representatives and International Staff (Ottawa, 20 September 1951);

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Paris Protocol Protocol on the Status of International Military Headquarters set up pursuant to the North Atlantic Treaty (Paris, 28 August 1952);

Treaty of Amsterdam Treaty of Amsterdam (Amsterdam, 2 October 1997, O.J. C 340, 10 November 1997, amending EC and EU Treaties);

Treaty of Nice Treaty of Nice Amending the Treaty on European Union, the Treaties Establishing the European Communities and Certain Related Acts (Nice, 26 February 2001, O.J. C 80, 10 March 2001);

UN Charter Charter of the United Nations (San Francisco, 26 June 1945);

2. INTERNATIONAL JURISPRUDENCE

Bankovic ECtHR, Vlastimir and Borka Bankovic´ and Others v. Belgium, the Czech Republic, Denmark, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Spain, Turkey and the United Kingdom, 12 December 2001 (admissibility decision);

Behrami & Saramati ECtHR, Grand Chamber, Behrami and Behrami v. France (No. 71412/01) and Saramati v. France, Germany and Norway (No. 78166/01), 31 May 2007 (admissibility decision);

Bosphorus ECtHR, Bosphorus Hava Yolları Turizm ve Ticaret Anonim Şirketi v. Ireland, judgment of 30 June 2005;

Issa ECtHR, Halima Musa Issa and Others v. Turkey, judgment of 16 November 2004;

Kadi ECJ (CFI), Case T-315/01, Kadi v. Council and Commission, judgment of 21 September 2005;

Kadi appeals judgment Joined Cases C-402/05 P and C-415/05 P, Yassin Abdullah Kadi and Al Barakaat International Foundation v. Council of the European Union and Commission of the European Communities, judgment of 3 September 2008;

Matthews ECtHR, Matthews v. UK, judgment of

18 February 1999;

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Intersentia xix Nicaragua Case ICJ, Case concerning the Military and

Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua, judgment of 27 June 1986;

Nuclear Weapons Opinion ICJ, Legality of the Th reat or Use of Nuclear Weapons, advisory opinion of 8 July 1996;

Reparations Opinion ICJ, Reparation for Injuries Suff ered in the Service of the United Nations, Advisory opinion of 11 April 1949;

Yusuf ECJ (CFI), Case T-306/01, Yusuf and Al Barakaat International Foundation v. Council and Commission, judgment of 21 September 2005;

3. BOOKS & PUBLICATIONS

Amerasinghe C.F. Amerasinghe, Principles of the Institutional Law of International organisations, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2005 (2^nd ed.);

Aust A. Aust, Modern Treaty Law and Practice,

Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2000;

Bossuyt & Wouters M. Bossuyt & J. Wouters, Grondlijnen van international recht, Antwerp/Oxford, Intersentia, 2005;

Brownlie I. Brownlie, Principles of Public International Law, Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1998 (5^th ed.);

Cot & Pellet J.-P. Cot, A. Pellet (eds.), M. Forteau (ass. ed.), La Charte des Nations Unies: commentaire article par article, Paris, Economica, 2005 (3^rd ed.);

David E. David, Principes de droit des confl its armés, Brussels, Bruylant, 2002 (3^rd ed.);

de Wet E. de Wet, Th e Chapter VII Powers of the United Nations Security Council, Oxford, Hart, 2004;

Dupuy (ed.) R.-J. Dupuy (ed.), Manuel sur les organisations internationales/A Handbook on International Organizations, Dordrecht, Nijhoff , 1998 (2^nd ed.);

Häussler U. Häußler, Ensuring and Enforcing Human

Security: Th e Practice of International Peace Missions, Nijmegen, Wolf Legal Publishers, 2007;

ICRC Commentary (GC) J. Pictet (ed.), Th e Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949: Commentary, Geneva, ICRC, 1958, 4 Vols. (available online at www.icrc.org/

ihl);

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xx Intersentia

ICRC Commentary (AP) C. Pilloud et al. (eds.), Commentary on the Additional Protocols of 8 June 1977 to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, Geneva/

Dordrecht, ICRC/Nijhoff , 1987 (available online at www.icrc.org/ihl);

Klabbers J. Klabbers, An Introduction to International

Institutional Law, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2002;

Klein P. Klein, La Responsabilité des organisations

internationales dans les ordres juridiques internes et en droit des gens, Brussels, Bruylant, 1998;

Kolb, Porretto & Vité R. Kolb, G. Porretto & S. Vité, L’application du droit international humanitaire et des droits de l’homme aux organisations internationales.

Forces de paix et administrations civiles transitoires, Brussels, Bruylant, 2005;

Lawson R. Lawson, Het EVRM en de Europese

Gemeenschappen: bouwstenen voor een aansprakelijkheidsregime voor het optreden van internationale organisaties, Deventer, Kluwer, 1999 (with a summary in English);

Malanczuk P. Malanczuk, Akehurst’s Modern Introduction to International Law, London/New York, Routledge, 1997 (7^th ed.);

Sands & Klein P. Sands & P. Klein, Bowett’s Law of International Institutions, London, Sweet & Maxwell, 2001 (5^th ed.);

Schermers & Blokker H.G. Schermers & N.M. Blokker, International Institutional Law, Boston et al., Martinus Nijhoff , 2003 (4^th ed.);

Shaw M. Shaw, International Law, Cambridge,

Cambridge University Press, 2003 (5^th ed.);

Simma B. Simma (ed.), Th e Charter of the United Nations.

A Commentary, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2002 (2^nd ed.);

Trybus & White M. Trybus & N. White (eds.), European Security Law, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2007;

UK Manual UK Ministry of Defence, Th e Manual of the Law of Armed Confl ict, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2004;

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Intersentia xxi Vanhamme J. Vanhamme, Volkenrechtelijke beginselen in het

Europees recht, Groningen, Europa Law Publishing, 2001;

Wessel R.A. Wessel, Th e European Union’s Foreign and Security Policy. Legal Institutional Perspective, Kluwer Law International, Th e Hague, 1999;

White N. White, Th e Law of International Organisations, Manchester, Manchester University Press, 1996;

Zwanenburg M. Zwanenburg, Accountability under

International Humanitarian Law for United Nations and North Atlantic Treaty Organization Peace Support Operations, Leiden, E.M. Meijers Institute, 2004;

4. JOURNALS AND OTHER ABBR EVIATIONS

ACLU American Civil Liberties Union

African Y.I.L African Yearbook of International Law

AI Amnesty International

A.I.D.I. Annuaire de l’Institut de droit international

A.J.I.L. American Journal of International Law

AMM Aceh Monitoring Mission

Appl. Application Art(s). Article(s)

ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations

ASIL American Society of International Law

ass. ed. assistant editor

AU African Union

A.U.I.L.R. American University International Law Review Australian Y.I.L. Australian Yearbook of International Law

Austrian J. Pub. I.L. Austrian Journal of Public and International Law

AVR Archiv des Völkerrechts

BGBl. Bundesgesetzblatt

BiH Bosnia and Herzegovina

Boston C. I.C.L.R. Boston College International and Comparative Law Review

Boston U.I.L.J. Boston University International Law Journal

Bull. EC Bulletin of the European Communities

Bull. EU Bulletin of the European Union

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xxii Intersentia

BverfG Bundesverfassungsgericht (German Constitutio-

nal Court)

BVerfGE Entscheidungen des Bundesverfassungsgerichts

B.Y.I.L. British Yearbook of International Law

California Western I.L.J California Western International Law Journal

C.D.E. Cahiers de droit européen

CESDP Common European Security and Defence Policy

(of the EU)

CESCR (UN) Committee on Economic Social and

Cultural Rights

C.E.T.S. Council of Europe Treaties Series (succeeds E.T.S.

as of 2004)

CFI Court of First Instance (of the EC/EU)

CFSP Common Foreign and Security Policy (of the

EU) Ch(s). Chapter(s)

Chinese J.I.L. Chinese Journal of International Law

C.M.L. Rev. Common Market Law Review

Cmnd. UK Command Papers

Colum. J. Transn. L. Columbia Journal of Transnational Law

Colum. L Rev. Columbia Law Review

COMESA Common Market for Eastern and Southern

Africa

COREPER Committee of Permanent Representatives (EU)

Cornell I.L.J. Cornell International Law Journal

CSCE Conference for Security and Cooperation in

Europe

CSDP Common Security and Defence Policy (EU)

C.Y.I.L. Canadian Yearbook of International Law

Denver J.I. L. & Policy Denver Journal of International Law and Policy Dept. Department

Doc. Document

DRC Democratic Republic of the Congo

D-SACEUR Deputy Supreme Allied Commander Europe

Duke J.C.I.L. Duke Journal of Comparative & International Law

EC European Community / Communities

E.C.H.R. Reports of Judgments and Decisions (of the

European Court of Human Rights)*¹

* Since 1 Nov. 1998 the Reports of Judgments and Decisions are no longer cited as Rep. (followed by the Volume) but as ECHR (followed by the Volume).

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Intersentia xxiii

ECJ European Court of Justice (EC/EU)

EComHR European Commission of Human Rights

(Council of Europe)

ECR European Court Reports (EC/EU)

ECtHR European Court of Human Rights (Council of

Europe)

ed(s). edition or editor(s)

E.F.A.R. European Foreign Aff airs Review

E.J.I.L. European Journal of International Law

Emory I.L.R. Emory International Law Review

Eur. L. Rev. European Law Review

EPC European Political Cooperation

E.H.R.L.R. European Human Rights Law Review

E.H.R.R. European Human Rights Reports

ESDP European Security and Defence Policy (of the

EU)

et al. and others

E.T.S. European Treaties Series (Council of Europe; as of 2004 renamed C.E.T.S.)

EU European Union

EUBG EU Battle Group

EU ISS EU Institute for Security Studies

EUMC EU Military Committee

EUMS EU Military Staff

EUPM EU Police Mission (in Bosnia and Herzegovina)

Eur. Gr. R.Z. Europäische Grundrechte-Zeitschrift

EUSR EU Special Representative

EWCA Civ. England and Wales Court of Appeal (Civil

Division)

EWHC Admin. England and Wales High Court (Administrative Court)

EWHC (QB) England and Wales High Court (Queen’s Bench

Division)

Florida J.I.L. Florida Journal of International Law Fordham I.L.J. Fordham International Law Journal

F.Y.I.L. Finnish Yearbook of International Law

FYROM Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia

GAERC (EU) General Aff airs and External Relations

Council

GAM Free Aceh Movement (Gerakan Aceh Merdeka)

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xxiv Intersentia

GATT General Agreement on Tariff s and Trade (used as

an overall term including all agreements related to GATT 1947 (see supra) before the establishment of the WTO)

Georgia J.I.C.L. Georgia Journal of International and

Comparative Law

George Washington I.L.R. George Washington International Law Review

G.Y.I.L. German Yearbook of International Law

Harvard I.L.J. Harvard International Law Journal

Harvard L. Rev. Harvard Law Review

HCNM (OSCE) High Commissioner on National

Minorities

Houston J.I.L. Houston Journal of International Law

HPCR Program on Humanitarian Policy and Confl ict

Research (Harvard University)

HRC Human Rights Committee

H.R.L.J. Human Rights Law Journal

H.R.L.R. Human Rights Law Review

H.R.Q. Human Rights Quarterly

HRW Human Rights Watch

IACtHR Inter-American Court of Human Rights

IAComHR Inter-American Commission on Human Rights

IAEA International Atomic Energy Agency

IBRD International Bank for Reconstruction and

Development (World Bank)

ICAO International Civil Aviation Organization

ICC International Criminal Court

ICJ International Court of Justice

I.C.J. Reports Reports of Judgments, Advisory Opinions and Orders of the International Court of Justice*² I.C.L.Q. International & Comparative Law Quarterly

ICRC International Committee of the Red Cross

ICSID International Centre for the Settlement of

Investment Disputes

ICTR International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda

ICTY International Criminal Tribunal for the Former

Yugoslavia

IGC Intergovernmental Conference (in the EU)

* Where a volume of the I.C.J. Reports has both a continuing pagination and one starting at the beginning of each specifi c advisory opinion, decision or judgement, both page numbers are cited.

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Intersentia xxv

IHL International Humanitarian Law

ILC International Law Commission

I.L.M. International Legal Material

ILO International Labour Organization

I.L.R. International Law Reports

IMO International Maritime Organization

IMP Initial Monitoring Presence (in the AMM)

Indian J.I.L. Indian Journal of International Law

I.O.L.R. International Organizations Law Review

I.R.R.C. International Review of the Red Cross

ISAF International Security Assistance Force (in

Afghanistan)

Israel Y.H.R. Israel Yearbook on Human Rights Italian Y.I.L. Italian Yearbook of International Law

J.C.M.S. Journal of Common Market Studies

J.I.C.J. Journal of International Criminal Justice

J.T. Journal des tribunaux

J.T.T. Journal des Tribunaux du Travail

KFOR Kosovo Force

LCHR Lawyers Committee for Human Rights

Leiden J.I.L. Leiden Journal of International Law

LGDJ Librairie Générale de Droit et de Jurisprudence

LOAC Law of Armed Confl icts

Loyola L.A.I.C.L.R. Loyola of Los Angeles International &

Comparative Law Review

Melbourne J.I.L. Melbourne Journal of International Law

MOU Memorandum of Understanding

M.P.Y.U.N.L. Max Planck Yearbook of United Nations Law Michigan J.I.L. Michigan Journal of International Law

Mil. L. Rev. Military Law Review

NAC North Atlantic Council (NATO)

NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization

N.J.B. Nederlands Juristenblad

N.I.L.R. Netherlands International Law Review

N.J.C.M.-Bulletin Bulletin van het Nederlands Juristen Comité voor de Mensenrechten

N.J.W. Neue Juristische Wochenschrift

No. / Nos Number / Numbers

Nordic J.I.L. Nordic Journal of International Law

N.Q.H.R. Netherlands Quarterly of Human Rights

NRF NATO Response Force

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xxvi Intersentia

NVIR Nederlandse Vereniging voor Internationaal

Recht

N.Y.I.L. Netherlands Yearbook of International Law

N.Y.U. J.I.L. Politics New York University Journal of International Law & Politics

N. Z. Wehrrecht Neue Zeitschrift für Wehrrecht

OAS Organization of American States

OAU Organization of African Unity

OECD Organization for Economic Cooperation and

Development

O.J. Offi cial Journal (of the EC/EU)

OSCE Organization for Security and Cooperation in

Europe p(p). page(s)

Polish Y.I.L Polish Yearbook of International Law

POW(s) prisoner(s) of war

PSC Political and Security Committee

Publ. Court Publications of the (European or Inter-American) Court (of Human Rights)

R.A.E. / L.E.A. Revue des Aff aires Européennes / Law &

European Aff airs

R.B.D.I./B.T.I.R. Revue Belge de Droit International / Belgisch Tijdschrift voor Internationaal Recht

(= Belgian Review of International Law)

R.D.U.E. Revue du droit de l’Union Européenne

Rec. Cours Recueil des Cours de l’Académie de droit

international de La Haye

R.E.D.P./E.R.P.L. Revue européenne de droit public/ European Review of Public Law

Res. Resolution

R.D.M.D.G. Revue de droit militaire et de droit de la guerre = Th e Military Law and the Law of War Review = Tijdschrift voor militair recht en oorlogsrecht = Zeitschrift für Wehrrecht und Kriegsvölkerrecht

= Rivista di diritto militare e di diritto della guerra = Revista de derecho militar y derecho de la guerra (previously R.D.P.M.D.G.)

R.D.P.M.D.G. Revue de droit pénal militaire et de droit de la guerre (later R.D.M.D.G.)

R.G.D.I.P. Revue Générale de Droit International Public

R.I.C.R. Revue internationale de la Croix-Rouge

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Intersentia xxvii

R.M.C. Revue du Marché Commun (later R.M.C.U.E.)

R.M.C.U.E. Revue du Marché Commun et de l’Union

Européenne (previously R.M.C.)

R.T.D.E. Revue Trimestrielle de Droit Européen

R.T.D.H. Revue trimestrielle des droits de l’homme

ROE Rules of Engagement

SAARC South Asian Association for Regional

Cooperation

SACEUR Supreme Allied Commander Europe

S.A.Y.I.L. South African Yearbook of International Law

S.E.W. Sociaal-economische wetgeving

SHAPE Supreme Headquarters of Allied Powers Europe

(NATO)

SOFA Status of Forces Agreement

SOMA Status of Mission Agreement

SOP Standard Operating Procedure

Stanford J.I.L. Stanford Journal of International Law

S.Z.I.E.R. Schweizerische Zeitschrift für internationales und europäisches Recht = Revue suisse de droit international et de droit européen

Texas I.L.J. Texas International Law Journal

UDHR Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948)

U.K.T.S. United Kingdom Treaties Series

UN United Nations

UNGA United Nations General Assembly

UNHCHR UN High Commissioner for Human Rights

UNIDO United Nations Industrial Development

Organization

UNMIK United Nations Interim Administration Mission

in Kosovo

UNSC United Nations Security Council

U.N.T.S. United Nations Treaties Series

US United States (of America)

U.S.C. United States Code

Vanderbilt J.T.L. Vanderbilt Journal of Transnational Law Virginia J.I.L. Virginia Journal of International Law

V.N. Vereinte Nationen

WEU Western European Union

WEU ISS WEU Institute for Security Studies

WHO World Health Organization

Wisconsin I.L.J. Wisconsin International Law Journal

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xxviii Intersentia

WTO World Trade Organization

Yale J.I.L. Yale Journal of International Law

Y.E.L. Yearbook of European Law

Y.I.H.L. Yearbook of International Humanitarian Law

Y.I.L.C. Yearbook of the International Law Commission

Z.a.ö.R.V. Zeitschrift für ausländisches öff entliches Recht und Völkerrecht

Z. Eur. S. Zeitschrift für Europarechtliche Studien

§(§) paragraph(s)

International Law Aspects of the EU's Security and Defence Policy, with a Particular Focus on the Law of Armed Conflict

OF THE EU’S SECURITY AND DEFENCE POLICY, WITH A PARTICULAR FOCUS ON THE

LAW OF ARMED CONFLICT AND HUMAN RIGHTS

Frederik Naert

ABBREVIATED CITATIONS

International Law Aspects of the EU's Security and Defence Policy, with a Particular Focus on the Law of Armed Conflict